occupied by the wandering races in Asia; but in a general way it may be
said that the whole central portion of the continent is thus peopled:
indeed, much more than the central portion,—for, if we except the rich
agricultural countries of Hindostan and China, with a small portion of
Persia, Arabia, and Turkey, the whole of Asia is of this character. The
countries known as Balk and Bokara, Yarkand and Khiva, with several
others of equal note, are merely the central points of oases,—large
towns, supported rather by commerce than by the produce of agriculture,
and having nomad tribes dwelling within sight of their walls. Even the
present boundaries of Asiatic Turkey, Arabia and Persia, contain within
them a large proportion of nomadic population; and the same is true of
Eastern Poland and Russia in Europe. A portion of the Affghan and
Belochee country is also inhabited by nomad people.
These wandering people are of many different types and races of men; but
there is a certain similarity in the habits and customs of all: as might
be expected from the similar circumstances in which they are placed.
It is always the more sterile steppes that are thus occupied; and this
is easily accounted for: where fertile districts occur the nomad life is
no longer necessary. Even a wandering tribe, entering upon such a tract,
would no longer have a motive for leaving it, and would soon become
attached to the soil,—in other words, would cease to be wanderers; and
whether they turned their attention to the pursuit of agriculture, or
not, they would be certain to give up their tent-life, and fix
themselves in a permanent abode. This has been the history of many
Asiatic tribes; but there are many others, again, who from time
immemorial, have shown a repugnance to the idea of fixing themselves to
the soil. They prefer the free roving life which the desert enables them
to indulge in; and wandering from place to place as the choice of
pasture guides them, occupy themselves entirely in feeding their flocks
and herds,—the sole means of their subsistence. These never have been,
and never could be, induced to reside in towns or villages.
Nor is it that they have been driven into these desert tracts to seek
shelter from political oppression,—as is the case with some of the
native tribes of Africa and America. On the contrary, these Asiatic
nomads are more often the aggressors than the objects of aggression. It
is rather a matter of choice and propensity with them: as with those
tribes of the Arabian race,—known as “Bedouins.”
The proportion of the Asiatic wandering population to those who dwell in
towns, or fixed habitations, varies according to the nature of the
country. In many extensive tracts, the former greatly exceed the latter;
and the more sterile steppes are almost exclusively occupied by them. In
general, they acknowledge the sovereignty of some of the great
powers,—such as the empires of China, Russia, and Turkey, the kingdom of
Persia, or that of several powerful khans, as those of Khiva and Bokara;
but this sovereignty is, for the most part, little more than nominal,
and their allegiance is readily thrown off, whenever they desire it. It
is rarely so strong, as to enable any of the aforesaid powers to draw a
heavy tribute from them; and some of the more warlike of the wandering
tribes are much courted and caressed,—especially when their war services
are required. In general they claim an herditary right to the
territories over which they roam, and pay but little heed to the orders
of either king, khan, or emperor.
As already stated, these wandering people are of different races; in
fact, they are of nearly all the varieties indigenous to the Asiatic
continent; and a whole catalogue of names might be given, of which
Mongols, Tartars, Turcomans, Usbecks, Kirghees, and Calmucks, are
perhaps the most generally known. It has been also stated that in many
points they are alike; but there are also many important particulars in
which they differ,—physical, moral, and intellectual. Some of the
“hordes,” or tribes, are purely pastoral in their mode of life, and of
mild and hospitable dispositions, exceedingly fond of strangers, and
kind to such as come among them. Others again are averse to all
intercourse with others, than those of their own race and religion, and
are shy, if not inhospitable, when visited by strangers. But there is a
class of a still less creditable character,—a large number of tribes
that are not only inhospitable, and hostile to strangers, but as
ferocious and bloodthirsty as any savages in Africa, America, or the
South-Sea Islands.
As a fair specimen of this class we select the Turcomans; in fact, they
may be regarded as its _type_; and our description henceforward may be
regarded as applying particularly to these people.
The country of the Turcomans will be found upon the map without
difficulty; but to define its exact boundary would be an
impossibility, since none such exists. Were you to travel along the
whole northern frontier of Persia, almost from the gates of Teheran to
the eastern frontier of the kingdom,—or even farther towards Balk,—you
would be pretty sure of hearing of Turcoman robbers, and in very great
danger of being plundered by them,—which last misfortune would be of
less importance, as it would only be the prelude to your being either
murdered on the spot, or carried off by them into captivity. In making
this journey along the northern frontier of Persia, you would become
acquainted with the whereabouts of the Turcoman hordes; or rather you
would discover that the whole north part of Persia,—a good broad band
of it extending hundreds of miles into its interior,—if not absolutely
in possession of the Turcomans, is overrun and plundered by them at
will. This, however, is not their home,—it is only their
“stamping-ground,”—the home of their victims. Their place of habitual
residence lies further to the north, and is defined with tolerable
accuracy by its having the whole eastern shore of the Caspian Sea for
its western border, while the Amou River (the ancient Oxus) may be
generally regarded as the limit of their range towards the east. Some
tribes go still further east than the Amou; but those more
particularly distinguished for their plundering habits dwell within
the limits described,—north of the Elburz Mountains, and on the great
steppe of Kaurezm, where they are contiguous to the Usbeck community
of Khiva.
The whole of this immense territory, stretching from the eastern shore
of the Caspian to the Amou and Aral Sea, may be characterized as a true
desert. Here and there oases exist, but none of any importance, save the
country of Khiva itself: and even that is but a mere irrigated strip,
lying on both banks of the Oxus. Indeed, it is difficult to believe that
this territory of Khiva, so insignificant in superficial extent, could
have been the seat of a powerful empire, as it once was.
The desert, then, between the Caspian Sea and the Oxus River may be
regarded as the true land of the Turcomans, and is usually known as
Turcomania. It is to remembered, however, that there are some kindred
tribes not included within the boundaries of Turcomania—for the
Turkistan of the geographers is a country of much larger extent;
besides, an important division of the Turcoman races are settlers, or
rather wanderers in Armenia. To Turcomania proper, then, and its
inhabitants, we shall confine our remarks.
We shall not stay to inquire into the origin of the people now called
Turcomans. Were we to speculate upon that point, we should make but
little progress in an account of their habits and mode of living. They
are usually regarded as of Tartar origin, or of Usbeck origin, or of
Mongolian race; and in giving this account of them, I am certain that I
add very little to your knowledge of what they really are. The truth is,
that the words Tartar and Mongol and some half-dozen other titles, used
in relation to the Asiatic races, are without any very definite
signification,—simply because the relative distinctions of the different
nations of that continent are very imperfectly known; and learned
ethnologists are ever loath to a confession of limited knowledge. One of
this class, Mr. Latham,—who requires only a few words of their language
to decide categorically to what variety of the human race a people
belongs,—has unfortunately added to this confusion by pronouncing nearly
everybody _Mongolian_: placing the proud turbaned Turk in juxtaposition
with the squat and stunted Laplander! Of course this is only bringing us
back to the old idea, that all men are sprung from a single pair of
first parents,—a doctrine, which, though popular, is difficult to
reconcile with the rational knowledge derived from ethnological
investigation.
It matters little to our present purpose from what original race the
Turcoman has descended: whether he be a true Turk, as some regard him,
or whether he is a descendant of the followers of the Great Khan of the
Tartars. He possesses the Tartar physiognomy to a considerable
extent—some of the tribes more than others being thus distinguished,—and
high cheek-bones, flat noses, small oblique eyes, and scanty beards, are
all characteristics that are very generally observed. Some of these
peculiarities are more common among the women than the men—many of the
latter being tall, stout, and well-made, while a large number may be
seen who have the regular features of a Persian. Perhaps it would be
safest to consider the present Turcoman tribes as not belonging to a
pure stock, but rather an admixture of several; and their habit of
taking slaves from other nations, which has for a long time existed
among them, would give probability to this idea. At all events, without
some such hypothesis, it is difficult to account for the wonderful
variety, both in feature and form, that is found among them. Their
complexion is swarthy, in some cases almost brown as that of an American
Indian; but constant exposure to the open air, in all sorts of weather,
has much to do in darkening the hue of their skin. The newborn children
are nearly as white as those of the Persians; and their young girls
exhibit a ruddy brunette tint, which some consider even more pleasing
than a perfectly white complexion.
The costume of the Turcoman, like that of most Oriental nations, is rich
and picturesque. The dress of the men varies according to rank. Some of
the very poorer people wear nothing but a short woollen tunic or shirt,
with a pair of coarse woollen drawers. Others, in place of this shirt,
are clad in a longer garment, a sort of robe or wrapper, like a
gentleman’s dressing-gown, made of camel’s-hair cloth, or some coarse
brown woollen stuff. But the true Turcoman costume, and that worn by all
who can afford it, consists of a garment of mixed silk and cotton,—the
_baronnee_,—which descends below the knee, and though open in front, is
made to button over the breast quite up to the neck. A gay sash around
the waist adds to the effect; and below the skirt are seen trowsers of
cotton or even silk. Cloth wrappers around the legs serve in the place
of boots or gaiters; and on the feet are worn slippers of Persian
fashion, with socks of soft Koordish leather.
As the material of which the baronnee is made is of good quality—a
mixture of silk and cotton—and as the fabric is always striped or
checkered in colors of red, blue, purple, and green, the effect produced
is that of a certain picturesqueness. The head-dress adds to this
appearance—being a high fur cap, with truncated top, the fur being that
beautiful kind obtained from the skins of the Astracan lamb, well known
in commerce. These caps are of different colors, either black, red, or
gray. Another style of head-dress much worn is a round-topped or
helmet-shaped cap, made of quilted cotton-stuff; but this kind, although
in use among the Turcomans, is a more characteristic costume of their
enemies, the “Koords,” who wear it universally.
The “jubba” is a kind of robe generally intended to go over the other
garments, and is usually of woollen or camel’s-hair cloth. It is also
made like a dressing-gown, with wide sleeves,—tight, however, around the
wrist. It is of ample dimensions, and one side is lapped over the other
across the front, like a double-breasted coat. The “jubba” is
essentially a national garment.
The dress of the women is exceedingly picturesque. It is thus minutely
described by a traveller:—
“The head-dress of these women is singular enough: most of them wear a
lofty cap, with a broad crown, resembling that of a soldier’s cap called
a shako. This is stuck upon the back of the head; and over it is thrown
a silk handkerchief of very brilliant colors, which covers the top, and
falls down on each side like a veil. The front of this is covered with
ornaments of silver and gold, in various shapes; more frequently gold
coins, mohrs, or tomauns, strung in rows, with silver bells or buttons,
and chains depending from them; hearts and other fanciful forms, with
stones set in them. The whole gives rather the idea of gorgeous
trappings for a horse, than ornaments for a female.
“The frames of these monstrous caps are made of light chips of wood, or
split reeds, covered with cloth; and when they do not wear these, they
wrap a cloth around their heads in the same form; and carelessly throw
another, like a veil over it. The veil or curtain above spoken of covers
the mouth; descending to the breast. Earrings are worn in the ears; and
their long hair is divided, and plaited into four parts, disposed two on
each side; one of which falls down behind the shoulders and one before,
and both are strung with a profusion of gold ornaments, agates,
cornelians, and other stones, according to the means and quality of the
wearer. The rest of their dress consists of a long, loose vest or shirt,
with sleeves, which covers the whole person down to the feet, and is
open at the breast, in front, but buttons or ties close up to the neck:
this is made of silk or cotton-stuff, red, blue, green, striped red, and
yellow, checked, or various-colored: underneath this, are the
zere-jameh, or drawers, also of silk or cotton; and some wear a short
_peerahn_ or shirt of the same. This, I believe, is all; but in the cold
weather they wear, in addition, jubbas, or coats like those of the men,
of striped stuff made of silk and cotton; on their feet they generally
wear slippers like those of the Persian women.”
The tents, or “portable houses” of the Turcomans—as their movable
dwellings rather deserve to be called—differ from most structures of the
kind in use elsewhere. They are thus described by the same intelligent
traveller:—
“The portable wooden houses of the Turcomans have been referred to by
several writers; but I am not aware that any exact description of their
structure has been given. The frame is curiously constructed of light
wood, disposed in laths of about an inch broad by three quarters thick,
crossing one another diagonally, but at right angles, about a foot
asunder, and pinned at each crossing with thongs of raw hide, so as to
be movable; and the whole framework may be closed up or opened in the
manner of those toys for children that represent a company of soldiers,
and close or expand at will, so as to form open or close column.
“One or more pieces thus constructed being stretched out, surround a
circular space of from fifteen to twenty feet diameter; and form the
skeleton of the walls,—which are made firm by bands of hair or woollen
ropes, hitched round the end of each rod, to secure it in its position.
From the upper ends of these, rods of a similar kind, bent near the wall
end into somewhat less than a right angle, are so disposed that the
longer portions slope to the centre, and being tied with ropes, form the
framework of a roof. Over this is thrown a covering of black _numud_,
leaving in the centre a large hole to give vent to the smoke, and light
to the dwelling. Similar numuds are wrapped round the walls; and outside
of these, to keep all tight, is bound another frame, formed of split
reeds or cane, or of very light and tough wood, tied together with
strong twine, the pieces being perpendicular. This is itself secured by
a strong, broad band of woven hair-stuff, which firmly unites. The large
round opening at top is covered, as occasion requires, by a piece of
numud, which is drawn off or on by a strong cord, like a curtain. If the
wind be powerful, a stick is placed to leeward, which supports the
fabric.
“In most of these houses they do not keep a carpet or numud constantly
spread; but the better classes use a carpet shaped somewhat in the form
of a horseshoe, having the centre cut out for the fireplace, and the
ends truncated, that those of inferior condition, or who do not choose
to take off their boots, may sit down upon the ground. Upon this carpet
they place one or two other numuds, as may be required, for guests of
distinction. When they have women in the tent, a division of split reeds
is made for their convenience; but the richer people have a separate
tent for their private apartments.
“The furniture consists of little more than that of the camels and
horses; _joals_, or bags in which their goods are packed, and which are
often made of a very handsome species of worsted velvet carpet, of rich
patterns; the swords, guns, spears, bows and arrows, and other
implements of the family, with odds and ends of every description, may
be seen hung on the ends of the wooden rods, which form very convenient
pins for the purpose. Among some tribes all the domestic utensils are
made of wood,—calleeoons, trays for presenting food, milk-vessels, &c.:
among others, all these things are formed of clay or metal. Upon the
black tops of the tents may frequently be seen large white masses of
sour curd, expressed from buttermilk, and set to dry as future store;
this, broken down and mixed with water, forms a very pleasant acidulous
drink, and is used as the basis of that intoxicating beverage called
_kimmiz_. The most common and most refreshing drink which they offer to
the weary and over-heated traveller in the forenoon is buttermilk, or
sour curds and water; and, indeed, a modification of this, with some
other simple sherbets, are the only liquors presented at their meals.
“Such are the wooden houses of the Turcomans, one of which just makes a
camel’s load. There are poorer ones, of a less artificial construction,
the framework of which is formed of reeds.
“The encampment is generally square, enclosing an open space, or forming
a broad street, the houses being ranged on either side, with their doors
towards each other. At these may always be seen the most picturesque
groups, occupied with their various domestic duties, or smoking their
simple wooden _calleeoons_. The more important encampments are often
surrounded by a fence of reeds, which serve to protect the flocks from
petty thefts.”
It is now our place to inquire how the Turcomans occupy their time. We
have already described them as a pastoral and nomadic people; and, under
ordinary circumstances, their employment consists in looking after their
flocks. In a few of the more fertile oases they have habitations, or
rather camps, of a more permanent character, where they cultivate a
little corn or barley, to supply them with the material for bread; but
these settlements, if they deserve the name, are only exceptional; and
are used chiefly as a kind of head-quarters, where the women and
property are kept, while the men themselves are absent on their thieving
expeditions. More generally their herds are kept on the move, and are
driven from place to place at short intervals of a few weeks or even
days. The striking and pitching of their tents gives them employment; to
which is added that of milking the cattle, and making the cheese and
butter. The women, moreover, fill up their idle hours in weaving the
coarse blankets, or “numuds,” in plaiting mats, and manufacturing
various articles of dress or household use. The more costly parts of
their costume, however, are not of native manufacture: these are
obtained by trade. The men alone look after the camels and horses,
taking special care of the latter.
Their flocks present a considerable variety of species. Besides horses,
cattle, and sheep, they own many camels, and they have no less than
three distinct varieties of this valuable animal in their
possession,—the dromedary with two humps, and the common camel. The
third sort is a cross breed—or “mule”—between these two. The dromedary
is slightly made, and swifter than either of the others, but it is not
so powerful as either, and being inferior as a beast of burden, is least
cared for by the Turcomans. The one-humped camel is in more general use,
and a good one will carry a load of six or seven hundred pounds with
ease. The mule camel is more powerful than either of its parents, and
also more docile and capable of greater endurance. It grows to a very
large size, but is low in proportion to its bulk, with stout, bony legs,
and a large quantity of coarse, shaggy hair on its haunch, shoulders,
neck, and even on the crown of its head, which gives it a strange,
somewhat fantastic appearance. Its color varies from light gray to
brown, though it is as often nearly black. This kind of camel will carry
a load of from eight hundred to a thousand pounds.
The Turcoman sheep are of the large-tailed breed,—their tails often
attaining enormous dimensions. This variety of sheep is a true denizen
of the desert, the fat tail being unquestionably a provision of nature
against seasons of hunger,—just as in the single protuberance, or
“hump,” upon the camel.
The horse of the Turcoman is the animal upon which he sets most value.
The breed possessed by him is celebrated over all Eastern Asia, as that
of the Arab is in the West. They cannot be regarded, however, as
handsome horses, according to the true standard of “horse beauty;” but
the Turcoman cares less for this than for other good qualities. In point
of speed and endurance they are not excelled, if equalled, by the horses
of any other country.
Their size is that of the common English horse, but they are very
different in make. Their bodies are long in proportion to the bulk of
carcass; and they do not appear to possess sufficient compactness of
frame. Their legs are also long, generally falling off in muscular
development below the knee-joint; and they would appear to an English
jockey too narrow in the counter. They have also long necks, with large
heavy heads. These are the points which are generally observed in the
Turcoman horses; but it is to be remarked, that it is only when in an
under-condition they look so ungraceful; and in this condition their
owners are accustomed to keep them, especially when they have any very
heavy service to perform. Feeding produces a better shape, and brings
them much nearer to the look of a well-bred English horse.