WARFARE
Inter-tribal fights and hereditary feuds—Massacres—Preparations
for the fray—On the warpath—Teasing the enemy—Hostilities
begun—Treatment of wounded and disabled warriors—Hatred soon
forgotten—Blood revenge—Boomerang displays—“_Kurdaitja_”
shoes—Recovering the bodies of fallen warriors—Portions of
victims bodies eaten.
Aboriginal warfare might be divided into two classes, according to
whether it is of the nature of a true and bloody inter-tribal fight, or
of a feud arising between two tribal groups or parties. In any case, the
hostilities might be of long standing and the enmity might have existed
for generations past. The _casus belli_ is as multifarious as are those
of modern peoples. It might be on account of a natural treasure held by
one tribe, such as a valuable ochre-deposit, which is coveted by another.
Or it might be simply the result of an elopement or an abduction as
between two groups or families belonging to different tribes. The cause
frequently determines the method to be adopted during the fight.
When the arch-foe is to be faced, nothing is out of order in strategy,
provided the plan is effective, and, above all things, as gruesome
as possible. The main objective to be achieved is to make an assault
as murderous as circumstances will permit, and to establish a record
massacre, in order that the enemy might be thoroughly cowed and taught to
long remember the affair.
In former days such battles were, according to all accounts, of
fairly frequent occurrence, but nowadays, no doubt largely due to the
interference by European settlers, and the smaller numbers of natives,
one very rarely hears that any warfare is conducted on a large scale.
Indeed, many of the one-time bitterest enemies, such as the Larrekiya and
Ponga Ponga, Arunndta and Aluridja, Kukata and Wongapitcha, can now be
seen living in close proximity to each other, and apparently on the best
of terms.
Where inherited hatred sways, treachery brews. The aggressors know that
the most radical method to extinguish the enemy is to take them unawares,
and to slaughter them before they can retaliate. For this purpose it is
best to either steal on them in the earliest hours of morning whilst
they are sleeping unsuspectingly, or to lie in ambush at a place, like a
waterhole, where the enemy is sure to call.
A council of war, consisting of the oldest and most experienced men,
is held to discuss the _modus operandi_ at length. Thereupon all
eligible men are apprised of the decisions arrived at. Considerable
time is devoted to the preparation of spears, sharpening of blades, and
straightening of shafts over a fire. Any weak spots, where the spears are
likely to break when put to the test in battle, are carefully bound with
kangaroo sinew, and the blades or stone-heads re-embedded in porcupine
grass resin. Quantities of red ochre are ground and mixed with emu fat,
with which the bodies of all warriors are covered. Each man looks to
his own spear-thrower, and makes sure that it has not warped or split,
and that the handle and hook are secure; a warrior with a defective
spear-thrower would be next to useless on the battlefield. The men tie
their hair back tightly with human hair-string, and go absolutely nude.
The work is all done in a thorough and conscientious way, yet there is
every indication of humour about the camp, and nowhere does one see any
sign of fear or nervousness on part of either the men who are going
to fight, or of their near relatives. There is even an indication of
frivolity, with much jabbering and laughter. The women assist assiduously
while the preparations are in progress, and add considerably to the
entertainment of their heroes, who are about to depart. Even when at
length the expedition makes a start, some of the old gins run at the
side of the men and keep on joking with the men at the expense of the
opponents, roars of laughter every now and then announcing a particularly
clever sally from the lips of an old hag barely able to control herself
with excitement in her endeavour to incite the men.
Before leaving their camp in a body, all warriors congregate in a circle
on parade, holding their weapons balanced in the spear-thrower. Two or
three of the old men make a careful scrutiny of the group and their
outfit and give final instructions as to how the campaign is to be
conducted. Quite occasionally, indeed, a general discussion might take
place, at which any suggestions of younger warriors are received and
weighed by the seniors, prior to departure. Then the official start is
made.
As the little troop advances, the men begin to gesticulate and brandish
their weapons, whilst they dance, with their beards poked between their
lips and teeth. Occasionally they send forth a loud, piercing yell
resembling a war-whoop; then they poise their weapons, at the same
time stamping and vibrating their legs, and deriding the enemy with a
scurrilous tongue.
If the enemy is to be met in open battle, the place and time of the
proposed encounter are arranged beforehand by means of carved wooden
missives and special carriers.
Having arrived at the place, and _vis-à-vis_ to the foe, vociferation and
antics continue to the verge of hysterical jactitation. One or two of the
most daring warriors, before hostilities have actually begun in earnest,
rush to the fore, and, placing themselves in front of what might appear
the strongest of the opposite party, continue their antics in contempt of
them. Thus the patience of the enemy is harassed time after time; and in
a similar way the enemy reciprocates.
The moment will, however, arrive when one becomes a little too daring or
forward, and, with intention or otherwise, touches the person opposed
to himself. The insulted warrior, who has thus been called out, responds
with a tremendous roar, and drives straight at his opponent with his
spear, using it as a lance.
In an instant the scene is changed. All participants retreat to a
respectable distance, about fifty feet or more, towards their respective
sides, amidst fearful yelling. The moment they reach the new positions,
the air becomes alive with spears, and the fight has commenced in reality.
The throwing and aiming of the projectiles are good, but the ducking
and dodging of the selected victims are equally so. During the whole
term of the encounter, terrifying bawls are heard, which are emitted
by the enraged fighters, and responded to by the excited women in the
background. Thus the conflict may last for an hour or two, without a
casualty being recorded. When a man is hit, the hideous yelling reaches
its climax. The wounded fellow, unless he be mortally hit or falls to
the ground unconscious, immediately backs out of the “firing line” under
cover of his shield, and seeks shelter behind the warriors, where he
is attended by the women, who still the flow of blood with a packing
of clay, gum leaves, powdered bird excrement, and grease. Should a
spear, or portion of such, still be lodged in the wound, the assistance
of an old man will in all probability be called upon to extricate the
piece. If, however, the spear-head breaks in the attempted removal, no
further operation is undertaken then, and perhaps not until the natural
suppurative processes force the fragment near to the surface of the body.
The aborigines, although they use a knife freely in the mutilation of
their bodies, are not sufficiently skilful as surgeons that they can make
an incision into muscle or other tissue to extricate a foreign body, such
as a broken spear-head, even if the point is pressing the skin outwards
on the side opposite the laceration, and the barbs prevent it being
pulled back.
When a man collapses on the spot, as from a mortal wound, a regular
tussle ensues, in an endeavour to secure the body, between his friends
and foes. The former run considerable risk while they expose their
figures to the bombardment of spears; they are, however, covered by
others, who come forth to specially shepherd them; often, too, a
confused hand-to-hand skirmish follows, during which one or two more are
wounded. Should it so happen that a man now falls on the opposite side,
a compromise is effected, which permits either side to carry off their
wounded in peace. In fact, if the disabled men happen to be of important
position or particular valour, the casualty may lead to a permanent
armistice.
The aboriginal of Australia does not bear chronic malice towards
an ordinary or casual enemy, but soon finds a plausible excuse to
throw a damper on his fighting ardour; very frequently, indeed, a
bloodthirsty-looking crowd drown their enmity in a combined and convivial
festivity, during which the late enemies jest, dance, and sing together.
The past is soon forgotten; his revenge appeased, a native immediately
reverts to his daily routine and peaceful life. With him revenge is not
necessarily individual; the wrong-doing of one tribesman might have to
be suffered for by another, maybe innocent, man of the same blood. This
blood-revenge, which of course is practised by even the most civilized
nations, is often the cause of the death of an innocent white man, who
happens to be travelling through the tribal ground, where recently
another white man has maltreated or assaulted the natives.
In districts where the boomerang is used, a number of these weapons is
carried in the belts of the belligerents. When the parties are within
seeing distance of each other, each side begins to throw its boomerangs,
making them fly high in the air towards the enemy and return to their
respective owner. The demonstration is repeated time after time, as
the contending parties draw near to each other, until at length the
boomerangs fly well over the opponents’ heads on either side. This is
forsooth an awe-inspiring spectacle and has the desired effect of
arousing the fighters’ ire to a very high pitch. At a later stage,
boomerangs are employed in actual battle.
In place of the boomerang, the club or the waddy is not infrequently
carried as an auxiliary weapon, but its use is restricted to fighting at
close quarters.
During the various encounters, as here briefly described, shields are
generally carried to parry the missiles directed against the bodies
of the combatants. In the case of the light reed-spears, however, the
wommera alone is used for such purpose. The fighters’ greatest safety is
nevertheless in their wonderful skill at dodging the projectiles. In hand
to hand fighting, with club or boomerang, the shield is invariably used
to considerable advantage.
Whilst undertaking their reconnoitres, the scouts carry slippers,
which they wear when it is necessary to hide the individual tracks of
their party. These slippers are generally known as “kurdaitja-shoes”;
they consist of a thick pad or sole of emu feathers, knitted together
with string and clotted blood, and an “upper” of neatly plaited human
hair-string. The wearer of such “kurdaitja-shoes” leaves shallow, oval
tracks in the sand, which, if seen by any other natives, occasion much
alarm, being immediately recognized as those of an enemy on a treacherous
mission; if the enemy is not discovered, the tracks are regarded as those
of the “_Kurdaitja_,” an evil spirit about to molest the tribe.
At the conclusion of a battle, it depends entirely upon the terms,
under which arms were laid down, as to who appropriates the bodies of
any fallen warriors. If friendly relations are established immediately
after cessation of hostilities, a mutual exchange is effected, by means
of which the relatives might come in possession of the bodies of any
warriors who fell. If, on the other hand, the hatred has not abated after
the battle, whatever bodies were captured during the affray belong to
that party who were fortunate enough to secure them.
The natives, who have been in the meantime joined by the women, retreat
towards their main camp, and carry the corpse or corpses of their fallen
upon their shoulders to a place decided upon. There elaborate obsequies
are instituted. It is, moreover, the custom to cut portions of the soft
parts from a dead warrior’s body, whether he be friend or foe, and to eat
them. The belief is that by so doing the brave qualities of the departed
soldier will be kept among the tribe and will not all be taken away by
the spirit when it migrates to the ancestral hunting grounds. The pieces
which are most commonly consumed by the mourners (or victors) are the
kidney fat and the marrow of the long bones; the Gulf of Carpentaria
tribes eat pieces of the muscle and occasionally of the liver. This is
another reason why the Australian aborigines are often referred to as
cannibals; but the title is unmerited. The native of Australia does not
go head-hunting and does not organize expeditions, whose object is to
slay people upon whom they can feast. We are not justified in calling him
a cannibal; the most we can say of him is that opportunity might make him
an occasional man-eater.