Personality of Britain_, sub-titled “Its Influence on Inhabitant and
Invader in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times.” We have not gone
into the post-Roman early historic period here; there are still the
Anglo-Saxons and Normans to account for as well as the effects of
the Romans. But what I have tried to do was to begin the story of
how the personality of Britain was formed. The principles that Fox
used, in trying to balance cultural and environmental factors and
interrelationships would not be greatly different for other lands.
Summary
[Illustration]
In the pages you have read so far, you have been brought through the
earliest 99 per cent of the story of man’s life on this planet. I have
left only 1 per cent of the story for the historians to tell.
THE DRAMA OF THE PAST
Men first became men when evolution had carried them to a certain
point. This was the point where the eye-hand-brain co-ordination was
good enough so that tools could be made. When tools began to be made
according to sets of lasting habits, we know that men had appeared.
This happened over a half million years ago. The stage for the play
may have been as broad as all of Europe, Africa, and Asia. At least,
it seems unlikely that it was only one little region that saw the
beginning of the drama.
Glaciers and different climates came and went, to change the settings.
But the play went on in the same first act for a very long time. The
men who were the players had simple roles. They had to feed themselves
and protect themselves as best they could. They did this by hunting,
catching, and finding food wherever they could, and by taking such
protection as caves, fire, and their simple tools would give them.
Before the first act was over, the last of the glaciers was melting
away, and the players had added the New World to their stage. If
we want a special name for the first act, we could call it _The
Food-Gatherers_.
There were not many climaxes in the first act, so far as we can see.
But I think there may have been a few. Certainly the pace of the
first act accelerated with the swing from simple gathering to more
intensified collecting. The great cave art of France and Spain was
probably an expression of a climax. Even the ideas of burying the dead
and of the “Venus” figurines must also point to levels of human thought
and activity that were over and above pure food-getting.
THE SECOND ACT
The second act began only about ten thousand years ago. A few of the
players started it by themselves near the center of the Old World part
of the stage, in the Near East. It began as a plant and animal act, but
it soon became much more complicated.
But the players in this one part of the stage--in the Near East--were
not the only ones to start off on the second act by themselves. Other
players, possibly in several places in the Far East, and certainly in
the New World, also started second acts that began as plant and animal
acts, and then became complicated. We can call the whole second act
_The Food-Producers_.
THE FIRST GREAT CLIMAX OF THE SECOND ACT
In the Near East, the first marked climax of the second act happened
in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The play and the players reached that great
climax that we call civilization. This seems to have come less than
five thousand years after the second act began. But it could never have
happened in the first act at all.
There is another curious thing about the first act. Many of the players
didn’t know it was over and they kept on with their roles long after
the second act had begun. On the edges of the stage there are today
some players who are still going on with the first act. The Eskimos,
and the native Australians, and certain tribes in the Amazon jungle are
some of these players. They seem perfectly happy to keep on with the
first act.
The second act moved from climax to climax. The civilizations of
Mesopotamia and Egypt were only the earliest of these climaxes. The
players to the west caught the spirit of the thing, and climaxes
followed there. So also did climaxes come in the Far Eastern and New
World portions of the stage.
The greater part of the second act should really be described to you
by a historian. Although it was a very short act when compared to the
first one, the climaxes complicate it a great deal. I, a prehistorian,
have told you about only the first act, and the very beginning of the
second.
THE THIRD ACT
Also, as a prehistorian I probably should not even mention the third
act--it began so recently. The third act is _The Industrialization_.
It is the one in which we ourselves are players. If the pace of the
second act was so much faster than that of the first, the pace of the
third act is terrific. The danger is that it may wear down the players
completely.
What sort of climaxes will the third act have, and are we already in
one? You have seen by now that the acts of my play are given in terms
of modes or basic patterns of human economy--ways in which people
get food and protection and safety. The climaxes involve more than
human economy. Economics and technological factors may be part of the
climaxes, but they are not all. The climaxes may be revolutions in
their own way, intellectual and social revolutions if you like.
If the third act follows the pattern of the second act, a climax should
come soon after the act begins. We may be due for one soon if we are
not already in it. Remember the terrific pace of this third act.
WHY BOTHER WITH PREHISTORY?
Why do we bother about prehistory? The main reason is that we think it
may point to useful ideas for the present. We are in the troublesome
beginnings of the third act of the play. The beginnings of the second
act may have lessons for us and give depth to our thinking. I know
there are at least _some_ lessons, even in the present incomplete
state of our knowledge. The players who began the second act--that of
food-production--separately, in different parts of the world, were not
all of one “pure race” nor did they have “pure” cultural traditions.
Some apparently quite mixed Mediterraneans got off to the first start
on the second act and brought it to its first two climaxes as well.
Peoples of quite different physical type achieved the first climaxes in
China and in the New World.
In our British example of how the late prehistory of Europe worked, we
listed a continuous series of “invasions” and “reverberations.” After
each of these came fusion. Even though the Channel protected Britain
from some of the extreme complications of the mixture and fusion of
continental Europe, you can see how silly it would be to refer to a
“pure” British race or a “pure” British culture. We speak of the United
States as a “melting pot.” But this is nothing new. Actually, Britain
and all the rest of the world have been “melting pots” at one time or
another.
By the time the written records of Mesopotamia and Egypt begin to turn
up in number, the climaxes there are well under way. To understand the
beginnings of the climaxes, and the real beginnings of the second act
itself, we are thrown back on prehistoric archeology. And this is as
true for China, India, Middle America, and the Andes, as it is for the
Near East.
There are lessons to be learned from all of man’s past, not simply
lessons of how to fight battles or win peace conferences, but of how
human society evolves from one stage to another. Many of these lessons
can only be looked for in the prehistoric past. So far, we have only
made a beginning. There is much still to do, and many gaps in the story
are yet to be filled. The prehistorian’s job is to find the evidence,
to fill the gaps, and to discover the lessons men have learned in the
past. As I see it, this is not only an exciting but a very practical
goal for which to strive.
List of Books
BOOKS OF GENERAL INTEREST
(Chosen from a variety of the increasingly useful list of cheap
paperbound books.)
Childe, V. Gordon
_What Happened in History._ 1954. Penguin.
_Man Makes Himself._ 1955. Mentor.
_The Prehistory of European Society._ 1958. Penguin.
Dunn, L. C., and Dobzhansky, Th.
_Heredity, Race, and Society._ 1952. Mentor.
Frankfort, Henri, Frankfort, H. A., Jacobsen, Thorkild, and Wilson,
John A.
_Before Philosophy._ 1954. Penguin.
Simpson, George G.
_The Meaning of Evolution._ 1955. Mentor.
Wheeler, Sir Mortimer
_Archaeology from the Earth._ 1956. Penguin.
GEOCHRONOLOGY AND THE ICE AGE
(Two general books. Some Pleistocene geologists disagree with Zeuner’s
interpretation of the dating evidence, but their points of view appear
in professional journals, in articles too cumbersome to list here.)
Flint, R. F.
_Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch._ 1947. John Wiley
and Sons.
Zeuner, F. E.
_Dating the Past._ 1952 (3rd ed.). Methuen and Co.
FOSSIL MEN AND RACE
(The points of view of physical anthropologists and human
paleontologists are changing very quickly. Two of the different points
of view are listed here.)
Clark, W. E. Le Gros
_History of the Primates._ 1956 (5th ed.). British Museum
(Natural History). (Also in Phoenix edition, 1957.)
Howells, W. W.
_Mankind So Far._ 1944. Doubleday, Doran.
GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY
(These are standard texts not absolutely up to date in every detail, or
interpretative essays concerned with cultural change through time as
well as in space.)
Kroeber, A. L.
_Anthropology._ 1948. Harcourt, Brace.
Linton, Ralph
_The Tree of Culture._ 1955. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Redfield, Robert
_The Primitive World and Its Transformations._ 1953. Cornell
University Press.
Steward, Julian H.
_Theory of Culture Change._ 1955. University of Illinois Press.
White, Leslie
_The Science of Culture._ 1949. Farrar, Strauss.
GENERAL PREHISTORY
(A sampling of the more useful and current standard works in English.)
Childe, V. Gordon
_The Dawn of European Civilization._ 1957. Kegan Paul, Trench,
Trubner.
_Prehistoric Migrations in Europe._ 1950. Instituttet for
Sammenlignende Kulturforskning.
Clark, Grahame
_Archaeology and Society._ 1957. Harvard University Press.
Clark, J. G. D.
_Prehistoric Europe: The Economic Basis._ 1952. Methuen and Co.
Garrod, D. A. E.
_Environment, Tools, and Man._ 1946. Cambridge University
Press.
Movius, Hallam L., Jr.
“Old World Prehistory: Paleolithic” in _Anthropology Today_.
Kroeber, A. L., ed. 1953. University of Chicago Press.
Oakley, Kenneth P.
_Man the Tool-Maker._ 1956. British Museum (Natural History).
(Also in Phoenix edition, 1957.)
Piggott, Stuart
_British Prehistory._ 1949. Oxford University Press.
Pittioni, Richard
_Die Urgeschichtlichen Grundlagen der Europäischen Kultur._
1949. Deuticke. (A single book which does attempt to cover the
whole range of European prehistory to ca. 1 A.D.)
THE NEAR EAST
Adams, Robert M.
“Developmental Stages in Ancient Mesopotamia,” _in_ Steward,
Julian, _et al_, _Irrigation Civilizations: A Comparative
Study_. 1955. Pan American Union.
Braidwood, Robert J.
_The Near East and the Foundations for Civilization._ 1952.
University of Oregon.
Childe, V. Gordon
_New Light on the Most Ancient East._ 1952. Oriental Dept.,
Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Frankfort, Henri
_The Birth of Civilization in the Near East._ 1951. University
of Indiana Press. (Also in Anchor edition, 1956.)
Pallis, Svend A.
_The Antiquity of Iraq._ 1956. Munksgaard.
Wilson, John A.
_The Burden of Egypt._ 1951. University of Chicago Press. (Also
in Phoenix edition, called _The Culture of Ancient Egypt_,
1956.)
HOW DIGGING IS DONE
Braidwood, Linda
_Digging beyond the Tigris._ 1953. Schuman, New York.
Wheeler, Sir Mortimer
_Archaeology from the Earth._ 1954. Oxford, London.
Index
Abbevillian, 48;
core-biface tool, 44, 48
Acheulean, 48, 60
Acheuleo-Levalloisian, 63
Acheuleo-Mousterian, 63
Adams, R. M., 106
Adzes, 45
Africa, east, 67, 89;
north, 70, 89;
south, 22, 25, 34, 40, 67
Agriculture, incipient, in England, 140;
in Near East, 123
Ain Hanech, 48
Amber, taken from Baltic to Greece, 167
American Indians, 90, 142
Anatolia, used as route to Europe, 138
Animals, in caves, 54, 64;
in cave art, 85
Antevs, Ernst, 19
Anyathian, 47
Archeological interpretation, 8
Archeology, defined, 8
Architecture, at Jarmo, 128;
at Jericho, 133
Arrow, points, 94;
shaft straightener, 83
Art, in caves, 84;
East Spanish, 85;
figurines, 84;
Franco-Cantabrian, 84, 85;
movable (engravings, modeling, scratchings), 83;
painting, 83;
sculpture, 83
Asia, western, 67
Assemblage, defined, 13, 14;
European, 94;
Jarmo, 129;
Maglemosian, 94;
Natufian, 113
Aterian, industry, 67;
point, 89
Australopithecinae, 24
Australopithecine, 25, 26
Awls, 77
Axes, 62, 94
Ax-heads, 15
Azilian, 97
Aztecs, 145
Baghouz, 152
Bakun, 134
Baltic sea, 93
Banana, 107
Barley, wild, 108
Barrow, 141
Battle-axe folk, 164;
assemblage, 164
Beads, 80;
bone, 114
Beaker folk, 164;
assemblage, 164-165
Bear, in cave art, 85;
cult, 68
Belgium, 94
Belt cave, 126
Bering Strait, used as route to New World, 98
Bison, in cave art, 85
Blade, awl, 77;
backed, 75;
blade-core, 71;
end-scraper, 77;
stone, defined, 71;
strangulated (notched), 76;
tanged point, 76;
tools, 71, 75-80, 90;
tool tradition, 70
Boar, wild, in cave art, 85
Bogs, source of archeological materials, 94
Bolas, 54
Bordes, François, 62
Borer, 77
Boskop skull, 34
Boyd, William C., 35
Bracelets, 118
Brain, development of, 24
Breadfruit, 107
Breasted, James H., 107
Brick, at Jericho, 133
Britain, 94;
late prehistory, 163-175;
invaders, 173
Broch, 172
Buffalo, in China, 54;
killed by stampede, 86
Burials, 66, 86;
in “henges,” 164;
in urns, 168
Burins, 75
Burma, 90
Byblos, 134
Camel, 54
Cannibalism, 55
Cattle, wild, 85, 112;
in cave art, 85;
domesticated, 15;
at Skara Brae, 142
Caucasoids, 34
Cave men, 29
Caves, 62;
art in, 84
Celts, 170
Chariot, 160
Chicken, domestication of, 107
Chiefs, in food-gathering groups, 68
Childe, V. Gordon, 8
China, 136
Choukoutien, 28, 35
Choukoutienian, 47
Civilization, beginnings, 144, 149, 157;
meaning of, 144
Clactonian, 45, 47
Clay, used in modeling, 128;
baked, used for tools, 153
Club-heads, 82, 94
Colonization, in America, 142;
in Europe, 142
Combe Capelle, 30
Combe Capelle-Brünn group, 34
Commont, Victor, 51
Coon, Carlton S., 73
Copper, 134
Corn, in America, 145
Corrals for cattle, 140
“Cradle of mankind,” 136
Cremation, 167
Crete, 162
Cro-Magnon, 30, 34
Cultivation, incipient, 105, 109, 111
Culture, change, 99;
characteristics, defined, 38, 49;
prehistoric, 39
Danube Valley, used as route from Asia, 138
Dates, 153
Deer, 54, 96
Dog, domesticated, 96
Domestication, of animals, 100, 105, 107;
of plants, 100
“Dragon teeth” fossils in China, 28
Drill, 77
Dubois, Eugene, 26
Early Dynastic Period, Mesopotamia, 147
East Spanish art, 72, 85
Egypt, 70, 126
Ehringsdorf, 31
Elephant, 54
Emiliani, Cesare, 18
Emiran flake point, 73
England, 163-168;
prehistoric, 19, 40;
farmers in, 140
Eoanthropus dawsoni, 29
Eoliths, 41
Erich, 152
Eridu, 152
Euphrates River, floods in, 148
Europe, cave dwellings, 58;
at end of Ice Age, 93;
early farmers, 140;
glaciers in, 40;
huts in, 86;
routes into, 137-140;
spread of food-production to, 136
Far East, 69, 90
Farmers, 103
Fauresmith industry, 67
Fayum, 135;
radiocarbon date, 146
“Fertile Crescent,” 107, 146
Figurines, “Venus,” 84;
at Jarmo, 128;
at Ubaid, 153
Fire, used by Peking man, 54
First Dynasty, Egypt, 147
Fish-hooks, 80, 94
Fishing, 80;
by food-producers, 122
Fish-lines, 80
Fish spears, 94
Flint industry, 127
Fontéchevade, 32, 56, 58
Food-collecting, 104, 121;
end of, 104
Food-gatherers, 53, 176
Food-gathering, 99, 104;
in Old World, 104;
stages of, 104
Food-producers, 176
Food-producing economy, 122;
in America, 145;
in Asia, 105
Food-producing revolution, 99, 105;
causes of, 101;
preconditions for, 100
Food-production, beginnings of, 99;
carried to Europe, 110
Food-vessel folk, 164
“Forest folk,” 97, 98, 104, 110
Fox, Sir Cyril, 174
France, caves in, 56
Galley Hill (fossil type), 29
Garrod, D. A., 73
Gazelle, 114
Germany, 94
Ghassul, 156
Glaciers, 18, 30;
destruction by, 40
Goat, wild, 108;
domesticated, 128
Grain, first planted, 20
Graves, passage, 141;
gallery, 141
Greece, civilization in, 163;
as route to western Europe, 138;
towns in, 162
Grimaldi skeletons, 34
Hackberry seeds used as food, 55
Halaf, 151;
assemblage, 151
Hallstatt, tradition, 169
Hand, development of, 24, 25
Hand adzes, 46
Hand axes, 44
Harpoons, antler, 83, 94;
bone, 82, 94
Hassuna, 131;
assemblage, 131, 132
Heidelberg, fossil type, 28
Hill-forts, in England, 171;
in Scotland, 172
Hilly flanks of Near East, 107, 108, 125, 131, 146, 147
History, beginning of, 7, 17
Hoes, 112
Holland, 164
Homo sapiens, 32
Hooton, E. A., 34
Horse, 112;
wild, in cave art, 85;
in China, 54
Hotu cave, 126
Houses, 122;
at Jarmo, 128;
at Halaf, 151
Howe, Bruce, 116
Howell, F. Clark, 30
Hunting, 93
Ice Age, in Asia, 99;
beginning of, 18;
glaciers in, 41;
last glaciation, 93
Incas, 145
India, 90, 136
Industrialization, 178
Industry, blade-tool, 88;
defined, 58;
ground stone, 94
Internationalism, 162
Iran, 107, 147
Iraq, 107, 124, 127, 136, 147
Iron, introduction of, 170
Irrigation, 123, 149, 155
Italy, 138
Jacobsen, T. J., 157
Jarmo, 109, 126, 128, 130;
assemblage, 129
Java, 23, 29
Java man, 26, 27, 29
Jefferson, Thomas, 11
Jericho, 119, 133
Judaidah, 134
Kafuan, 48
Kanam, 23, 36
Karim Shahir, 116-119, 124;
assemblage, 116, 117
Keith, Sir Arthur, 33
Kelley, Harper, 51
Kharga, 126
Khartoum, 136
Knives, 80
Krogman, W. M., 3, 25
Lamps, 85
Land bridges in Mediterranean, 19
La Tène phase, 170
Laurel leaf point, 78, 89
Leakey, L. S. B., 40
Le Moustier, 57
Levalloisian, 47, 61, 62
Levalloiso-Mousterian, 47, 63
Little Woodbury, 170
Magic, used by hunters, 123
Maglemosian, assemblage, 94, 95;
folk, 98
Makapan, 40
Mammoth, 93;
in cave art, 85
“Man-apes,” 26
Mango, 107
Mankind, age, 17
Maringer, J., 45
Markets, 155
Marston, A. T., 11
Mathiassen, T., 97
McCown, T. D., 33
Meganthropus, 26, 27, 36
Men, defined, 25;
modern, 32
Merimde, 135
Mersin, 133
Metal-workers, 160, 163, 167, 172
Micoquian, 48, 60
Microliths, 87;
at Jarmo, 130;
“lunates,” 87;
trapezoids, 87;
triangles, 87
Minerals used as coloring matter, 66
Mine-shafts, 140
M’lefaat, 126, 127
Mongoloids, 29, 90
Mortars, 114, 118, 127
Mounds, how formed, 12
Mount Carmel, 11, 33, 52, 59, 64, 69, 113, 114
“Mousterian man,” 64
“Mousterian” tools, 61, 62;
of Acheulean tradition, 62
Movius, H. L., 47
Natufian, animals in, 114;
assemblage, 113, 114, 115;
burials, 114;
date of, 113
Neanderthal man, 29, 30, 31, 56
Near East, beginnings of civilization in, 20, 144;
cave sites, 58;
climate in Ice Age, 99;
“Fertile Crescent,” 107, 146;
food-production in, 99;
Natufian assemblage in, 113-115;
stone tools, 114
Needles, 80
Negroid, 34
New World, 90
Nile River valley, 102, 134;
floods in, 148
Nuclear area, 106, 110;
in Near East, 107
Obsidian, used for blade tools, 71;
at Jarmo, 130
Ochre, red, with burials, 86
Oldowan, 48
Old World, 67, 70, 90;
continental phases in, 18
Olorgesailie, 40, 51
Ostrich, in China, 54
Ovens, 128
Oxygen isotopes, 18
Paintings in caves, 83
Paleoanthropic man, 50
Palestine, burials, 56;
cave sites, 52;
types of man, 69
Parpallo, 89
Patjitanian, 45, 47
Pebble tools, 42
Peking cave, 54;
animals in, 54
Peking man, 27, 28, 29, 54, 58
Pendants, 80;
bone, 114
Pestle, 114
Peterborough, 141;
assemblage, 141
Pictographic signs, 158
Pig, wild, 108
“Piltdown man,” 29
Pins, 80
Pithecanthropus, 26, 27, 30, 36
Pleistocene, 18, 25
Plows developed, 123
Points, arrow, 76;
laurel leaf, 78;
shouldered, 78, 79;
split-based bone, 80, 82;
tanged, 76;
willow leaf, 78
Potatoes, in America, 145
Pottery, 122, 130, 156;
decorated, 142;
painted, 131, 151, 152;
Susa style, 156;
in tombs, 141
Prehistory, defined, 7;
range of, 18
Pre-neanderthaloids, 30, 31, 37
Pre-Solutrean point, 89
Pre-Stellenbosch, 48
Proto-Literate assemblage, 157-160
Race, 35;
biological, 36;
“pure,” 16
Radioactivity, 9, 10
Radioactive carbon dates, 18, 92, 120, 130, 135, 156
Redfield, Robert, 38, 49
Reed, C. A., 128
Reindeer, 94
Rhinoceros, 93;
in cave art, 85
Rhodesian man, 32
Riss glaciation, 58
Rock-shelters, 58;
art in, 85
Saccopastore, 31
Sahara Desert, 34, 102
Samarra, 152;
pottery, 131, 152
Sangoan industry, 67
Sauer, Carl, 136
Sbaikian point, 89
Schliemann, H., 11, 12
Scotland, 171
Scraper, flake, 79;
end-scraper on blade, 77, 78;
keel-shaped, 79, 80, 81
Sculpture in caves, 83
Sebilian III, 126
Shaheinab, 135
Sheep, wild, 108;
at Skara Brae, 142;
in China, 54
Shellfish, 142
Ship, Ubaidian, 153
Sialk, 126, 134;
assemblage, 134
Siberia, 88;
pathway to New World, 98
Sickle, 112, 153;
blade, 113, 130
Silo, 122
Sinanthropus, 27, 30, 35
Skara Brae, 142
Snails used as food, 128
Soan, 47
Solecki, R., 116
Solo (fossil type), 29, 32
Solutrean industry, 77
Spear, shaft, 78;
thrower, 82, 83
Speech, development of organs of, 25
Squash, in America, 145
Steinheim fossil skull, 28
Stillbay industry, 67
Stonehenge, 166
Stratification, in caves, 12, 57;
in sites, 12
Swanscombe (fossil type), 11, 28
Syria, 107
Tabun, 60, 71
Tardenoisian, 97
Taro, 107
Tasa, 135
Tayacian, 47, 59
Teeth, pierced, in beads and pendants, 114
Temples, 123, 155
Tepe Gawra, 156
Ternafine, 29
Teshik Tash, 69
Textiles, 122
Thong-stropper, 80
Tigris River, floods in, 148
Toggle, 80
Tomatoes, in America, 145
Tombs, megalithic, 141
Tool-making, 42, 49
Tool-preparation traditions, 65
Tools, 62;
antler, 80;
blade, 70, 71, 75;
bone, 66;
chopper, 47;
core-biface, 43, 48, 60, 61;
flake, 44, 47, 51, 60, 64;
flint, 80, 127;
ground stone, 68, 127;
handles, 94;
pebble, 42, 43, 48, 53;
use of, 24
Touf (mud wall), 128
Toynbee, A. J., 101
Trade, 130, 155, 162
Traders, 167
Traditions, 15;
blade tool, 70;
definition of, 51;
interpretation of, 49;
tool-making, 42, 48;
chopper-tool, 47;
chopper-chopping tool, 45;
core-biface, 43, 48;
flake, 44, 47;
pebble tool, 42, 48
Tool-making, prehistory of, 42
Turkey, 107, 108
Ubaid, 153;
assemblage, 153-155
Urnfields, 168, 169
Village-farming community era, 105, 119
Wad B, 72
Wadjak, 34
Warka phase, 156;
assemblage, 156
Washburn, Sherwood L., 36
Water buffalo, domestication of, 107
Weidenreich, F., 29, 34
Wessex, 166, 167
Wheat, wild, 108;
partially domesticated, 127
Willow leaf point, 78
Windmill Hill, 138;
assemblage, 138, 140
Witch doctors, 68
Wool, 112;
in garments, 167
Writing, 158;
cuneiform, 158
Würm I glaciation, 58
Zebu cattle, domestication of, 107
Zeuner, F. E., 73
* * * * * *
Transcriber’s note:
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not
changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
quotation marks retained.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
In the original book, chapter headings were accompanied by
illustrations, sometimes above, sometimes below, and sometimes
adjacent. In this eBook those ilustrations always appear below the
headings.