were suspended over lamps of the same material, crescent-shaped, and
having a ridge extending along their back; the bowl part was filled with
blubber, and the oil and wicks were ranged close together along the
edge. The wicks were made of moss and trimmed by a piece of asbestos,
stone, or wood; near at hand a large bundle of moss was hanging for a
future supply. The lamps were supported by sticks, bones, or pieces of
horn, at a sufficient height to admit an oval pot of wood or whalebone
beneath, in order to catch any oil that might drop from them. The lamps
varied considerably in size, from two feet to six inches in length, and
the pots were equally irregular, holding from two or three gallons to
half a pint. Although I have mentioned a kind of scaffolding, these
people did not all possess so grand an establishment, many being
contented to suspend their pot to a piece of bone stuck in the wall of
the hut. One young woman was quite a caricature in this way: she was the
inferior wife of a young man, whose senior lady was of a large size, and
had a corresponding lamp, etc., at one corner; while she herself, being
short and fat, had a lamp the size of half a dessert-plate, and a pot
which held a pint only.
“Almost every family was possessed of a large wooden tray, resembling
those used by butchers in England; its offices, however, as we soon
perceived, were more various, some containing raw flesh of seals and
blubber, and others, skins, which were steeping in urine. A quantity of
variously-sized bowls of whalebone, wood, or skin, completed the list of
vessels, and it was evident that they were made to contain _anything_.”
The Esquimaux use two kinds of boats,—the “oomiak” and “kayak.” The
oomiak is merely a large species of punt, used exclusively by the women;
but the kayak is a triumph in the art of naval architecture, and is as
elegant as it is ingenious. It is about twenty-five feet in length, and
less than two in breadth of beam. In shape it has been compared to a
weaver’s shuttle, though it tapers much more elegantly than this piece
of machinery. It is decked from stem to stern, excepting a circular hole
very nearly amidships, and this round hatch-way is just large enough to
admit the body of an Esquimaux in a sitting posture. Around the rim of
the circle is a little ridge, sometimes higher in front than at the
back, and this ridge is often ornamented with a hoop of ivory. A flat
piece of wood runs along each side of the frame, and is, in fact, the
only piece of any strength in a kayak. Its depth in the centre is four
or five inches, and its thickness about three fourths of an inch; it
tapers to a point at the commencement of the stem and stern projections.
Sixty-four ribs are fastened to this gunwale piece; seven slight rods
run the whole length of the bottom and outside the ribs. The bottom is
rounded, and has no keel; twenty-two little beams or cross-pieces keep
the frame on a stretch above, and one strong batten runs along the
centre, from stem to stern, being, of course, discontinued at the seat
part. The ribs are made of ground willow, also of whalebone, or, if it
can be procured, of good-grained wood. The whole contrivance does not
weigh over fifty or sixty pounds; so that a man easily carries his kayak
on his head, which, by the form of the rim, he can do without the
assistance of his hands.
An Esquimaux prides himself in the neat appearance of his boat, and has
a warm skin placed in its bottom to sit on. His posture with the legs
pointed forward, and he cannot change his position without the
assistance of another person; in all cases where a weight is to be
lifted, an alteration of stowage, or any movement to be made, it is
customary for two kayaks to lie together; and the paddle of each being
placed across the other, they form a steady double boat. An inflated
seal’s bladder forms, invariably, part of the equipage of a canoe, and
the weapons are confined in their places by small lines of whalebone,
stretched tightly across the upper covering, so as to receive the points
or handles of the spears beneath them. Flesh is frequently stowed within
the stem or stern, as are also birds and eggs; but a seal, although
round, and easily made to roll, is so neatly balanced on the upper part
of the boat as seldom to require a lashing. When Esquimaux are not
paddling, their balance must be nicely preserved, and a trembling motion
is always observable in the boat. The most difficult position for
managing a kayak is when going before the wind, and with a little swell
running. Any inattention would instantly, by exposing the broadside,
overturn this frail vessel. The dexterity with which they are turned,
the velocity of their way, and the extreme elegance of form of the
kayaks, render an Esquimaux of the highest interest when sitting
independently, and urging his course towards his prey.
“The paddle is double-bladed, nine feet three inches in length, small at
the grasp, and widening to four inches at the blades, which are thin,
and edged with ivory for strength as well as ornament.
“The next object of importance to the boat is the sledge, which finds
occupation during at least three fourths of the year. A man who
possesses both this and a canoe is considered a person of property. To
give a particular description of the sledge would be impossible, as
there are no two actually alike; and the materials of which they are
composed are as various as their form. The best are made of the
jaw-bones of the whale, sawed to about two inches in thickness, and in
depth from six inches to a foot. These are the runners, and are shod
with a thin plank of the same material; the side-pieces are connected by
means of bones, pieces of wood, or deers’ horns, lashed across, with a
few inches space between each, and they yield to any great strain which
the sledge may receive. The general breadth of the upper part of the
sledge is about twenty inches; but the runners lean inwards, and
therefore at bottom it is rather greater. The length of bone sledges is
from four feet to fourteen. Their weight is necessarily great; and one
of moderate size, that is to say, about ten or twelve feet, was found to
be two hundred and seventeen pounds. The skin of the walrus is very
commonly used during the coldest part of the winter, as being
hard-frozen, and resembling an inch board, with ten time the strength,
for runners. Another ingenious contrivance is, by casing moss and earth
in seal’s skin, so that by pouring a little water a round hard bolster
is easily formed. Across all these kinds of runners there is the same
arrangement of bones, sticks, &c., on the upper part; and the surface
which passes over the snow is coated with ice, by mixing snow with fresh
water, which assists greatly in lightening the load for the dogs, as it
slides forwards with ease. Boys frequently amuse themselves by yoking
several dogs to a small piece of seal’s skin, and sitting on it, holding
by the traces. Their plan is then to set off at full speed, and he who
bears the greatest number of bumps before he relinquishes his hold is
considered a very fine fellow.
“The Esquimaux possess various kinds of spears, but their difference is
chiefly in consequence of the substances of which they are composed, and
not in their general form.
“One called kā-tĕ-tēek, is a large and strong-handled spear, with an
ivory point made for despatching any wounded animal in the water. It is
never thrown, but has a place appropriated for it on the kayak.
“The oonak is a lighter kind than the former; also ivory-headed. It has
a bladder fastened to it, and has a loose head with a line attached;
this being darted into an animal, is instantly liberated from the handle
which gives the impetus. Some few of these weapons are constructed of
the solid ivory of the unicorn’s horn, about four feet in length, and
remarkably well rounded and polished.
“Ip-pŏo-tōo-yŏo, is another kind of hand-spear, varying but little from
the one last described. It has, however, no appendages.
“The Noōgh-wit is of two kinds; but both are used for striking birds,
young animals, or fish. The first has a double fork at the extremity,
and there are three other barbed ones at about half its length,
diverging in different directions, so that if the end pair should miss,
some of the centre ones might strike. The second kind has only three
barbed forks at the head. All the points are of ivory, and the natural
curve of the walrus tusk favors and facilitates their construction.
“Amongst the minor instruments of the ice-hunting are a long bone feeler
for plumbing any cracks through which seals are suspected of breathing,
and also for trying the safety of the road. Another contrivance is
occasionally used with the same effect as the float of a fishing-line.
Its purpose is to warn the hunter, who is watching a seal-hole, when the
animal rises to the surface, so that he may strike without seeing, or
being seen, by his prey. This is a most delicate little rod of bone or
ivory, of about a foot in length, and the thickness of a fine
knitting-needle. At the lower end is a small knob like a pin’s head, and
the upper extremity has a fine piece of sinew tied to it, so as to
fasten it loosely to the side of the hole. The animal, on rising, does
not perceive so small an object hanging in the water, and pushes it up
with his nose, when the watchful Esquimaux, observing his little beacon
in motion, strikes down, and secures his prize.
“Small ivory pegs or pins are used to stop the holes made by the spears
in the animal’s body; thus the blood, a great luxury to the natives, is
saved.
“The same want of wood which renders it necessary to find substitutes in
the construction of spears, also occasions the great variety of bows.
The horn of the musk-ox, thinned horns of deer, or other bony
substances, are as frequently used or met with as wood, in the
manufacture of these weapons, in which elasticity is a very secondary
consideration. Three or four pieces of horn or wood are frequently
joined together in one bow,—the strength lying alone in a vast
collection of small plaited sinews; these, to the number of perhaps a
hundred, run down the back of the bow, and being quite tight, and having
the spring of catgut, cause the weapon, when unstrung, to turn the wrong
way; when bent, their united strength and elasticity are amazing. The
bow-string is of fifteen to twenty plaits, each loose from the other,
but twisted round when in use, so that a few additional turns will at
any time alter its length. The general length of the bows is about three
feet and a half.
“The arrows are short, light, and formed according to no general rule as
to length or thickness. A good one has half the shaft of bone, and a
head of hard slate, or a small piece of iron; others have
sharply-pointed bone heads: none are barbed. Two feathers are used for
the end, and are tied opposite each other, with the flat sides parallel.
A neatly-formed case contains the bow and a few arrows. Seal-skin is
preferred for this purpose, as more effectually resisting the wet than
any other. A little bag, which is attached to the side, contains a stone
for sharpening, and some spare arrow-heads carefully wrapped up in a
piece of skin.
“The bow is held in a horizontal position, and though capable of great
force, is rarely used at a greater distance than from twelve to twenty
yards.”
Their houses, clothing, sledges, boats, utensils, and arms, being now
described, it only remains to be seen in what manner these most singular
people pass their time, how they supply themselves with food, and how
they manage to support life during the long dark winter and the scarce
less hospitable summer of their rigorous clime. Their occupations from
year to year are carried on with an almost unvarying regularity, though,
like their dresses, they change according to the season.
Their short summer is chiefly employed in hunting the reindeer, and
other quadrupeds,—for the simple reason that it is at this season that
these appear in greatest numbers among them, migrating northward as the
snow thaws from the valleys and hill-sides. Not but that they also kill
the reindeer in other seasons, for these animals do not all migrate
southward on the approach of winter, a considerable number remaining all
the year upon the shores of the Arctic Sea, as well as the islands to
the north of them. Of course, the Esquimaux kills a reindeer when and
where he can; and it may be here remarked, that in no part of the
American continent has the reindeer been trained or domesticated as
among the Laplanders and the people of Russian Asia. Neither the
Northern Indians (Tinné) nor the Esquimaux have ever reached this degree
in domestic civilization, and this fact is one of the strongest points
of difference between the American Esquimaux and their kindred races in
the north of Asia. One tribe of true Esquimaux alone hold the reindeer
in subjection, viz. the Tuski, already mentioned, on the Asiatic shore;
and it might easily be shown that the practice reached them from the
contiguous countries of northern Asia. The American Esquimaux, like
those of Greenland, possess only the dog as a domesticated animal; and
him they have trained to draw their sledges in a style that exhibits the
highest order of skill, and even elegance. The Esquimaux dog is too well
known to require particular description. He is often brought to this
country in the return ships of Arctic whalers and voyagers; and his
thick, stout body covered closely with long stiff hair of a whitish or
yellowish color, his cocked ears and smooth muzzle, and, above all, the
circle-like curling of his bushy tail, will easily be remembered by any
one who has ever seen this valuable animal.
In summer, then, the Esquimaux desert their winter houses upon the
shore, and taking with them their tents make an excursion into the
interior. They do not go far from the sea—no farther than is necessary
to find the valleys browsed by the reindeer, and the fresh-water lakes,
which, at this season, are frequented by flocks of swans, geese of
various kinds, ducks, and other aquatic birds. Hunting the reindeer
forms their principal occupation at this time; but, of course, “all is
fish that comes into the net” of an Esquimaux; and they also employ
themselves in capturing the wild fowl and the fresh-water fish, in which
these lakes abound. With the wild fowl it is the breeding and moulting
season, and the Esquimaux not only rob them of their eggs, but take
large numbers of the young before they are sufficiently fledged to
enable them to fly, and also the old ones while similarly incapacitated
from their condition of “moult.” In their swift kayaks which they have
carried with them on their heads, they can pursue the fluttering flocks
over any part of a lake, and overtake them wherever they may go. This is
a season of great plenty in the larder of the _Inuit_.
The fresh-water fish are struck with spears out of the kayaks, or, when
there is ice on the water strong enough to bear the weight of a man, the
fish are captured in a different manner. A hole is broken in the ice,
the broken fragments are skimmed off and cast aside, and then the
fisherman lets down a shining bauble—usually the white tooth of some
animal—to act as a bait. This he keeps bobbing about until the fish,
perceiving it afar off through the translucent water, usually approaches
to reconnoitre, partly from curiosity, but more, perhaps, to see if it
be anything to eat. When near enough the Esquimaux adroitly pins the
victim with his fish-spear, and lands it upon the ice. This species of
fishing is usually delivered over to the boys—the time of the hunters
being too valuable to be wasted in waiting for the approach of the fish
to the decoy, an event of precarious and uncertain occurrence.
In capturing the reindeer, the Esquimaux practises no method very
different from that used by “still hunters” in other parts of America.
He has to depend alone upon his bow and arrows, but with these poor
weapons he contrives to make more havoc among a herd of deer than would
a backwoods hunter with his redoubtable rifle. There is no mystery about
his superior management. It consists simply in the exhibition of the
great strategy and patience with which he makes his approaches, crawling
from point to point and using every available cover which the ground may
afford.
But all this would be of little avail were it not for a _ruse_ which he
puts in practice, and which brings the unsuspecting deer within reach of
his deadly arrows. This consists in a close imitation of the cries of
the animal, so close that the sharp-eared creature itself cannot detect
the counterfeit, but, drawing nearer and nearer to the rock or bush from
which the call appears to proceed, falls a victim to the deception. The
silent arrow makes no audible sound; the herd, if slightly disturbed at
seeing one of their number fall, soon compose themselves, and go on
browsing upon the grass or licking up the lichen. Another is attracted
by the call, and another, who fall in their turn victims either to their
curiosity or the instinct of amorous passions.
For this species of hunting, the bow far excels any other weapon; even
the rifle is inferior to it.
Sometimes the Esquimaux take the deer in large numbers, by hunting them
with dogs, driving the herd into some defile or _cul de sac_ among the
rocks, and then killing them at will with their arrows and javelins.
This, however, is an exceptional case, as such natural “pounds” are not
always at hand. The Indians farther south construct artificial
enclosures; but in the Esquimaux country there is neither time nor
material for such elaborate contrivances.
The Esquimaux who dwell in those parts frequented by the musk-oxen, hunt
these animals very much as they do the reindeer; but killing a musk
bull, or cow either, is a feat of far grander magnitude, and requires
more address than shooting a tiny deer.
I have said that the Esquimaux do not, even in these hunting excursions,
stray very far into the interior. There is a good reason for their
keeping close to the seashore. Were they to penetrate far into the land
they would be in danger of meeting with their bitter foemen, the _Tinné_
Indians, who in this region also hunt reindeer and musk-oxen. War to the
knife is the practice between these two races of people, and has ever
been since the first knowledge of either. They often meet in conflict
upon the rivers inland, and these conflicts are of so cruel and
sanguinary a nature as to imbue each with a wholesome fear of the other.
The Indians, however, dread the Esquimaux more than the latter fear
them; and up to a late period took good care never to approach their
coasts; but the musket and rifle have now got into the hands of some of
the northern tribes, who avail themselves of these superior weapons, not
only to keep the Esquimaux at bay, but also to render them more cautious
about extending their range towards the interior.
When the dreary winter begins to make its appearance, and the reindeer
grow scarce upon the snow-covered plains, the Esquimaux return to their
winter villages upon the coast. Quadrupeds and birds no longer occupy
their whole attention, for the drift of their thoughts is now turned
towards the inhabitants of the great deep. The seal and the walrus are
henceforth the main objects of pursuit. Perhaps during the summer, when
the water was open, they may have visited the shore for the purpose of
capturing that great giant of the icy seas—a whale. If so, and they have
been successful in only one or two captures, they may look forward to a
winter of plenty—since the flesh of a full-grown whale, or, better
still, a brace of such ample creatures, would be sufficient to feed a
whole tribe for months.
They have no curing process for this immense carcass; they stand in need
of none. Neither salt nor smoking is required in their climate. Jack
Frost is their provision curer, and performs the task without putting
them either to trouble or expense. It is only necessary for them to
hoist the great flitches upon scaffolds, already erected for the
purpose, so as to keep the meat from the wolves, wolverines, foxes, and
their own half-starved dogs. From their aërial larder they can cut a
piece of blubber whenever they feel hungry, or they have a mind to eat,
and this _mind_ they are in so long as a morsel is left.
Their mode of capturing a whale is quite different from that practised
by the whale-fishers. When the huge creature is discovered near, the
whole tribe sally forth, and surround it in their kayaks; they then hurl
darts into its body, but instead of these having long lines attached to
them, they are provided with seal skins sewed up air-tight and inflated,
like bladders. When a number of these become attached to the body of the
whale, the animal, powerful though he be, finds great difficulty in
sinking far down, or even progressing rapidly through the water. He soon
rises to the surface, and the seal-skin buoys indicate his whereabouts
to the occupants of the kayaks, who in their swift little crafts, soon
dart up to him again, and shoot a fresh volley into his body. In this
way the whale is soon “wearied out,” and then falls a victim to their
larger spears, just as in the case where a capture is made by regular
whalers.
I need scarcely add that a success of this kind is hailed as a jubilee
of the tribe, since it not only brings a benefit to the whole community,
but is also a piece of fortune of somewhat rare occurrence.
When no whales have been taken, the long, dark winter may justly be
looked forward to with some solicitude; and it is then that the
Esquimaux requires to put forth all his skill and energies for the
capture of the walrus or the seal—the latter of which may be regarded as
the staff of his life, furnishing him not only with food, but with
light, fuel, and clothing for his body and limbs.
Of the seals that inhabit the Polar Seas there are several species; but
the common seal (_Calocephalus vitulina_) and the harp-seal (_C.
Grœnlandicus_) are those most numerous, and consequently the principal
object of pursuit.
The Esquimaux uses various stratagems for taking these creatures,
according to the circumstances in which they may be encountered; and
simpletons as the seals may appear, they are by no means easy of
capture. They are usually very shy and suspicious, even in places where
man has never been seen by them. They have other enemies, especially in
the great polar bear; and the dread of this tyrant of the icy seas keeps
them ever on the alert. Notwithstanding their watchfulness, however,
both the bear and the biped make great havoc among them, and each year
hundreds of thousands of them are destroyed.
The bear, in capturing seals, exhibits a skill and cunning scarce
excelled by that of the rational being himself. When this great
quadruped perceives a seal basking on the edge of an ice-field, he makes
his approaches, not by rushing directly towards it, which he well knows
would defeat his purpose. If once seen by the seal, the latter has only
to betake himself to the water, where it can soon sink or swim beyond
the reach of the bear. To prevent this, the bear gets well to leeward,
and then diving below the surface, makes his approaches under water, now
and then cautiously raising his head to get the true bearings of his
intended victim. After a number of these subaqueous “reaches,” he gets
close in to the edge of the floe in such a position as to cut off the
seal’s retreat to the water. A single spring brings him on the ice, and
then, before the poor seal has time to make a brace of flounders, it
finds itself locked in the deadly embrace of the bear. When seals are
thus detected asleep, the Esquimaux approaches them in his kayak, taking
care to paddle cautiously and silently. If he succeed in getting between
them and the open water, he kills them in the ordinary way—by simply
knocking them on the snout with a club, or piercing them with a spear.
Sometimes, however, the seal goes to sleep on the surface of the open
water. Then the approach is made in a similar manner by means of the
kayak, and the animal is struck with a harpoon. But a single blow does
not always kill a seal, especially if it be a large one, and the blow
has been ill-directed. In such cases the animal would undoubtedly make
his escape, and carry the harpoon along with it, which would be a
serious loss to the owner, who does not obtain such weapons without
great difficulty. To prevent this, the Esquimaux uses a contrivance
similar to that employed in the capture of the whale,—that is, he
attaches a float or buoy to his harpoon by means of a cord, and this so
impedes the passage of the seal through the water, that it can neither
dive nor swim to any very great distance. The float is usually a walrus
bladder inflated in the ordinary way, and wherever the seal may go, the
float betrays its track, enabling the Esquimaux to follow it in his
shuttle-shaped kayak, and pierce it again with a surer aim.