BURNING OR OXIDATION
35. Why Things Burn. The heat of our bodies comes from the food we
eat; the heat for cooking and for warming our houses comes from coal.
The production of heat through the burning of coal, or oil, or gas, or
wood, is called combustion. Combustion cannot occur without the
presence of a substance called oxygen, which exists rather abundantly
in the air; that is, one fifth of our atmosphere consists of this
substance which we call oxygen. We throw open our windows to allow
fresh air to enter, and we take walks in order to breathe the pure air
into our lungs. What we need for the energy and warmth of our bodies
is the oxygen in the air. Whether we burn gas or wood or coal, the
heat which is produced comes from the power which these various
substances possess to combine with oxygen. We open the draft of a
stove that it may "draw well": that it may secure oxygen for burning.
We throw a blanket over burning material to smother the fire: to keep
oxygen away from it. Burning, or oxidation, is combining with oxygen,
and the more oxygen you add to a fire, the hotter the fire will burn,
and the faster. The effect of oxygen on combustion may be clearly seen
by thrusting a smoldering splinter into a jar containing oxygen; the
smoldering splinter will instantly flare and blaze, while if it is
removed from the jar, it loses its flame and again burns quietly.
Oxygen for this experiment can be produced in the following way.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Preparing oxygen from potassium chlorate and
manganese dioxide.]
36. How to Prepare Oxygen. Mix a small quantity of potassium
chlorate with an equal amount of manganese dioxide and place the
mixture in a strong test tube. Close the mouth of the tube with a
one-hole rubber stopper in which is fitted a long, narrow tube, and
clamp the test tube to an iron support, as shown in Figure 22. Fill
the trough with water until the shelf is just covered and allow the
end of the delivery tube to rest just beneath the hole in the shelf.
Fill a medium-sized bottle with water, cover it with a glass plate,
invert the bottle in the trough, and then remove the glass plate. Heat
the test tube very gently, and when gas bubbles out of the tube, slip
the bottle over the opening in the shelf, so that the tube runs into
the bottle. The gas will force out the water and will finally fill the
bottle. When all the water has been forced out, slip the glass plate
under the mouth of the bottle and remove the bottle from the trough.
The gas in the bottle is oxygen.
Everywhere in a large city or in a small village, smoke is seen,
indicating the presence of fire; hence there must exist a large supply
of oxygen to keep all the fires alive. The supply of oxygen needed
for the fires of the world comes largely from the atmosphere.
37. Matches. The burning material is ordinarily set on fire by
matches, thin strips of wood tipped with sulphur or phosphorus, or
both. Phosphorus can unite with oxygen at a fairly low temperature,
and if phosphorus is rubbed against a rough surface, the friction
produced will raise the temperature of the phosphorus to a point where
it can combine with oxygen. The burning phosphorus kindles the wood of
the match, and from the burning match the fire is kindled. If you want
to convince yourself that friction produces heat, rub a cent
vigorously against your coat and note that the cent becomes warm.
Matches have been in use less than a hundred years. Primitive man
kindled his camp fire by rubbing pieces of dry wood together until
they took fire, and this method is said to be used among some isolated
distant tribes at the present time. A later and easier way was to
strike flint and steel together and to catch the spark thus produced
on tinder or dry fungus. Within the memory of some persons now living,
the tinder box was a valuable asset to the home, particularly in the
pioneer regions of the West.
38. Safety Matches. Ordinary phosphorus, while excellent as a
fire-producing material, is dangerously poisonous, and those to whom
the dipping of wooden strips into phosphorus is a daily occupation
suffer with a terrible disease which usually attacks the teeth and
bones of the jaw. The teeth rot and fall out, abscesses form, and
bones and flesh begin to decay; the only way to prevent the spread of
the disease is to remove the affected bone, and in some instances it
has been necessary to remove the entire jaw. Then, too, matches made
of yellow or white phosphorus ignite easily, and, when rubbed against
any rough surface, are apt to take fire. Many destructive fires have
been started by the accidental friction of such matches against rough
surfaces.
For these reasons the introduction of the so-called safety match was
an important event. When common phosphorus, in the dangerous and
easily ignited form, is heated in a closed vessel to about 250° C., it
gradually changes to a harmless red mass. The red phosphorus is not
only harmless, but it is difficult to ignite, and, in order to be
ignited by friction, must be rubbed on a surface rich in oxygen. The
head of a safety match is coated with a mixture of glue and
oxygen-containing compounds; the surface on which the match is to be
rubbed is coated with a mixture of red phosphorus and glue, to which
finely powdered glass is sometimes added in order to increase the
friction. Unless the head of the match is rubbed on the prepared
phosphorus coating, ignition does not occur, and accidental fires are
avoided.
Various kinds of safety matches have been manufactured in the last few
years, but they are somewhat more expensive than the ordinary form,
and hence manufacturers are reluctant to substitute them for the
cheaper matches. Some foreign countries, such as Switzerland, prohibit
the sale of the dangerous type, and it is hoped that the United States
will soon follow the lead of these countries in demanding the sale of
safety matches only.
39. Some Unfamiliar Forms of Burning. While most of us think of
burning as a process in which flames and smoke occur, there are in
reality many modes of burning accompanied by neither flame nor smoke.
Iron, for example, burns when it rusts, because it slowly combines
with the oxygen of the air and is transformed into new substances.
When the air is dry, iron does not unite with oxygen, but when
moisture is present in the air, the iron unites with the oxygen and
turns into iron rust. The burning is slow and unaccompanied by the
fire and smoke so familiar to us, but the process is none the less
burning, or combination with oxygen. Burning which is not accompanied
by any of the appearances of ordinary burning is known as oxidation.
The tendency of iron to rust lessens its efficiency and value, and
many devices have been introduced to prevent rusting. A coating of
paint or varnish is sometimes applied to iron in order to prevent
contact with air. The galvanizing of iron is another attempt to secure
the same result; in this process iron is dipped into molten zinc,
thereby acquiring a coating of zinc, and forming what is known as
galvanized iron. Zinc does not combine with oxygen under ordinary
circumstances, and hence galvanized iron is immune from rust.
Decay is a process of oxidation; the tree which rots slowly away is
undergoing oxidation, and the result of the slow burning is the
decomposed matter which we see and the invisible gases which pass into
the atmosphere. The log which blazes on our hearth gives out
sufficient heat to warm us; the log which decays in the forest gives
out an equivalent amount of heat, but the heat is evolved so slowly
that we are not conscious of it. Burning accompanied by a blaze and
intense heat is a rapid process; burning unaccompanied by fire and
appreciable heat is a slow, gradual process, requiring days, weeks,
and even long years for its completion.
Another form of oxidation occurs daily in the human body. In Section
35 we saw that the human body is an engine whose fuel is food; the
burning of that food in the body furnishes the heat necessary for
bodily warmth and the energy required for thought and action. Oxygen
is essential to burning, and the food fires within the body are kept
alive by the oxygen taken into the body at every breath by the lungs.
We see now one reason for an abundance of fresh air in daily life.
40. How to Breathe. Air, which is essential to life and health,
should enter the body through the nose and _not through the mouth_.
The peculiar nature and arrangement of the membranes of the nose
enable the nostrils to clean, and warm, and moisten the air which
passes through them to the lungs. Floating around in the atmosphere
are dust particles which ought not to get into the lungs. The nose is
provided with small hairs and a moist inner membrane which serve as
filters in removing solid particles from the air, and in thus
purifying it before its entrance into the lungs.
In the immediate neighborhood of three Philadelphia high schools,
having an approximate enrollment of over 8000 pupils, is a huge
manufacturing plant which day and night pours forth grimy smoke and
soot into the atmosphere which must supply oxygen to this vast group
of young lives. If the vital importance of nose breathing is impressed
upon these young people, the harmful effect of the foul air may be
greatly lessened, the smoke particles and germs being held back by the
nose filters and never reaching the lungs. If, however, this principle
of hygiene is not brought to their attention, the dangerous habit of
breathing through the open, or at least partially open, mouth will
continue, and objectionable matter will pass through the mouth and
find a lodging place in the lungs.
There is another very important reason why nose breathing is
preferable to mouth breathing. The temperature of the human body is
approximately 98° F., and the air which enters the lungs should not be
far below this temperature. If air reaches the lungs through the nose,
its journey is relatively long and slow, and there is opportunity for
it to be warmed before it reaches the lungs. If, on the other hand,
air passes to the lungs by way of the mouth, the warming process is
brief and insufficient, and the lungs suffer in consequence.
Naturally, the gravest danger is in winter.
41. Cause of Mouth Breathing. Some people find it difficult to
breathe through the nostrils on account of growths, called adenoids,
in the nose. If you have a tendency toward mouth breathing, let a
physician examine your nose and throat.
Adenoids not only obstruct breathing and weaken the whole system
through lack of adequate air, but they also press upon the blood
vessels and nerves of the head and interfere with normal brain
development. Moreover, they interfere in many cases with the hearing,
and in general hinder activity and growth. The removal of adenoids is
simple, and carries with it only temporary pain and no danger. Some
physicians claim that the growths disappear in later years, but even
if that is true, the physical and mental development of earlier years
is lost, and the person is backward in the struggle for life and
achievement.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Intelligent expression is often lacking in
children with adenoid growths.]
42. How to Build a Fire. Substances differ greatly as to the ease
with which they may be made to burn or, in technical terms, with which
they may be made to unite with oxygen. For this reason, we put light
materials, like shavings, chips, and paper, on the grate, twisting the
latter and arranging it so that air (oxygen in the air) can reach a
large surface; upon this we place small sticks of wood, piling them
across each other so as to allow entrance for the oxygen; and finally
upon this we place our hard wood or coal.
The coal and the large sticks cannot be kindled with a match, but the
paper and shavings can, and these in burning will heat the large
sticks until they take fire and in turn kindle the coal.
43. Spontaneous Combustion. We often hear of fires "starting
themselves," and sometimes the statement is true. If a pile of oily
rags is allowed to stand for a time, the oily matter will begin to
combine slowly with oxygen and as a result will give off heat. The
heat thus given off is at first insufficient to kindle a fire; but as
the heat is retained and accumulated, the temperature rises, and
finally the kindling point is reached and the whole mass bursts into
flames. For safety's sake, all oily cloths should be burned or kept in
metal vessels.
44. The Treatment of Burns. In spite of great caution, burns from
fires, steam, or hot water do sometimes occur, and it is well to know
how to relieve the suffering caused by them and how to treat the
injury in order to insure rapid healing.
Burns are dangerous because they destroy skin and thus open up an
entrance into the body for disease germs, and in addition because they
lay bare nerve tissue which thereby becomes irritated and causes a
shock to the entire system.
In mild burns, where the skin is not broken but is merely reddened, an
application of moist baking soda brings immediate relief. If this
substance is not available, flour paste, lard, sweet oil, or vaseline
may be used.
In more severe burns, where blisters are formed, the blisters should
be punctured with a sharp, sterilized needle and allowed to discharge
their watery contents before the above remedies are applied.
In burns severe enough to destroy the skin, disinfection of the open
wound with weak carbolic acid or hydrogen peroxide is very necessary.
After this has been done, a soft cloth soaked in a solution of linseed
oil and limewater should be applied and the whole bandaged. In such a
case, it is important not to use cotton batting, since this sticks to
the rough surface and causes pain when removed.
45. Carbon Dioxide. _A Product of Burning._ When any fuel, such as
coal, gas, oil, or wood, burns, it sends forth gases into the
surrounding atmosphere. These gases, like air, are invisible, and were
unknown to us for a long time. The chief gas formed by a burning
substance is called carbon dioxide (CO_2) because it is composed of
one part of carbon and two parts of oxygen. This gas has the
distinction of being the most widely distributed gaseous compound of
the entire world; it is found in the ocean depths and on the mountain
heights, in brilliantly lighted rooms, and most abundantly in
manufacturing towns where factory chimneys constantly pour forth hot
gases and smoke.
Wood and coal, and in fact all animal and vegetable matter, contain
carbon, and when these substances burn or decay, the carbon in them
unites with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide.
The food which we eat is either animal or vegetable, and it is made
ready for bodily use by a slow process of burning within the body;
carbon dioxide accompanies this bodily burning of food just as it
accompanies the fires with which we are more familiar. The carbon
dioxide thus produced within the body escapes into the atmosphere with
the breath.
We see that the source of carbon dioxide is practically inexhaustible,
coming as it does from every stove, furnace, and candle, and further
with every breath of a living organism.
46. Danger of Carbon Dioxide. When carbon dioxide occurs in large
quantities, it is dangerous to health, because it interferes with
normal breathing, lessening the escape of waste matter through the
breath and preventing the access to the lungs of the oxygen necessary
for life. Carbon dioxide is not poisonous, but it cuts off the supply
of oxygen, just as water cuts it off from a drowning man.
Since every man, woman, and child constantly breathes forth carbon
dioxide, the danger in overcrowded rooms is great, and proper
ventilation is of vital importance.
47. Ventilation. In estimating the quantity of air necessary to keep
a room well aired, we must take into account the number of lights
(electric lights do not count) to be used, and the number of people to
occupy the room. The average house should provide at the _minimum_ 600
cubic feet of space for each person, and in addition, arrangements for
allowing at least 300 cubic feet of fresh air per person to enter
every hour.
In houses which have not a ventilating system, the air should be kept
fresh by intelligent action in the opening of doors and windows; and
since relatively few houses are equipped with a satisfactory system,
the following suggestions relative to intelligent ventilation are
offered.
1. Avoid drafts in ventilation.
2. Ventilate on the sheltered side of the house. If the wind is
blowing from the north, open south windows.
48. What Becomes of the Carbon Dioxide. When we reflect that carbon
dioxide is constantly being supplied to the atmosphere and that it is
injurious to health, the question naturally arises as to how the air
remains free enough of the gas to support life. This is largely
because carbon dioxide is an essential food of plants. Through their
leaves plants absorb it from the atmosphere, and by a wonderful
process break it up into its component parts, oxygen and carbon. They
reject the oxygen, which passes back to the air, but they retain the
carbon, which becomes a part of the plant structure. Plants thus serve
to keep the atmosphere free from an excess of carbon dioxide and, in
addition, furnish oxygen to the atmosphere.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Making carbon dioxide from marble and
hydrochloric acid.]
49. How to Obtain Carbon Dioxide. There are several ways in which
carbon dioxide can be produced commercially, but for laboratory use
the simplest is to mix in a test tube powdered marble, or chalk, and
hydrochloric acid, and to collect the effervescing gas as shown in
Figure 24. The substance which remains in the test tube after the gas
has passed off is a solution of a salt and water. From a mixture of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and marble are obtained a salt, water, and
carbon dioxide, the desired gas.
50. A Commercial Use of Carbon Dioxide. If a lighted splinter is
thrust into a test tube containing carbon dioxide, it is promptly
extinguished, because carbon dioxide cannot support combustion; if a
stream of carbon dioxide and water falls upon a fire, it acts like a
blanket, covering the flames and extinguishing them. The value of a
fire extinguisher depends upon the amount of carbon dioxide and water
which it can furnish. A fire extinguisher is a metal case containing a
solution of bicarbonate of soda, and a glass vessel full of strong
sulphuric acid. As long as the extinguisher is in an upright position,
these substances are kept separate, but when the extinguisher is
inverted, the acid escapes from the bottle, and mixes with the soda
solution. The mingling liquids interact and liberate carbon dioxide.
A part of the gas thus liberated dissolves in the water of the soda
solution and escapes from the tube with the outflowing liquid, while a
portion remains undissolved and escapes as a stream of gas. The fire
extinguisher is therefore the source of a liquid containing the
fire-extinguishing substance and further the source of a stream of
carbon dioxide gas.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Inside view of a fire extinguisher.]
51. Carbon. Although carbon dioxide is very injurious to health,
both of the substances of which it is composed are necessary to life.
We ourselves, our bones and flesh in particular, are partly carbon,
and every animal, no matter how small or insignificant, contains some
carbon; while the plants around us, the trees, the grass, the flowers,
contain a by no means meager quantity of carbon.
Carbon plays an important and varied role in our life, and, in some
one of its many forms, enters into the composition of most of the
substances which are of service and value to man. The food we eat, the
clothes we wear, the wood and coal we burn, the marble we employ in
building, the indispensable soap, and the ornamental diamond, all
contain carbon in some form.
52. Charcoal. One of the most valuable forms of carbon is charcoal;
valuable not in the sense that it costs hundreds of dollars, but in
the more vital sense, that its use adds to the cleanliness, comfort,
and health of man.
The foul, bad-smelling gases which arise from sewers can be prevented
from escaping and passing to streets and buildings by placing charcoal
filters at the sewer exits. Charcoal is porous and absorbs foul gases,
and thus keeps the region surrounding sewers sweet and clean and free
of odor. Good housekeepers drop small bits of charcoal into vases of
flowers to prevent discoloration of the water and the odor of decaying
stems.
If impure water filters through charcoal, it emerges pure, having left
its impurities in the pores of the charcoal. Practically all household
filters of drinking water are made of charcoal. But such a device may
be a source of disease instead of a prevention of disease, unless the
filter is regularly cleaned or renewed. This is because the pores soon
become clogged with the impurities, and unless they are cleaned, the
water which flows through the filter passes through a bed of
impurities and becomes contaminated rather than purified. Frequent
cleansing or renewal of the filter removes this difficulty.
Commercially, charcoal is used on a large scale in the refining of
sugars, sirups, and oils. Sugar, whether it comes from the maple tree,
or the sugar cane, or the beet, is dark colored. It is whitened by
passage through filters of finely pulverized charcoal. Cider and
vinegar are likewise cleared by passage through charcoal.
The value of carbon, in the form of charcoal, as a purifier is very
great, whether we consider it a deodorizer, as in the case of the
sewage, or a decolorizer, as in the case of the refineries, or whether
we consider the service it has rendered man in the elimination of
danger from drinking water.
53. How Charcoal is Made. Charcoal may be made by heating wood in an
oven to which air does not have free access. The absence of air
prevents ordinary combustion, nevertheless the intense heat affects
the wood and changes it into new substances, one of which is charcoal.
The wood which smolders on the hearth and in the stove is charcoal in
the making. Formerly wood was piled in heaps, covered with sod or sand
to prevent access of oxygen, and then was set fire to; the smoldering
wood, cut off from an adequate supply of air, was slowly transformed
into charcoal. Scattered over the country one still finds isolated
charcoal kilns, crude earthen receptacles, in which wood thus deprived
of air was allowed to smolder and form charcoal. To-day charcoal is
made commercially by piling wood on steel cars and then pushing the
cars into strong walled chambers. The chambers are closed to prevent
access of air, and heated to a high temperature. The intense heat
transforms the wood into charcoal in a few hours. A student can make
in the laboratory sufficient charcoal for art lessons by heating in an
earthen vessel wood buried in sand. The process will be slow, however,
because the heat furnished by a Bunsen burner is not great, and the
wood is transformed slowly.
A form of charcoal known as animal charcoal, or bone black, is
obtained from the charred remains of animals rather than plants, and
may be prepared by burning bones and animal refuse as in the case of
the wood.
Destructive Distillation. When wood is burned without sufficient
air, it is changed into soft brittle charcoal, which is very different
from wood. It weighs only one fourth as much as the original wood. It
is evident that much matter must leave the wood during the process of
charcoal making. We can prove this by putting some dry shavings in a
strong test tube fitted with a delivery tube. When the wood is heated
a gas passes off which we may collect and burn. Other substances also
come off in gaseous form, but they condense in the water. Among these
are wood alcohol, wood tar, and acetic acid. In the older method of
charcoal making all these products were lost. Can you give any uses of
these substances?
54. Matter and Energy. When wood is burned, a small pile of ashes is
left, and we think of the bulk of the wood as destroyed. It is true we
have less matter that is available for use or that is visible to
sight, but, nevertheless, no matter has been destroyed. The matter of
which the wood is composed has merely changed its character, some of
it is in the condition of ashes, and some in the condition of
invisible gases, such as carbon dioxide, but none of it has been
destroyed. It is a principle of science that matter can neither be
destroyed nor created; it can only be changed, or transformed, and it
is our business to see that we do not heedlessly transform it into
substances which are valueless to us and our descendants; as, for
example, when our magnificent forests are recklessly wasted. The
smoke, gases, and ashes left in the path of a raging forest fire are
no compensation to us for the valuable timber destroyed. The sum total
of matter has not been changed, but the amount of matter which man can
use has been greatly lessened.
The principle just stated embodies one of the fundamental laws of
science, called the law of the _conservation of matter_.
A similar law holds for energy as well. We can transform electric
energy into the motion of trolley cars, or we can make use of the
energy of streams to turn the wheels of our mills, but in all these
cases we are transforming, not creating, energy.
When a ball is fired from a rifle, most of the energy of the gunpowder
is utilized in motion, but some is dissipated in producing a flash and
a report, and in heat. The energy of the gunpowder has been scattered,
but the sum of the various forms of energy is equal to the energy
originally stored away in the powder. The better the gun is, the less
will be the energy dissipated in smoke and heat and noise.