LANGUAGE
Aboriginal dialects euphonious and full—Words largely
imitative of natural call-notes—Derivations from
other characteristics—Linguistic generalizations
impossible—Vocabularies replete in certain directions—Gesture
and sign languages—Passionate conversationalist—Reckoning of
time—Computation of numbers—Word expressing action—Terminal
syllables—Affirmation and negation—Exclamations—Specific
suffixes—Diminutive expressions—Verb endings—Word
with a variety of meanings—Personal pronouns—Aspirate
sounds rare—Consonantal combination “_ng_” very
frequent—Greetings—Exclamation and Interrogative—Curious
Similarities.
As full as the aboriginal legends are of poetry, so their dialects are
full of music. For euphony, fullness, and vowel quality, few modern
languages equal the primitive tongue; and much of the charm is derived
from a natural source. Even in our own language, the vernacular name of
a bird or animal is often derived from the particular call made by the
creature. In Europe we have christened the cuckoo, the peewit, and the
boo-book owl because of their distinctive cries; in a like sense, the
central Australian natives call the bell-bird “_ban-ban-balele_,” the
mopoke “_kore-gore_,” and the spur-wing plover “_kurreke-tar-tar_,” all
three names being sounded like the natural cries of the birds themselves.
As further illustrations we might mention the Dieri and Arunndta word for
kangaroo, viz. “_arre_,” which, one is told, is what the animal “says”
when brought to bay, and the Sunday Islanders’ name for a grasshopper,
“_dingi-ding_,” which alludes to its chirrup.
In regard to the coining of words, quite apart from the sonorous
qualities the object named might possess, the aboriginal is no less
inventive. The Arunndta call thunder “_kwatche-ingoma_,” i.e. “roaring
water,” and a sharp shower of rain pattering on the ground “_kwatche
unndoma_,” i.e. “dancing water.” What is commonly known as the milk-bush
in Australia (_Sarcostemma_) is called “_epi-epi_” by the Aluridja
because it exudes a milk-like sap when broken and reminds them of the
female breast (“_epi_”). Kangaroo grass (_Anthistiria_) is referred to
by the Arunndta as “_arre-arre_” because, they maintain, the red colour
of its seed stalks resembles that of the marsupial. The Arunndta for the
familiar beef-wood tree of central Australia is “_iltjija_,” meaning long
fingers, the word drawing attention to the length of the leaves.
Whereas in our own language words like “choleric” have originated because
the bile in a human system was supposed to beget wrath, and whereas one
bushman might accuse another of being “livery” when he is ill-tempered,
the Arunndta have a verb, “_lunbatunbatterama_,” meaning to grumble or to
be sulky, in which “_unba_” stands for bile.
In view of the great number of Australian tribes and the multiplicity
of their dialects, any attempt at linguistic generalizations would seem
to be futile, when often even adjoining tribes have adopted totally
different vocabularies for the most common commodities of life. As a
matter of fact, the groups which build up one and the same big tribe
often have considerable differences in their vocabularies. For instance,
the eastern groups of the Arunndta make use of very many words and
expressions which are quite foreign to the western. Yet in respect
of certain words, it is known that with slight modifications their
significance has carried far beyond the borders of a single tribe and has
been accepted by a group of tribes living up to a few hundred miles apart.
Although the aboriginal tongue is crude in its construction, it is,
nevertheless, wonderfully rich and scientifically exact. Whereas a
modern language becomes very commonplace in the ordinary course
of conversation, and is inclined to handle subject matter somewhat
flippantly, the aboriginal system of nomenclature is both profuse and
incontrovertible. During his descriptive narrations from Nature, a
European rarely bothers about discriminating between objects composing
one big class. If he talks of a forest, he is usually satisfied to convey
the idea of a number of trees standing collectively at the site his story
is dealing with; if he wishes to be exact he might specially describe
the trees as pines or gums. But the aboriginal wants, and gives, more;
his vocabulary, in fact, rarely includes such words as “tree,” “animal,”
“meat,” or “seed”; he tells you immediately, without being specially
asked, that the “tree” is a gum, the “animal” a wallaby, the “meat” that
of kangaroo, and the “seed” that of the water-lily. Moreover, his verbal
supply is so copious that in a single word he can tell one the name, the
age, the habitat, and many characteristics.
A language without words is known to most Australian natives; thoughts
and messages are communicated by means of gestures from individual to
individual, and from tribe to tribe. This system is so perfect, and the
code so well understood by all, that important tidings are transmitted
from one centre to another in incredibly short time. The method might to
a certain extent be compared with the flag-signalling of a marine; it is
too complicated to be discussed in detail, but we shall select a few code
signals by way of illustration.
_Halloa!_ To attract the attention of a person whom conversation is to
be taken up with, the native, standing as erect as possible, and with
his legs astride, lifts his hands to his head and swings them outwards
(in opposite directions), downwards, and upwards again, time after time.
Whilst doing so, he calls aloud, with a shrill, piercing note, even
though the other fellow be well beyond hearing distance.
[Illustration: _PLATE LII_
Aluridja man rendering a musical accompaniment with boomerangs.
“... he claps their ends together in quick succession, and by so doing
produces rhythmic clanks to suit the style of any dance or the time of
any song.”]
_Come here!_ Maintaining the erect position, he throws both hands
upwards, to above a shoulder on one side, then sweeps them (extended)
in front of his body to well behind it on the opposite side, at the same
time bending his body forwards from the hips.
_I am coming to you._ The person places his hands upon his chest, and
throws them towards the stranger.
_Follow behind me._ He slaps his right hand against his buttock.
_Stop_ or _stay there_. The arms are held, bent at the elbows, at each
side of the body, with the open palms of the hands turned towards the
distant man, and vertical circles are described with them in that
position.
_Go that way._ He points the index finger in the required direction and
jerks the hand forwards several times.
_A woman._ He places his hands over his breasts.
_Kangaroo._ The hand is passed, with successive semi-circular movements,
indicating the hopping, from one side of the body to the other.
_A snake._ The hand is moved forwards in a wavy line.
_I can see._ He touches one or both eyes with his hand.
_Dead man._ Throws his head back and extends his arms laterally upwards.
_A man._ He strokes his chin.
_I can hear._ He points to his ear.
_To kill._ The palms of the hands are placed together and moved as if
striking an object.
_Emu._ Bends the fingers of one hand at right angles to palm and sways
the arm to and fro.
_Sleeping._ He lays his head upon the palm of a hand.
_Sitting._ He points to the ground.
_Running._ His legs are moved in a running fashion.
_Hungry._ He draws in his abdomen and shows his ribs.
An intricate system of sign language is carried on by movements of the
hands and fingers when the natives are at close enough range for the
signals to be visible. The following are a few of the more common signs
used every day by the Arunndta tribe:
To call the attention of a person, a man holds his open hand in front
of his face, with the palm towards him, and drops it again. The sign
having been acknowledged, a mutual exchange of gesture correspondence is
indulged in, by means of which an almost inexhaustible number of ideas
can be communicated in the form of coherent “speech.” The following few
signs (most of which are sketched on page 391, Fig. 57) may be taken
as typical of a vocabulary which in its entirety is both elaborate and
intricate:
[Illustration: Fig. 57. Sign-language of Arunndta tribe.]
_Which way?_ The forefinger is held erect (the other fingers
of the hand being closed) and several times
moved downwards or away from the face (No. 1).
_Big!_ The hand is held supine while the fingers are
first extended and then closed in again upon
the palm. The thumb is kept more or less erect
(No. 2).
_Little!_ The hand is held with its palm upwards, and the
fingers moved towards the thumb, the middle one
touching it (No. 3).
_To rest (“I am The hand is held semi-prone, with the fingers
going to sit extended and lying closely together, the thumb
down”)_ resting at the top. It is jerked downwards two
or three times (No. 4).
_To camp (“I am With the hand in the same position as in No. 4,
going to camp”)_ the middle, fourth, and fifth fingers are closed
in upon the palm, while the index is made to
touch the thumb (No. 5).
_To camp The hand remains in semi-prone position, but with
(collectively)_ the forefinger pointing towards the ground at
half a right angle, and the same three fingers
as mentioned in No. 5 remaining closed (No. 6).
_To walk_ The hand is held supine with only the forefinger
extended; it is moved from side to side (No. 8).
_Come this way Holding the hand nearly horizontal and semi-prone,
quickly!_ the fingers are closed in upon the palm and the
thumb placed over them; in that position the hand
is jerked sideways (No. 7).
_Listen!_ The hand, with fingers fully extended, is held with
its palm turned towards the face and moved to and
from the face a number of times (No. 9).
_Hear him!_ The hand is kept prone, with the middle and fourth
fingers closed and the remaining three digits
extended. Thus it is several times jerked towards
an ear of the man who is “speaking” (No. 10).
_What did you say?_ The hand is held erect, with the palm towards the
face; the thumb and forefinger are kept straight,
but the other fingers flexed; the forefinger is
jerked to and fro (No. 11).
_Fighting_ With the hand in an erect position, but the palm
turned away from the face, all digits except the
index are closed; the last-named, moreover, is
jerked with a circular motion (No. 12).
_On the summit The sign-maker extends his hand and with the small
of a Hill_ finger border of it taps the crest of his head
(No. 13).
_Running up the He extends the index and middle fingers upwards,
Hill_ while the hand is more or less prone, and jerks
them up and down (No. 14).
_It is no good!_ The hand in a prone position (with the index and
small fingers extended, the fourth finger closed
in, and the tips of the thumb and middle finger
touching) is moved in a circle from the wrist
(No. 15).
_He is dead_ Change the position of hand from that of No. 7 to
that of No. 16.
_Moving up the The hand is held partly extended in a prone position
Valley_ and moved horizontally, from side to side, at the
side of the man’s head (No. 17).
_Behold the ears He holds the hand in a vertical position with the
(of a Kangaroo)_ index and middle lingers extended, moving them
in imitation of an animal’s ears (No. 18).
_Steady!_ Hold the hand in position indicated in No. 7 and
move it vertically with a striking action.
_A Euro_ Much the same position as shown in No. 18, but the
index and middle fingers are only semi-extended;
the other fingers are made to touch the thumb
(No. 19).
_An Echidna or The hand is held prone and horizontally, with only
Native Porcupine_ the forefinger extended, which is moved regularly
from side to side (No. 20).
_An Opossum_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal; thumb extended and
forefinger bent in second joint from the tip; the
remaining fingers closed in upon palm. The hand
is moved downwards (No. 21).
_An Iguana_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The tip of
forefinger is brought nearly into contact with
that of thumb, the remaining fingers being fully
extended. The hand is moved vertically up and
down (No. 22).
_A Carpet Snake_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The points of the
fingers are bunched against the thumb, and
circular movements made with the hand (No. 23).
_A Tiger Snake_ Hand semi-prone. The forefinger extended and
directed downwards at about half a right angle;
thumb extended; the remaining three fingers are
moved alternately away from and towards the palm
of the hand (No. 24).
_A Black Snake_ Hand semi-prone and horizontal. All fingers closed
in upon palm, thumb extended upwards. Slight
downward movements (No. 25).
_The Evil Spirit_ Hand in prone position and directed downwards.
Thumb, index and small fingers extended, the
remaining fingers closed. Frequent down and
up movements (No. 26).
_Native Pear Hand held erect; forefinger flexed to touch the tip
(Marsdenia)_ of thumb; the remaining fingers closed (No. 27).
_Native Orange Hand prone; index and middle fingers flexed; thumb,
(Capparis fourth and fifth fingers extended. Forward and
Mitchelli)_ slightly upward jerks (No. 28).
_Marsupial Mice_ The hand is held in a supine position, while the
points of the fingers are grouped around the
thumb and jerked towards the sign-maker’s mouth
(No. 29).
_Native Plum With all fingers semi-extended, the hand is held
(Santalum)_ in a supine position and jerked towards the face
(No. 30).
_A Dingo or Wild The hand is held in a vertical position, with the
Dog_ forefinger extended; the other digits are flexed,
the tips of the middle finger and thumb touching.
Side movements are made with the forefinger (No.
31).
_A Bustard or Wild Hand prone; thumb, middle, fourth, and fifth fingers
Turkey_ bunched together, the forefinger bent downwards.
Vertical movements (No. 32).
_A Lizard_ Hand semi-prone; forefinger and thumb fully
extended, the remaining fingers flexed. Upward
and downward movements from the wrist (No. 33).
_A Crow_ The thumb, index and middle fingers extended, the
remaining fingers flexed. The two extended fingers
are moved against each other (No. 34).
_Wild Bee Honey_ The tip of the forefinger is repeatedly flicked
from the thumb, while the three remaining fingers
are kept in a flexed position (No. 35).
_A Wallaby_ Hand semi-prone; the forefinger and thumb are
extended while the remaining fingers lie against
the palm. Small, jerking, upward movements are
made with the forefinger, in which the hand also
takes part (No. 36).
_My Son_ The sign-maker taps his chin with the extended
forefinger of his hand.
_My Sister’s He holds his right nipple between the thumb and
Daughter_ forefinger of his right hand.
_My Sister’s He surrounds his right nipple with the tips of his
Daughter’s fingers and alternately opens and closes them
Daughter_ with a scratching action.
[Illustration: _PLATE LIII_
Wordaman youth playing on the “drone pipe” or “bamboo trumpet.”
“When using the ‘trumpet,’ the operator blows into the end having the
smaller diameter, with a vibratory motion of the lips....”]
In the course of conversation, an aboriginal aids his speech by
gesticulation. When inclined to be cheerful, he smiles and laughs in a
decidedly refreshing sort of way, and often smacks his lips out of sheer
pleasure, but when his feelings have been ruffled and he is angry, he
pouts out his lips and does not hesitate to let you know how he feels. He
betrays his feelings by most apparent tone inflections in his voice. He
frequently nods his head to indicate assent, but rarely shakes his head
to betoken dissent. When in doubt over any matter, especially in answer
to a question, he shrugs his shoulders. His hands are used a great deal
during conversation. If he wishes to give one an idea of nearness, the
finger is directed to the ground a short way off, and if distance is
implied the finger points to the horizon.
In reply to a question concerned with the location of a thing, he does
not point, as a European would, but turns his face in the direction he
wants to indicate and thrusts out his lips. When beckoning with his hand,
an aboriginal does not move his hand upwards towards his face as we do,
but passes it downwards with a scooping action. The course a traveller
has taken, or an animal decamped in, is indicated by extending an arm in
the direction and snapping the fingers.
A native has a very good idea of time. The hour at which a past event
has happened, or at which a coming event is to happen, is indicated by
pointing at the assumed altitude of the sun. To fix a time definitely for
a contemplated or proposed action, a stone is placed upon a cliff, or in
the fork of a tree, at the hour decided upon, a day or two in advance, in
such a position that a sunbeam just strikes it at the moment. When the
correct day arrives, the stone is watched until it is again illumined
in the same way; and the natives then know that it is time to act. This
method is employed when, say, the men have left camp early, and they
order the women to follow them at a later hour.
Days are reckoned by the number of sleeps they have had, and the biggest
measurement of time goes by so many moons.
When he comes to computing numbers, his fingers are of the greatest
service to him, and at times his toes as well. An aboriginal is not a
mathematician, and his vocabulary does not contain running series of
numerals. The usual method of counting low figures is after the following
pattern of the King Sound natives:
“_arra_” (one).
“_kwiarra_” (two).
“_kwiarra arra_” (three).
“_kwiarra kwiarra_” (four).
Beyond four, counting either goes by “hands” or “feet,” or for ordinary
purposes there are two comprehensive words in use which signify a
“small-large number” and a “large-small number.” In some cases, such as
the Aluridja, “one” (“_goitarada_”) appears as the diminutive form of
“two” (“_goitara_”). In the same sense, a shorter distance is expressed
by the Wongapitcha as the diminutive of a great distance by qualifying
the word “_wurnma_,” meaning “far,” by affixing “_wimuggitta_,” which
means “young.” Hence “_wimuggitta wurnma_” reads the “young (one) of
far,” i.e. “close up.” This is really the same way of expressing a
fraction of space as the same tribe has adopted for expressing minority
in age; a youth or young man is known as “_wimuggitta wardi_,” the second
word “_wardi_” standing for an adult man.
[Illustration: _PLATE LIV_
1. Making “vegetable down” by pounding grass between two stones. Humbert
River, Northern Territory.
2. Worora native making a stone spear-head, Northern Kimberleys, Western
Australia.]
The Dieri of the Lake Eyre region have one of the most elaborate systems
of numeration, which includes, at any rate, an expression for every
number up to eleven.
“_kulno_,” one.
“_mandru_,” two.
“_parkulu_” or “_parkulintja_,” three.
“_mandru mandru_,” four.
“_mandru ja parkulintja_,” five.
or “_marra warra kulno_,” five, i.e. hand part one (one hand).
“_marra pirri kulno_,” six.
“_marra pirri mandru_,” seven.
“_marra pirri parkulintja_,” eight.
“_marra pirri mandru mandru_,” nine.
“_marra warra mandru_” ten, i.e. hand parts two (two hands).
“_tjinna pirri kulno_,” eleven.
“_marrapu_,” many.
“_mörla marrapu_,” very many.
In the above table the following explanations will be found useful:
“_ja_” = and.
“_marra_” = hand.
“_tjinna_” = foot.
“_warra_” = part.
“_pirri_” = nail (toe or finger).
Thus the reading of the numerals runs: One, two, three, two-two (four),
two and three (five), or one hand part (five), hand finger-nails one
(six), hand finger-nails two (seven), hand finger-nails three (eight),
hand finger-nails four (nine), two hand parts (ten), foot toe-nails one
(eleven).
To imply a repetition or continuance of action, the frequent use of the
same verb is avoided by the Sunday Islanders, but the same effect is
achieved by reiterating the word “_garra_” indefinitely. The expression
of continued action is usually in the present tense and is mostly applied
to words like “running,” “walking,” “jumping,” “sleeping,” “raining,”
“blowing,” “bleeding,” etc., etc. For example, a man from a tree or other
look-out might be describing to his companions below, the doings of their
hunting party out on the plain; while the latter keep moving, he conveys
the fact to his hearers by ejaculating “_garra, garra, garra_, ...” The
direction of the hunters’ movements is indicated by the swing of his
hand. The moment the observer in the tree stops saying “_garra_,” the
people below know that the hunters have ducked or have temporarily ceased
the pursuit.
The terminal syllable of a word is never uttered very clearly by an
aboriginal; and it is consequently difficult to distinguish between a
short e, a, o, or u. This is particularly true of the language used by
the old men, the defectiveness being often increased by the gaps between
the incisors resulting from the initiation ceremonies.
There are occasions, however, when the last syllable receives especial
emphasis. The Wongapitcha word for plenty is “_ura_”; when the idea
of plenty is great the word becomes “_ura-ku_,” with an intentional
intonation upon the “_ku_”; and when the plenty is extraordinary,
the word receives yet another syllable and becomes the superlative
“_ura-ku-pu_.”
The simple affirmative of the Aluridja, which has also been adopted by
the Arunndta, is “_o_,” less commonly “_u_”; but when strong affirmation
is intended the word is changed to “_owa_,” or “_owau_.”
The ordinary negative of the Arunndta is “_itja_”; but forcibly expressed
this may become “_itjama_” or “_itjingalai_.”
Any sudden exclamation or accidental noise, like a cough or sneeze, might
be exaggerated by the addition of a syllable at the end. When a Sunday
Islander sneezes he makes a word out of the natural noise sounding like
“_Tish-e!_”
An exclamation which is common practically to all Australian tribes,
and may express surprise, fear, pain, or disgust, is a very liquid
“_irr_.” The Arunndta have strengthened this monosyllabic cry by giving
it the suffix “_ai_”; nowadays the word is, however, mostly pronounced
“_Yerrai!_” A variety of the last-named, but not quite so forceful, is
“_Yakai!_” A sudden fright or the anticipation of harm might produce a
very short “_i_,” without any indication of the presence of the liquid
consonant.
Appreciation is indicated by “_Aha!_” or “_Hm-hm!_” practically
throughout the central and northern districts of Australia; in both cases
special emphasis is applied to the second syllable.
A central Australian exclamation calling one to order or attention in
a somewhat harsh manner is “_Wai!_” When one person is being irritated
by another, such as a parent by a whining child, the offender is thus
rebuked. This word may also become a suffix; it may be combined, for
instance, with the radical “_irr_” and produce a word “_Yirrawai_,” which
is perhaps the strongest in a sense of disgust and reproach available in
the Arunndta tongue.
Standing at the end of an adjective, the expression “_’n-dora_” in the
same dialect signifies a great or superlative degree; e.g. “_marra_”
means “nice,” but “_marr’n-dora_” a conception more like “excellent.” In
the opposite sense, “_kurrina_” (bad) becomes “_kurrina’n-dora_” (worst).
The same suffix can be attached to an adverb. When, say, an emphatic
denial is needed, “_itja_” (no) takes the form of “_itja’n-dora_.”
There are numerous other syllables, which, when fixed to the end of a
word, convey a special significance. When, in the Arunndta, the syllable
“_tu_” is added to a person’s name in address, it really stands in place
of a sentence like “Is it not so?” For instance, “_Nani knulia atoa
utnuriraka, Endola-tu?_” when literally translated reads: “This dog man
bit Endola, is it not so?” Endola is the name of a woman who is being
addressed. In place of “_tu_,” the longer form of “_ditjekwi_” might be
used.
Again, the suffix “_lo_” is found in daily use in the same dialect;
it stands for the phrase: “Where is?” Hence the completed sentence,
“_Kwatche-lo?_” stands for “Where is the water?”
When one finds “_jara_” added to a word, plurality is indicated, the
sense conveyed being that many of the kind specified by the noun are
assumed. The word for girl in the Arunndta is “_kware_,” consequently
“_kwarenjara_” means that a number of girls are being considered, the
“_n_” being simply interposed for the sake of euphony.
Any proper noun, like the name of a person, may be modified by adding
“_ia_” to it, and, by so doing, one makes it a term of endearment in the
vocative case. “_Ware_” ordinarily means “boy,” but by altering it to
“_waria_” (i.e. “_ware-ia_”), the meaning becomes “dear boy” or “O boy.”
If the terminal “_a_” of a substantive is found to be changed to
“_inna_,” the diminutive of the original is implied. A somewhat common
name for a woman in the Arunndta is “_Unnruba_,” but during the years of
childhood of a bearer of this name, the appellation is always in the form
of “_Unnrubinna_”; in later years this changes to “_Unnruba_” more or
less automatically.
A diminutive sense is also conveyed by duplicating an original word.
In the eastern Aluridja dialect “_kaitji_” means an ordinary spear,
whereas “_kaitji-kaitji_” is an expression applied to a toy spear. The
Dieri recognize a Supreme Being whom they call “_Mura_”; any one of
their numerous demi-gods, however, from whom they trace their descent is
referred to as a “_Mura-Mura_.”
[Illustration: _PLATE LV_
1. Wongapitcha man shaping a spear-thrower with an adze.
2. Aluridja man scraping a boomerang with a sharp stone flake.]
Alterations in the ending of a verb indicate different moods and tenses.
The verb “to come” in the Arunndta is “_pitchima_”; its inflections and
their meanings will become apparent from the following short sentences:
“_Pitchai arrekutcha!_” Come here, old woman!
“_Pitchikarrerai arrekutch’njara!_” Come here, old women!
“_Arrekutcha pitchama._” The old woman is coming.
“_Arrekutcha pitchika._” The old woman came (or has come).
“_Arrekutcha pitchichinna._” The old woman will come.
If we replace the verb “_pitchima_” by “_lama_” (“to go”), the
inflections, taken in the same order as above, become: “_lai_,”
“_larrirai_,” “_lakama_,” “_laka_,” “_litchinna_.”
An adverb which finds considerable application in the Arunndta is
“_kalla_,” indicating the completion of any deed or action. Most
frequently the nearest translation would be supplied by the English
word, “already.” If, therefore, we again consider one of the above
sentences and interpose the word “_kalla_,” the meaning is strengthened
considerably: “_Arrekutcha kalla pitchama_” then means “The old woman
is already coming.” But “_kalla_” might further convey the sense of
repletion. “_Einga knullia kalla kwatche n’ dai_” would mean, literally
translated, “I dog enough water gave.” And finally “_kalla_” might
express the completion of an action. A native, after losing the track of
an animal, or having eaten as much as he wants, might be heard to say
“_kalla_,” meaning “finished.” Finally “_kalla_” might even stand for
“dead.” We have already noted a similar word in the vocabulary of the
Sunday Islanders, viz. “_Kaleya_,” meaning “finish” or “good-bye.”
The personal pronouns are either used as separate words in a sentence, or
they appear as prefixes to the principal verbs.
In the Arunndta, the following are used:
“_einga_,” I; “_nuka_,” mine; “_eingana_,” me.
“_unda_,” thou; “_unguranga_,” thine; “_ngana_,” thee.
“_era_,” he; “_ekurra_,” his; “_erinna_,” him.
“_nuna_,” we; “_nunaka_,” ours; “_nungana_,” us.
“_rankara_,” you; “_rakankara_,” yours; “_rankarana_,” you.
“_etna_,” they; “_etnaka_,” theirs; “_etnana_,” them.
As an illustration let us translate: “I like the boy”; we should have
to transpose the words into the following order, “I boy like,” and the
Arunndta would be: “_Einga ware unjinum_.” On the other hand, we might
select the Sunday Island dialect as an example in which prefixes are
used for representing the personal pronouns. The first personal prefix
is “_nun_,” the second “_min_,” and the third “_il_” or “_n’_.” If,
therefore, we take a simple verb like “_jakuli_” to “break,” we have:
“_nunjaluki_,” I break.
“_minjaluki_,” you break.
“_iljaluki_” or “_n’jaluki_,” he breaks.
The third person plural is represented by “_punjanga n’_”; hence
“_punjanga n’jaluki_” stands for “they (altogether) break.”
Whereas we have seen that an “_n_” might be interposed between two words
for the sake of euphony, it no less frequently happens that two or more
words are contracted into one for similar reasons. If, to quote a simple
case, we wish to translate into Arunndta “You give (it) me,” we have
three separate words, “_unda_” (you), “_nuka_” (me), and “_dai_” (give),
which in the above expression are fused into one word, “_nukundai_.”
Apart from the full and pure vowel sounds, the Australian aboriginal
dialects include the modified sounds expressed by the German diphthongs,
œ, äu, and ue (i.e. the French u). The pairs of consonants, p and b,
k and g, and t and d, are often interchanged during speech. Sibilant
sounds are extremely rare. My own name was very difficult, if not
impossible, for the Aluridja to pronounce; the best they could make of
it was “_Battedu_.” So, also, the imported pet name of the domestic cat,
“pussy-pussy,” as it is used by the settlers, cannot be managed. The
Aluridja call it “_putte-putte_,” and the Arunndta “_put-pudtha_.”
Let us look into the construction of the Aluridja personal pronouns
a little more carefully. Every pronoun consists of a stem, which is
different for every person, and an ending, which varies with the case.
The stems are:
First person, singular, “_naiu_”; plural, “_nganan_.”
Second person, singular, “_nuntu_”; plural, “_nurangari_.”
Third person, singular, “_balu_”; plural, “_tana_.”
And the endings are as follows:
Genitive, “-_ba_.”
Dative, “-_lukuru_.”
Accusative, “-_na_.”
Ablative, “-_languru_” (from), or “-_lawana_” (with).
A simple sentence embodying three pronouns would be: “_Naiulu tanalawana
nuntulukura ngalierra_,” which, literally translated, reads: “I with them
to you have come.”
A few of the Arunndta interrogatives are:
“_Ewunna?_” What? or What is it?
“_Unndana?_” Where?
“_Nguna?_” Which?
“_Ngula?_” Who?
“_Ntakinya?_” How many?
The aspirate is very occasionally met with. The local group of the
Arunndta, residing at Arltunga, which styles itself “_Herrinda_,” is one
of the few exceptions. Even in the settled districts, where the natives
have adopted European names, one christened “Harry” is usually spoken
of as “_Yarri_.” The sounds which are most commonly aspirated are the
exclamations, e.g. “_Hai!_” “_Aha_,” and “_Hm-hm!_”
Used in conjunction with a vowel, usually an “a,” the consonantal
combination “_ng_” is common to all Australian dialects. Although to
the modern tongue a little difficult to master, the sound is strikingly
fluent with the aboriginal; indeed, its frequent inclusion in words of
fundamentally simple origin suggests a primitive, natural derivation.
Along the north-western coast, the words for “water” are “_ngawa_” (Wave
Hill), “_ngauwa_” (Humbert River), “_kornga_” (Sunday Island).
In the Arunndta, “_nga_” stands for either “Here you are!” “There!” or
“Take it!” all phrases being used in the sense of offering something to
a person, such as mother to infant. “_Ngaboni_” is a modified form of
the last-named, having any of the following meanings: “Here!” “Look!”
or “Behold!” And “_ngarai_” is yet another modification of similar
significance, usually placed immediately behind the object it is desired
to draw attention to, e.g. “_Arre ngarai!_” (Look at the kangaroo).
Verbal greetings, akin to our “Good-day!” are rarely, if ever, made
use of by natives when they meet; but some of the tribes recognize
an orthodox term of salutation at partings, as indicating a friendly
feeling which the speaker bears towards the person he is on the point of
leaving. The Mulluk-Mulluk and some of their neighbours on the Daly River
have adopted the word “_mummuk_” to express their farewell, whilst the
Sunday Islanders’ vocabulary includes a similar expression in the word
“_tchorrogu_.”
An alarm, such as we would raise in the form of “Look out!” or “Get out
of the way!” is rendered by the Arunndta “_Par-le!_”
There are numerous examples which could be mentioned of words appearing
in an aboriginal dialect which have a striking resemblance to European
words of modern and ancient languages, which at this stage of our
knowledge of primitive tongues must be recorded as curiosities rather
than linguistic analogies. One of the most remarkable, perhaps, is the
Arunndta for head, viz. “_kaputa_”; but to connect this in any way with
the Latin word would be as unreasonable as calling the “patriarchal” type
of aboriginal a semite.
It is, therefore, not my intention to suggest anything beyond mere
coincidence, and it lies far from my mind to attempt theorizing upon
little evidence, yet it must be admitted that similarities in points of
evolution and culture, no matter how trivial and accidental they may be,
are not without interest. Viewed entirely in this light, there is no harm
in mentioning one or two similarities which exist between certain words
of the Australian dialects and those of other tongues, articulate or
otherwise.
Affirmation is expressed in the Cambridge Gulf district by “_yau_,”
“_yo-au_,” or “_yowai_.” During latter years, the same expression has
found its way south, even as far as the MacDonnell Ranges, where it has
largely replaced the original form of “_owa_.” In the adjoining coastal
districts of the Northern Territory, a similar word is in use as well as
one which sounds more like the German “_ja_.” It is of more than passing
interest to note that throughout the Malay Archipelago “_yo-au_” or
“_yowai_” is the principal form of affirmation in use among the local
primitive peoples. It is not unlikely, therefore, that the early Macassan
trepang fishers, who used to visit the north coast of Australia long
before the white man arrived, brought this word along with them.
We find, also, that the consonantal expression, “_ng_,” combined with
a vowel sound, is common among other primitive languages. Professor
Garner, too, has found it included in the inarticulate “speech” of apes
in the form of a note indicating satisfaction, which can be represented
by “_ngkw-a_.” The speculative mind naturally wonders whether this
simian cry of satisfaction is perhaps fundamentally of similar, though
independent, phonetic origin to the northern Australian word for water,
the essential of life, which we noted above is “_ngawa_.”
The di-syllabic muttering of a European child-in-arms, moreover, which
the happy parents flatter themselves sounds like “pa-pa” or “ma-ma,”
is equally characteristic of the aboriginal babe, but the parents in
the latter case interpret the note to be “_nga-nga_.” And, indeed, the
Arunndta mother responds by handing the infant the fluid it needs, while
she caressingly soothes it with the simple little word “_Nga_,” which in
our own language would be equivalent to the sentence, “Here you are!”
INDEX
Roman numerals refer to Preface.
A
_abris_, 322
_Acacia salicina_, 157
acacia seed, 150, 151
Adelaide tribes, xii, 100, 102, 180, 195, 204, 206, 208, 212, 214,
360, 366
administration, tribal, 225 _et seq._
adzes, 366, 367
_Affenspalte_, 38
“_alangua_” (native pear), Knaninja, 353
albinism, 48
“_Algerrigiowumma_,” sky-shying act, 238, 239
Alligator River, 197, 249
allotment of infants, 221, 222
“_Altjerra_,” 279, 295, 341, 342
“_Altjerrajara_,” Supreme Number, 271, 296
“_Altjerringa_,” 279, 296, 342
“_Aluggurra_” women, 343
Aluridja tribe, xii, 4, 47, 48, 50, 65, 78, 82, 83, 92, 95, 111, 114,
121, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 170, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 213, 226, 231, 236, 239, 240, 243, 255, 259, 264,
267, 269, 271, 272, 282, 295, 296, 349, 356, 361, 362, 387,
396, 398, 400, 402
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254
ancestor worship, 257
animation, in art, 320, 336, 337, 338
animal tracks, drawn in sand, 70-73
anthill burial, 206;
of bone, 214
_Anthistiria_ (kangaroo grass), 276, 387
anthropomorphous designs, 353-358
“_Antjuarra_,” tooth-rapping ceremony, 235
anvil-stone, 369
approaching a stranger, 2, 3;
a camp, 105
appreciation, expression of, 399
archer fish, ochre drawing of, 328
armistice, 188
Arnhem Land, 50, 196, 197
Arrabonna Tribe, 4, 200, 237, 269, 362
“_Arrarra_,” a circumcision ceremony, 239 _et seq._
“_arrera_,” kangaroo, Knaninja, 352
“_Arrolmolba_” (phallus), 291
art of the aboriginal, xi, xii, 297-358
artificial colouring of body, hunting, 142;
in warfare, 184;
of emissaries at initiation, 254;
for cosmetic and ceremonial purposes, 324-326
artificial warmth applied to infant, 66
Arunndta Tribe, xi, xii, 4, 6, 48, 50, 63, 65, 70, 76, 77, 78, 82,
83, 86, 92, 95, 103, 106, 114, 121, 125, 142, 147, 149, 150,
151, 152, 153, 155, 166, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 214, 218, 220, 226, 231, 237, 238, 263, 264, 271,
272, 274, 275, 282, 287, 291, 292, 295, 296, 308, 311, 321,
328, 330, 337, 338, 341, 343, 347, 349, 350, 352, 361, 362,
363, 386, 387, 390, 391, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405
“_Atoakwatje_,” water-men, 264, 265
aspirate sounds, 403
attachment of parents to children, 65, 66
“_aumba_” (_Brachysema_), 153
Australoid, 58, 59;
migrations, 56, 57, 58
awl, stone, 365
Ayers Ranges, 75
B
bailers, 95
baldness, 50
ball-games, 77, 78
bandicoot, corrobboree of, 383
“_banki_,” prepuse, 243
bark, canoes, 160-164;
drawings, 323;
shield, 86, 87;
water-carriers, 92, 93
barramundi vertebræ used as spear heads, 198
barter, with ochre, 113;
with women, 222
bathing, 99
Bathurst Islanders, 76, 77, 93, 95, 96, 115, 159, 161, 163, 168, 207,
238, 309, 310, 319, 323, 373, 379, 380
beard, 50, 51, 117;
of female, 46
bees’ honey, 145
bell-bird, 386
belly, 20, 21
Berringin Tribe, 4, 11, 129, 130, 201, 374
beverages, 153
biological consanguinity between Australia and other continents, 55
bird-like attitude, 107
birds’ eggs, 125, 126
birth of aboriginal, 61-68
biting the initiate’s head, 244, 245
bleeding, stanching of, after circumcision, 243
blindness, following club hit, 37
blonde, aboriginal, 48, 49, 50
blood, drinking of, 154;
stilling the flow of, 186;
thrown at opponent during a duel, 166;
revenge, 187
Bloodwood apple, 152
Bloomfield River, 48
blue eye in aboriginal, 25
Blue Mountains, 57
boabab, carved tree, 309;
carved nuts, 311, 312, 313, 331;
nuts used as rattles, 374;
trees serving as reservoirs, 97, 98
“_Bobi_,” tjuringa, 270
body decoration, at completion of mourning, 214, 215;
cosmetic, artistic and ceremonial, 324, 325, 326.
See also artificial colouring of body
“_Böllier_” ceremony, initiation, 250
bone, carving of, 313;
“pointing” the, 174-178, 209
bone-pointed spear-thrower, 201
bones of dead man collected, 214;
radius selected for “pointing bone,” 215
“boning” to death, 174-178, 209
boomerang, practice, 86;
used as a musical instrument, 374, 383;
used in duels, 168;
used in warfare, 187, 188
“boomerang-legs,” 15
boomerang-spear duel, drawing of, 330, 338
boras, 377
boys, apportioned to old men, 65, 66;
taught use of weapons, 85, 86
_Brachysema Chambersii_, 153
brain of aboriginal, 37, 38
breast, 18-20;
artificial lactation of, 20;
development of, 19;
enchantment of, 19;
touched with charred mulga, 65
Bremer, Sir Gordon, 144
Buccaneer Archipelago, 50, 51
buffalo, drawing of, 325, 337;
hunt, 144, 145, and _Frontispiece_
bull-roarer, used at circumcision, 241, 242;
at mika operation, 246;
at tooth-rapping ceremony, 232, 233
burial and mourning customs, 203-215
burial ground, signpost erected at, 207
burial in anthill, 208
C
_Calamus_ used as paint brush, 319, 320
Caledon Bay, 115
calvarium, Tennants Creek, 53;
used as a drinking vessel, 214
Cambridge Gulf Tribes, x, 51, 62, 65, 74, 93, 99, 101, 226, 238, 282,
288, 375, 377, 405
camel, ochre drawing of, 329
Campbell, John, 344
camp, clearing a site for, 100;
life, 100-119;
occupations while in, 112, 113;
selection of, 91
_camptocnemia_, 15
cannibalism, 21, 189
canoes, 160-164;
dug-outs, 164;
housing of, 162;
with outriggers, 164;
with sail, 164
capacity of skull, 37
Cape York, 93, 104
caravan travelling, 1
caries, 31
Carpentaria Gulf, 50, 93, 128, 129, 151, 160, 161, 162, 164, 189,
201, 266, 287, 375
carpentry taught boys, 85
carrying, dogs, 67;
infants, methods of, 66, 67
carved bone, 313;
grave posts, 207, 309-310;
pearl shell, 313;
trees, 308, 309;
weapons, 310
carvings in rock, 299-308
_Cassia_, branch used as an emblem of peace, 2;
used for headgear, 280
_casus belli_, 183
caterpillar, 122;
totemic designs of, 350, 352
Caucasian, 58, 59;
derived from Australoid, 59
cave drawings, 314, 315, 322 _et seq._;
of Glenelg River, 333, 343-345;
inspiration given by natural feature, 331, 332
celestial “walk-about,” 296
ceremonial dance, drawing of, 332, 338
ceremony of welcome, 379
character of aboriginal, 227
characteristics of race, 5-17
charcoal drawing, method of, 323;
of ceremonial dance, 338, 332;
of crows, 319, 335, 336;
of buffalo hunter, 325, 337;
of kangaroo hunter, 326, 337
cheek bone, 30
chief of tribe, 226
chignon, 47
child decorations, 84, 85
childhood, 69-90
children, entertainment of, 69, 70, 71;
position of at ceremonials, 84, 85;
playing with sand and mud, 73-75;
running after wind-driven seeds, 76;
taught to sing and dance, 70;
taught to draw and imitate tracks, 71, 72, 73;
tobogganing, 75
chin, 29
Christianity, 257
cicadae and crickets, musical powers envied, 384
cicatrices, 236-238, 250
circle-within-circle designs, 351, 353
circumcision, 239-244;
drastic treatment of shirkers, 243
clubbing the initiate, 242
clubs, 168, 169, 170;
in warfare, 188
club-rule, 222-223
“coal sack,” 332
cockatoo, kept as pet, 89
colour, artificially applied to body when hunting, 142;
of aboriginal’s skin, 40-45;
affected by climate, 45, 49, 59
composition, in aboriginal art, 338
conception, ideas about, 284, 285
conventional designs, 346 _et seq._
conventional representation of human figure, 353-358
conversation, actions aiding, 395;
by song, 385
conversationalist, the aboriginal as, 371, 395
Coo-ee, 2. See also “_käu_,” 142
cooking, methods of, 108
cooleman, 92
Coopers Creek, 50, 83, 92, 102, 114 (Barcoo), 121, 127, 150, 155,
169, 170, 190 (Barcoo), 200, 237, 362, 376
cores, stone, 364
corrobboree, 377
cosmetics, 115
_Cossus_ moth (witchedy), 122, 204
cotton tree (_Bombatt malabaricum_), 249
council of old men, 225, 226
Crocker Island, 131, 191
Crocodile, carvings of, 331;
ceremony of, 377;
eggs of, 126;
floating log to simulate, 159;
hunting the, 134
cradle, food-carrier taking the place of, 65
“cratch-cradle,” 84
crawfish, 128
cremation, not practised, 204
crossed boomerangs, the symbol of strife, 347, 351
crows, ceremony of, 378, 379;
drawing of, 319, 335, 336
“cutting” the shadow, 175
Cunningham, Professor D. J., 24
_Cyperus rotundus_ (“_yelka_”), 148
_Cyrena_, acting as a pigment dish, 319;
used as a scraper, 162
D
“_dabba_,” stone knife, 367
daggers, 172
Daly River spear types, 196, 197, 198
“_damatba_” throwing weapon, 170
“_dangorra_,” the great emu in the sky, 315, 333, 349
Darwin, Charles, 33
dead person’s name not mentioned, 211, 212
death, tracing the cause of a, 208, 209
dental rudiments, 33
de Rougemont, 133
desert surroundings, 1
dialects, variety of, 387, 388
“_didjeridoo_” drone pipe, 375, 376, 379, 380
Dieri Tribe, xiv, 4, 76, 82, 83, 92, 111, 121, 150, 155, 170, 172,
190, 205, 206, 218, 237, 242, 271, 282, 289, 290, 361, 362,
376, 386, 396, 400
diminutive expressions, 396, 400
“_dindula_,” hair ornament, 47
dingo, the wild dog of Australia, 119;
hunting the, 141;
mythical dingo or “_knullia_” people, 342
_Diprotodon_, 52, 54;
associated with other bones, 119;
carving of spoor, 307
disc throwing, 76
discipline, 85
diseases, the cause of rapid decline of aborigines, xiv
dog, the constant companion of aboriginal, 118, 119
_dolichocephaly_, 35
dolls, 79, 80
down-decoration of ground, 282, 326
Dravidians, 58
drawings, in sand, 70-73;
of “totem,” 339-343
dress, mode of, 113, 114, 115
drinking, methods of, 98, 99
drone pipe, 375, 376, 379, 380
drought, trying conditions of, 117
Dubois, Professor, 55
_Duboisia Hopwoodi_, 155
Duckworth, Professor, W. L. H., 33
duels, 165-174;
boomerang, 168;
chivalry displayed in, 174;
club, 168-170;
damatba, 170;
heavy spear, 172, 173;
kutturu, 165-168;
reed spears, 171;
stone dagger, 172;
shield used in, 173
dugong, hunting the, 134-137;
sung to during initiation, 19
dugout canoes, 164
Durham Downs, 237
E
ear, 29, 30
echidna designs, 336, 346, 347
eggs, of birds, 125, 126;
of reptiles, 126
“_Elaija_,” a sacred ancestor, 283
“_elbola_,” bark headgear, 280
“_elenba_,” wooden hair pins, 47
elopement, 223
emu, in the sky, 315, 332, 333, 334, 349;
carved in boabab, 309, 330;
carving on boomerang, 317;
ceremony, 274-280, 377, 378;
game, 81, 82;
gum leaves imitating the rustle of, 374;
hunting the, 129-140;
neck in the sky (“_Yirrerri_”), 334
enemy, corrobboree portraying the slaying of, 383, 384
“_engulba_,” pitjuri, 155
_ensellure_, 7
epipteric bone, 36
“_Erinnja_,” an evil spirit, 294
“_erriakutta_” (yelka) ceremonial drawing, 282, 327
erythrism, 48
escort of natives, 2
Etheridge, R., x
ethmoid, 25
“_Etominja_,” sacred ground design, 282, 326
_Eucalyptus corymbosa_ (Bloodwood), 98, 152;
_dumosa_ (water mallee), 98;
_miniata_ (woolly butt), 161;
_rostrata_ (red gum), 147;
_tetradonta_ (stringy bark), 161
_Eugenia_, leaf poultice applied to breast, 20
evil spirit, 291, 292, 294, 299, 314, 385
exchange of wives, 224
exclamations, 398, 399
_external angular process_, 25
extremities, length of, 10
eye, 23, 25
F
Face, 22-30
fat of emu and goanna, 115
fatty tissue scant in aboriginal, 5, 6
fatty tumours, 6
feather wig, 50
femur, 14, 15
feet, evolution and use of, 10 _et seq._;
“hand-like” form of Berringin tribesman, 11
fibula, 16
fight, corrobboree of, 382
figure contrast between aboriginal and European, 5 _et seq._
fire-fly, artificial, 376
fire ceremony (“_Ngardaddi_”), 261, 263
fire, 108;
shovels, 109, 110;
saw, 111, 202;
sores, 110;
stick, 110, 112;
whisk, 110, 111;
the precursor of civilization, 258, 260;
legend concerning origin on earth, 259, 260
fireless cooking, 80
fire walking, 236
firewood, gathered by women, 107
fish, barriers, 129;
designs, 350;
hooks, 132;
nets, 129, 130, 131;
nooses, 129;
ochre drawings of, 328;
spears, 131, 132
fishing, in parties, 127, 128, 129;
line, 132;
methods, 127, 128;
races, 128
flatfoot, 12
Flinders, Matthew, 117
Flinders Ranges, burial customs in the, 206;
ochre mine, 316;
rock carvings, 299, 303-308
flying fox design, 345, 350
foetal elements (“_rattappa_”), 287
food-carrier, used as cradle, 64, 65, 66
food restrictions, 250, 251
foot of Tasmanian, 14
footmarks in caves, 322
fourth molar, 32, 33
forehead, 23, 35
Fowler’s Bay, 64, 76, 295, 383
Fraipont’s method, 28, 29
frog, corrobboree of, 379
frog dance of children, 70
frog designs, 335, 346
frontal bone, 35, 36
frontal suture, 34
Frontispiece, 145
funeral chant, 211
G
gagging the initiate, 242, 246
Garner, Professor, 405
_Genyornis_, carving of track, 308
geological antiquity, 49, 52, 53, 54
gesture language, 388-394
“_gibba_,” chewed bone, 176
“_Gibberi_,” circumcision, 242
Gibraltar skull, 23, 32
Ginmu Tribe, 4, 253
girls accompany women instructors, 85
Glenelg River, xi, 159, 288, 312, 333, 344
goanna, 127
Gondwana, 55, 56
Good Spirit, 294, 295
goose hunting, 138, 139
“_gorri_,” a game played on the Humbert River, 76, 77
gouge, bone, 314
grasshopper, 387
grass tree, cover when emu hunting, 140;
flower stalks used for making spear shafts, 195
grave posts, 207
Great Australian Bight, 66, 141, 169, 192, 199
great emu ceremony, 274 _et seq._
Grey, Sir George, xi, 219, 272, 340, 343, 344
Gribble, E. R., 17
Groote Island, 101, 164, 197
ground drawings, 282, 326, 327
grubs, 122-125
gruesome rite, 247, 290
“_gummanda_,” cicatrices, 238
H
habitations, 101-105
half-castes, 59, 60
hailstone (“_Imbodna_”), mythical stone, 264
hair, 46, 47;
belts, 116;
cutting of, 117;
pins (wooden), 47
_Hakea_ bark, charcoal used for blackening hair, 285
hammers, stone, 360
hand-ball, 77
hand-like feet, 10-12
hand-prints in caves, 321, 322
hand-mills, 319, 361
hardening the child, 236
hatchets, stone, 362, 363
hawk traps, 137, 138
head-biting during initiation, 244, 245
head-dress, of emu ceremony, 277;
of “_tjilba purra_” (phallic) ceremony, 287
head-rests, 105
height of aboriginal, 16, 17
_Helix perinflata_, 121
Hickson, Sydney, 49
hide and seek, 78, 79
Higgin, A. J., 157
hollow trees used as shelters, 102
honey, wild bees’, 145;
drink, 153, 154
honey-ant, 146, 147
Howitt, Dr. A. W., 295
human chain-pattern, 353, 354, 355
human form, pictographic representation of, 353-358
Humbert River, 76, 320, 324, 336, 337, 352, 353, 403
Humboldt, Alexander von, 20
humerus, 16
hunt, objects of the, 121
hunting, 120-147;
buffalo, 144, 145;
crocodile, 134;
dingo, 141;
dugong, 134-137;
emu, 129-140;
geese, 138, 139;
hawks, 137, 138;
kangaroo, 141-144;
opossum, 140, 141;
turtle, 132, 133;
whistling duck, 139;
wallaby, 141;
wombat, 141
hunting instinct, 120, 121
hunting with fire, 126
huts, 102-105
Huxley, Thomas, 24
_hypertrichosis_, 46
I
“_ilbarinam_,” tjuringa, xi
“_ilja-imbadja_,” hand marks in caves, 321
“_ilgarukna_,” venesection, 275
“_illiya tjuringa_,” emu ceremony, 274 _et seq._
“_ilpalinja_,” sun worship, 265-267
“_Iltdana_,” evil spirit, 292
Ilyauarra Tribe, 4, 205
“_Imbodna_,” a mythical hailstone, 264
“_Imboromba_,” a spirit father’s mate, 287
imitation, of the plovers’ call, 70, 265, 379, 386;
of the dingo’s howl, 70;
of the jungle fowl’s call, 380;
of the crow’s call, 378;
of the crocodile, 377;
of the emu, 279, 378
“_Indorida_,” the mate of Rukkutta, 291
infant betrothal, 221
infant, treatment of, 64-68;
rubbing milk and charcoal over body of, 65;
singeing hair of, with fire stick, 65
“_ingada_,” a chief, 226
Ingada Ladjia Knaninja, leader of yam ceremony, 281
“_ingwitega_,” munyeroo, 150
_inion_, 36
initiation, 230-256;
amputation of finger-joints, 253, 254;
of the female, 252, 253;
origin of, 251, 252;
without mutilation, 249
instinct for locating water, 96
interment, 205-207
_internal angular process_, 25
interrogatives, 403
intitjuma, ceremonies, 274
intoxicating drink, 153, 154
introduction to a tribe, 1-3
iris, 25
“_irr_,” 171;
expression of disgust, 118
“_irriakutta_,” yelka, 149
J
“_jarrulge_,” mulga apple, 152
Jewish features, 26
“_jingardti_,” a chief, 226
Joyce, Capt. T. A., x
judge of character, 228
“_judja_,” a chief, 226
jungle fowl, corrobboree of, 380, 381
_jus primae noctis_, 256
justice, idea of, 227
K
“_kadabba_,” phallus, 283, 284
Kai Kai, an old medicine man, 180
“_kaidi_,” tjuringa, 270
kaili (boomerang), used as musical instrument, 383;
miniature, for practice, 82
Kaitidji (Kaitish) Tribe, 4, 92, 364
Kakera, marriage group, 220
Kakatu Tribe, 4, 267
“_kaleya pubanye_,” the sitting emu (coal sack), 332
“_kaloa_,” raft, 160;
toy models of, 82
“_kalumba_,” nardoo, 150
“_kalunuinti_,” phallus, 288
“_kanbanna_,” paddles, 159
kangaroo, charcoal drawings of, 321, 326, 336, 337;
conventional representation of, 350;
corrobboree of, 381;
hunt, 141-144;
ochre drawings of, 327, 328;
origin of “_arre_,” its name, 387;
tjuringa design of, 349, 352
“_kapa_” or “_kadje_,” water lily, 151
“_kapi wiyinna_,” magic water stick, 264
“_karru_,” milky way, 349
“_karwinnunga_,” shield, 173
“_käu_,” _vide_ Coo-ee, 142
“_käu-käu_,” chewed bone, 176
“_kaula_,” native pear, 152
Keith, Sir Arthur, x
kidney fat and marrow of dead warriors eaten, 189
Killalpaninna, 290;
“_killa wulpanna_,” 290, 291
King Sound natives, 50, 82, 88, 132, 151, 159, 283, 309, 311, 330,
358, 363, 396
kitchen-middens, 121, 122
Klaatsch, Professor Hermann, x, 25, 28, 29, 42, 50
“_Knaninja_,” xi, 265, 271, 274, 280, 281, 282, 285, 327, 341, 352,
353
“_Knaninja Arrerreka_,” mythical sun creature, 265;
ceremonies of, 274
knives, stone, 364
“_knudda_” (fat) of witchedy, 342
“_Knurriga Tjilba Purra_” (phallus), 286;
head of the Kukadja, 285
kobong, xi, 219, 226, 232, 269, 271, 272, 340
_Kochia_ bush, used for making vegetable-down, 276
Kolaia Tribe, 4, 65
“_kolldürr_,” stone spear-head, 370
Kukadja, 285, 286, 292, 293
Kukata Tribe, 4, 32, 81, 82, 87, 184, 200, 205, 236, 241, 242, 248,
255, 288, 296, 318, 361, 362
“_kukerra_,” playing stick, 82, 83
Kumara marriage group, 220
Kunapippi, a mythical witch, 271
Kurdaitja, an evil creature, 71, 72
“_kurreke tata_,” the plover, 70, 265, 386
“_kutturu_,” fighting stick, practice, 87;
duels, 165-168;
embodied in head-gear, 280
Kuyanni Tribe, 4, 362
“_Kwatje_,” water, ceremonies, 274
“_Kwatje purra_,” magic water stick, 264
L
lachrymal bone, 25
lactation, artificial, 20
“_ladjia_,” or yam tjuringa, 280 _et seq._, 337;
design of, 347
Lake Eyre, 50
lances, 193
“_langa langa_,” a shell knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175
“_langu_,” native pear, 152
language, xii, 386-405
lanugo, 46, 49
La Perouse, 107
Larrekiya Tribe, 4, 62, 77, 111, 130, 131, 139, 142, 163, 164, 170,
196, 201, 202, 205, 207, 208, 210, 230, 249, 252, 332, 374,
379, 384
legs, 14
Lemuria, 55, 56
lerp manna, 147
leucoderma, 43
licentiousness, 224, 254
“_lionila_,” a club, 170
_lipomas_, 6
lips, 31
living skeletons, 21
lizards, 126;
designs of, 334, 335
_lobulus_, piercing of, 30
log rafts, 158-160
“_lorngai_,” feather wig, 50
lumbo-sacral curve, 9
“_lurra_,” a lipoma, 6
M
MacDonnell Ranges, 50, 92, 127, 146, 153, 155, 218, 226, 285, 291,
341, 362, 364, 405
Maiyarra’s conception, 61;
accouchement, 63
Malay bêche-de-mer fishers, 57
manna, 147
_mastoid process_, 30
“_marimba_,” wallaby bone used for loosening a tooth, 236
marine molluscs, 121, 122
marital relationships between man and woman, 222, 223
marriage systems, 218, 219, 220, 221;
allotment of infant, 221, 222
“_marriwirri_,” wooden sword, 170
_Marsdenia Leichhardti_, native pear, 152
_Marsilea quadrifolia_, nardoo, 150
_mastoid process_, 29
maternity, peculiar belief concerning, 62
medicine man, 179-182, 264, 265, 273, 294;
attends council meeting, 225, 226;
treating a patient, 181, 182
meeting an Australian tribe, 3
_Melophorus inflatus_, honey ant, 146
Melville Islanders, 77, 93, 144, 159, 161, 163, 192, 207, 238, 249,
309, 310, 323, 373, 380
“_memba_,” a feather wig, 50
_mental foramen_, 29
Menuaitja, marriage group, 220
“_merliadda_,” fire walking, 236
migrations of early man, 56
“_mika_,” a bark food carrier, 92
mika operation, 245-249
milk squirted at strangers, 228
milk and charcoal rubbed over newly-born child, 65
Milky Way, 332, 349, 350
Milk-bush, 387
mimicry, powers of, 371
“_mingul_,” pitjuri, 155
Minning Tribe, 4, 170, 218, 220, 260, 270, 334
“_miri_,” hand mill-stone, 361
modesty, sense of, 107
“_moiranje_,” a pubic tassel, 114
molars, 32
Mollinya ceremony, 250
Mongarrapungja, head of the Kukadja, 292, 293
Mongoloid migration, 56, 59
moon legends, 267-269
moon man, 267, 268
monkeys, appreciation of, by aborigines, 89, 90
mopoke, 386
“_moru_” (_Tephrosia_), a fish poison, 139
mothers charged with callousness, 65
mourning, customs of, 208-215;
second period of, 214
mourning ceremony, comic imitation of, 380
mouth, 31-33
mud-balling, 75
mud slides, 73, 74
mulga apple, 152
Mulluk Mulluk Tribe, 4, 25, 112, 197, 206, 365, 404
mummies, 208
munyeroo, 149, 150
Muramura, the Supreme Number, 271
Murchison district, type of spear-thrower of, 200
Musgrave Ranges, 48, 97, 102, 108, 109, 127, 143, 146, 151, 155, 329,
332, 360
music and dance, 371-385
music sticks, 374, 375, 379, 380
mussel (_Unio_), 121;
knife used for “cutting the shadow,” 175
mutilations, after return of circumcision candidate, 243;
after mika operation, 248;
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254;
at mourning ceremonies, 209, 210, 211, 213;
head biting, 245;
of female, 255, 256;
upon receipt of sad news, 210
N
Nangali, a mythical water-man, 264
“_nangarri_,” the medicine man, 179, 180, 181, 182, 264, 265, 273,
294;
treating a patient, 181, 182
nardoo, 150
Narrinyerri Tribe, 4, 95, 169, 200, 214, 296
naso-labial folds, 27
native pear (_Marsdenia_) design, 351, 353
native well, 96
Nature worship, 257
“_naualla_,” cicatrices, 238
navigation, 158-164
Neanderthal skeleton, 15, 23, 24, 25
Needlebush (_Hakea lorea_), 98, 111
negative chin, 29
negative words, 398
Negroid, 15, 28, 29, 34, 56, 59
newly-born infant, treatment of, 64, 65
“_ngadanji_,” tjuringa of phallic significance, xi
Ngadeja marriage group, 220
Ngameni Tribe, xiv, 4, 82, 155, 205, 237, 361, 362
Ngardaddi, a mythical fire thief, 261, 262
“_ngongu nerbai_,” a stone spear-head, 370
“_nimmerima_,” an emu-spear, 139
nomenclature, defining the individual, 216-218;
connected with marriage system, 218, 219
Northern Territory tribes, 76, 108, 112, 115, 116, 126, 128, 129,
130, 131, 132, 138, 142, 151, 174, 190, 195, 196, 197, 200,
201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 237, 253, 286, 313, 320, 323, 336,
349, 365, 367, 373, 374, 379, 405
Northern Kimberleys tribes, 77, 82, 86, 92, 95, 97, 109, 116, 125,
131, 139, 151, 173, 195, 200, 206, 208, 214, 232, 244, 249,
256, 284, 288, 311, 313, 330, 340, 343, 360, 367
nose, 26-28;
boring of septum, 230, 231
nuclei, stone, 364
Nullarbor Plains tribes, 169, 251
numerals, 396, 397
Nyege, Supreme Spirit, 295
_Nymphaea stellata_, blue water lily, 151
O
Obesity, 6
occipital bone, 39
ochre drawings, at ceremonials, 325, 326;
on bark, 323;
on the body, 324, 325, 326;
on weapons, 323, 324
ochre, smeared over corpse, 208;
over emissaries at initiation, 254;
over infant, 65;
over initiate in tooth-rapping ceremony, 234;
over initiate in circumcision ceremony, 241;
over sacred stone, 291;
preparation of for barter, 113, 318;
preparation as a pigment, 318, 319
ointments, 115
“_oladda_,” bark food-carrier, 65
“omelette” of emu egg, 125, 126
Ooldea, 48
operating knife, 242, 364, 365
opossums, carried on the head, 88;
hunting of, 140, 141;
suckled by gin, 91
_orbita_, 25, 26
orders of the day, 91
“_oridja_,” truffle, 151
origin of aboriginal, 52
orthognathism, 29
_os inca_, 35
outriggers, 164
oven-stones, 360, 361
P
paddles, 163
Pandanus cider, 153, 154
Panunga marriage group, 220
“_parapara_,” nardoo, 150
parietal bone, 35
“_parli_,” the north-western form of wanningi, 356
Parnkalla Tribe, 4, 199
patting the chest, a form of salutation, 3
“_päuya_,” native pear, 152
pearl shell coverings, 115, 313, 355
_peroneus_ muscle, 12
perspective, generally absent in drawings, 334, 338, 339
pets kept in camp, 88
“_peturr_,” pitjuri, 155
phallic worship, x, xi, 282-292
phallus, 249, 283-292;
water producing, 264
philosophical instincts, 116, 117
Pidunga Tribe, 4, 317
pigmentation of skin, 41-43, 59
pitch, changing of, while rendering a song, 376, 377
pitchi, bark food-carrier, 92
_Pithecanthropus_, 15, 55
pitjuri, 113, 139, 155, 156, 157
piturine, 157
placenta, 64
platform burial, 207, 208
_platycnemia_, 15
platypus design, 304, 306
playing “father and mother,” 79
playing stick, 82
Pleistocene gravels, 53
plover, the “rainmaker,” 70, 265;
imitating call of stone plover, 379;
origin of its name, 386
plurality, expression of, 400
“pointing” the bone, 174-178
Ponga Ponga Tribe, 4, 88, 112, 184, 197, 198, 365
Port George IV, 65, 94, 238, 283, 310
Port Hedland carvings, 299-303, 329
Port Jackson carvings, 299, 300
portulaca, 147
positive chin, 29
“pot-belly,” 21
pounders, stone, 360
pregnancy, artificial interference with, 64
“_prelja_,” manna, 147
premolars, 33
prepuse, resection of, 242
“primitive snout,” 27
_prognathism_, 28
pronouns, 401-403
prostitutes, 223
pubic coverings, 114, 115, 243, 249, 313
“_puli_,” stone used in tooth-rapping ceremony, 236
Pultara marriage group, 220
“_purra_,” phallus, 287
Purula marriage group, 220
“_putta ildurra_,” stone dagger, 172
_Psylla_, 147
Q
Queensland, 50, 53, 80, 84, 94, 102, 104, 124, 131, 137, 155, 163,
190, 208, 299, 308, 316, 362
R
_radius_ selected for “bone,” 215
rafts, 158-160
rainmakers, 264, 265
“rattappa,” foetal elements, 287, 291
rattles, boab nuts, sea shells, and gum leaves, 374
red-hot coal placed on forearm, 87, 88
reed spear, 171, 194
religious ideas, 257-296
repetition of action, verbally expressed, 397, 398
_retouche_, 370
_rhinal fissure_, 39
rhythm, 372, 377, 383
River Murray Tribes, 66, 100, 102, 108, 114, 121, 160, 169, 192, 195,
200, 208, 213, 310, 313, 365, 367, 373
rivers, extinct in Australia, 59
rock carvings, 299-308
rock shelter, 322
Roebuck Bay, 170
Roper River Tribe, 153, 197, 249, 270, 287
Roth, Dr. Walter, 48, 80, 84
_Rukkutta_, a tribal ancestor, 291
S
sacral bone, 9
sacred ceremonies, 273 _et seq._;
ceremonial object (“_tjilbakuta_”), 276, 278, 280;
emu tjuringa, 274 _et seq._;
“_kwatje_” tjuringa, 274
sacred ground of tjuringa, 272, 273
sacred ground drawing, “_Etominja_,” 282
sacred pole, “_Djundagalla_,” 248, 249;
stored in hut, 266
sagittal suture, 35
_Salsola kali_, 76
salutations, 105, 106, 404
_Sarcostemma_, 387
saw fish, 131
scars (tribal), 236-238
_scaphocephaly_, 34, 35
Schweinfurth, Prof. G., 306
_Scleroderma_, 152
scrapers, stone, 363-367;
slate, 366
sepulchral caves, 214
sex worship, 257, 282, 289-292
shell-fish, 122
shelters, 101-105
Sherait Tribe, 130, 365
shield, 173, 188
ship-of-war, corrobboree of, 382, 383
shoulder-blade, 16
sibilant sounds, 402
sign language, 388-394
singing, ensemble, 384;
the words of a conversation, 385
sitting, methods of, 106
skeins of fur-string used during dance, 373
skeleton of aboriginal, 5-16, 21-37
skeleton, imitation of, in body decoration, 325
skin, colour of, 40-45
skin drums, 373, 374
skin water bags, 94, 95
skins used by southern tribes, 100, 114
skipping, 83
skull, 34 _et seq._;
capacity of, 37
sky-shying act, 238, 239
sleep, order during, 101;
position during, 105
Smith, Dr. Ramsay, 15, 16, 34
Smith, Dr. S. A., 53, 54
smoking ceremony, 253
snails, 121
snakes, 126;
mythical, 269
songs, 377-385;
imitating natural call-notes, 377 _et seq._
Spartan principles, 87
spears, 190-198;
carefully stored, 112, 113;
heavy, 172, 173;
poisoned, 198;
reed, 171, 194, 195;
stone-bladed, 367;
stone-headed, 196;
types figured, 191;
uses of, 190
spear-head, stone, 367-370;
method of making, 368-370
spear-throwers, 199-202
spine, curvature of, 7;
effect of upright attitude upon, 8;
effect of tree-climbing upon, 13;
proportional lengths of vertebræ and cartilaginous discs, 8;
smallness of vertebræ, 9
_Spinifex_, 76
spokeshave, stone, 365
_squamous_ portion of temporal bone, 36
still-born children, 205
Stirling, Dr. E. C., 15
Stokes, Lort, 105
stone age in Australia, 58, 59, 359
stone-covered huts, 103
stone implements, 359-370
Strehlow, Rev. Carl, x
subincision, 245-249;
sensual excitement at, 248
_sulcus lunatus_, 38
Sunday Islanders, 65, 66, 78, 82, 84, 89, 93, 117, 176, 295, 331,
355, 368, 397, 398, 401, 403, 404
sun-men, 267
sun worship, 265-267
superlative expressions, 399
Supreme Spirit, xi, 400
T
“_takul_,” mulga apple, 152
Talgai skull, 33, 53
Talleri, the eternal home of all spirits, 296
“_taralje_,” a spear-thrower, 200
Tasmania, separated from the mainland, 119
Tasmanians, 14, 15, 16, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 49
“_tchewa_,” flat stone of hand-mill, 361
“_tdela_,” head-dress, 280
_Tecoma Australis_, 195, 196
teeth, 31
temperament, 229
Tennants Creek, calvarium, 53;
the home of Kukadja men, 285
_Tephrosia_, a poison plant, 139
terminal syllables, 398, 399
the day’s march, 91-99
_Therapon_, drawing of, 328
thigh bone, 14, 15
third trochanter, 15
thorns, removal of in camp, 117, 118
throwing competition, 78
thunder, 387
_tibialis posticus_ muscle, 16
time, beating of, 372, 373;
fixing of, 395;
representation of, 351
“tip-cat,” 78
“_tjilbakuta_,” a sacred ceremonial object, 276, 278, 280
“_tjilba-purra_,” a phallus, embodied in head-gear, 287;
Altjerra-Knaninja drawing, 327
Tjingali Tribe, 4, 308
“_tjulu_,” a stone operating knife, 242
tjuringa, 217, 311;
Altjerra-Kutta, 291;
acting as a talisman, 273;
carried by initiation emissaries, 242;
carved stone, 309;
caterpillar, 350, 352, 353;
ceremonies, 274 _et seq._;
in the sky, 334;
inspirited by a deity, 270;
kangaroo, 349, 352;
mythical origin of Kunapippi, 271;
native pear, 351, 353;
of sun ceremony, 265, 266;
produced at female initiation ceremony, 255;
stored in sacred caves, 272, 343;
witchedy grub, 348;
yam pattern, 337
Tjurrega marriage group, 220
“_tjutanga_,” tooth-rapping rod, 236
“_toki_,” a waterlily, 151
tomahawks, stone, 362, 363
Tomkinson Ranges, 48, 67, 114, 143, 227
tooth-ache, 32
tooth pick, 32
tooth-pointed spear-thrower, 201
tooth-rapping ceremonies, 231-236;
“_antjuarra_,” 235, 236;
gum forced back with finger nail, 235;
knocking the tooth out, 235
tops, 83
“totem,” xi, 219, 226, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 280, 282, 285,
339, 340, 341, 351, 353
“totem,” ancestors, 274;
ceremonies, 274;
food and hunting restrictions, 273
“totemic” designs, 339-343, 346, 351, 352, 353
_Toxotes_, drawing of, 328
toys, 79 _et seq._
toy, boomerang, 82;
dart, 82;
raft, 82;
spears, 81, 194;
weapons, 80, 81
tracks, drawn in sand, 71-73;
representations of, 347-349
tree-climbing, 12-14, 123, 124;
competitions in, 75, 76
tree-felling by fire, 124, 141
Triassic period, 56
tribal organizations, 216-224
tribal husbands, 224
tribal law, 226
_Trigonia_ in Australia, 58, 59
truffle (_Scleroderma_), 151, 152
trumpets, bamboo, 375, 376, 379
_tubera frontalia_, 35
Tukura, a great Spirit, 295, 296, 356
Tukurata, the Supreme Number, 271
Tukutita, the Supreme Number, 271
“_turapitti_,” artificial fire-flies, 376
_Turbo undulata_, 122
turtle, eggs, 126;
hunting, 132, 133, 160
turtle designs, 335, 346
Tutrarre, a mythical dog, 267
twins, 63, 64
U
Ullbönnalenna water hole, 97
“_ullyinga_,” witchedy hook, 125
Ulparidja group, 48
umbilical cord, treatment of, 64
_Unio_, 121
_Unio pictorum_, 319
upright attitude, see spine, 7 _et seq._
_urethrotomia_, 245-249
“_utnguringita_” or witchedy grub drawings, 341-343
u-within-u designs, 351, 352, 353
V
Veddahs, 25, 58
vegetable diet, 148-152
vegetable down, 275, 276
venesection, 275
verbs, conjugations of, 400, 401
vermin-proof platform larders, 105
Victoria River tribes, 62, 75, 76, 77, 103, 105, 128, 146, 211, 243,
253, 266, 285, 292, 319, 321, 323, 325, 326, 332, 336, 367,
373, 375
Victorian basalts, human bones beneath, 54
vocal productions, 376 _et seq._
W
waddies, 168 _et seq._
“_wadua_,” white vegetable-down, 276
“_wagal-wagal_,” a tjuringa, 270
walking, 12;
in single file, 118
wallaby, hunting of, 141
“_waketo_,” munyeroo, 150
“_wanjerra_,” red vegetable down, 276
“_wanna_,” yam sticks, 148
wanningi, 240, 244, 356, 357
Waraka, a spirit father, 287
war council, 184
warfare, 183-189
“_warrakinna_,” pitjuri, 155
Warramunga Tribe, 4, 92
Warrupu, a Minning ancestor, 260
Warrida-jinna (eagle hawk’s claw), Southern Cross, 349
Warrnambool footprints, 54
water, in Currajong, Bloodwood and Needlebush, 98;
supplies guarded against pollution, 97;
transported by women, 91, 92
water carriers, 92-95
water ceremonies, 274
water legend, 263, 264
water mallee, _Eucalyptus dumosa_, 98
water men, “_atoa kwatje_,” 264, 265
water lily tubers, 151
water supplies, 96, 97
weaning of children, 66
Wellington caves, 54
Wenoinn, a Minning ancestor, 260
white ants added to acacia flour, 150, 151
“white blackfellow,” 42
Wickham River, 248
“_widida_,” native truffle, 151
widow, 212-214;
claimed by deceased husband’s brother, 213;
cutting off of hair, 213;
re-opening scalp wound, 213;
skull caps of gypsum, 213
“_wilpa_,” a wallaby, 141
“_winudtharra_,” honey ant, 147
Winyeru, initiation ceremony, 242, 248
“_wirrauwa_,” a bark bucket, 94
Wirrewarra, the eternal home of all Spirits, 296
witchedy grub, 122, 123, 124, 125;
sacred drawings of, 341-343;
“totemic” designs, 351-352
witchedy hook, 124, 125
Wogait Tribe, 4, 62, 83, 109, 116, 130, 131, 139, 170, 196, 197, 198,
201, 208, 243, 244, 332, 365, 374, 379
woman, corrobboree of, 383
wombat hunt, 141
women, the recognized carriers, 112
Womma, the Milky Way, 350
wommera, spear-thrower, 180, 199-202
Wongapitcha Tribe, 3, 4, 47, 48, 67, 92, 95, 111, 114, 121, 122, 147,
151, 152, 153, 155, 184, 200, 205, 218, 235, 236, 242, 255,
259, 349, 361, 396, 398
Wongkanguru Tribe, 4, 83, 121, 155, 361, 362
Woods, Rev. Tenison, 43
Wordaman Tribe, 4, 201, 248
words derived from natural phenomena, 386, 387;
imitating natural sounds, 386
Worma Kadiabba, a mythical snake’s head, 269
Wormian bones, 35
Worora Tribe, 4, 94, 116, 176, 238, 310, 321, 343, 361, 369
“_Wubbi, wubbi, wubbi, wau!_”, the voice of the bull-roarer, 241, 242
Wulna Tribe, 196
X
_Xanthorrhœa_, grass tree, used in emu hunting, 140;
flower stalk used for spear shaft, 195
Y
yam ceremony, 280
yams, 151
yam stick, 148
yam tjuringa, 280 _et seq._, 337, 347
Yantowannta Tribe, xiv, 4, 50, 82, 83, 92, 114, 121, 155, 169, 205,
207, 213, 237
Yarrakinna, ochre mine near Parachilna, 316
“_yarralyi_,” beetles supposed to possess ecbolic principles, 64
Yauroworka Tribe, xiv, 4, 103
“_yeapatja_,” or caterpillar tjuringa, 352, 353
yelka, 148, 149;
ceremonial drawing of, 327
“_yerumba_,” a honey ant, 147
_Yirrerri_, neck of emu in the sky, 334
Yunta rock carvings, 306-308
Z
_Zamia_, cicatrices in imitation of, 238;
in Australia, 58
_zygomatic_ arch, 30
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