TUNIS
Monsieur Rouvier[5] may be described as an unimpeachable gentleman
attired in black; of his statesmanship I will offer no opinion. He
had only just returned from Paris, and the Press had not received him
favourably. Evidently he had not achieved all that had been expected
of him, and was attacked accordingly, but whether with or without
grounds I know not. In any case, it is said by those who know him,
that he, who had formerly shown himself friendly to all, now began
to be haughty and distant in manner. He had perhaps discovered that
every man’s friend is no one’s friend.
After having paid my respects to M. Rouvier, I had, according to
previous arrangement, to call on His Highness the Bey. Our Consul
was ill, and could not present me; I therefore drove alone to the
palace near the Kasba, outside which was a crowd of carriages and
waiting Mussulmans.
The General of Division, Valenci, the Bey’s interpreter, received
me, and with an insinuating and affable smile clasped my right hand in
both of his, assuring me of the great pleasure it gave him to see me.
Valenci is by birth a Jew, and was once a tailor; he became a
favourite at the Court—how, I know not—and was gradually promoted
until he was made a general, though he has never been in command of
a soldier, much less of a division.
As a matter of fact, the French soldiers regard the Bey’s officers
with contempt; they do not even salute them unless they happen to
be personally acquainted with them. The Bey’s entire army now
consists only of a bodyguard of some two hundred men, who are paid
by the French, and with whom the old man is delighted, as they are
well drilled and equipped and regularly paid, so that they no longer
need to knit stockings when on guard, as in old days.
Seldom have I seen a breast glitter with so many orders
as Valenci’s; his brilliant uniform was—in front, at
least—literally covered with large crosses, bestowed on him by the
many European Powers, whose emissaries have been received by him—as
the Bey’s chief interpreter—when presented to the Bey. In the
case of the “Legion d’honneur” alone, he has to be content
with a low rank, as of that he is only an officer.
It must be admitted that praise is due to him for his great tact and
extraordinary discretion, on account of which he has been allowed
to remain in his present position since the French occupation.
But now the great man appeared on the scene—Rouvier, the real Regent
of Tunis, who at one and the same time is Premier and Minister for
Foreign Affairs to the Bey, and also Representative of France—that
France which has made of the Bey, the kind, amiable Bey; a shadow
king.
For him the drums beat and the guard presented arms. The sound must,
I think, strike with a jarring note on the Bey’s ear.
Whilst M. Rouvier stood beside the Bey, I entered and thanked him
for the great assistance His Highness’s subjects had afforded
me. I named especially the Khalifas of Gabés and Hadeij, and gave a
cursory account of my journey in the south. General Valenci translated
sentence by sentence. The Bey replied, put questions, and expressed
his pleasure at my having been so well pleased. He shook me warmly by
the hand, the poor old shadow prince with the white beard and kindly
eyes, who is led out now like a chained animal on his reception days.
Officially speaking, the Bey reigns over his subjects without
interference, but, in fact, he is bound to be guided by his
Minister’s will.
The Commander-in-Chief in Tunisia, a Brigadier-General, is at the same
time the Bey’s Minister for War; thus all the political posts are
filled by Frenchmen. The Bey has Civil Governors in his provinces,
under whom are Khalifas, and under them again Sheikhs. General
Allegro at Gabés was one of the first of these. These Governors
exercise supreme power in the Bey’s name, but they are watched
by the “contrôleurs civil” and the Intelligence Department, so
that in reality the administration is managed in accordance with the
will of the French, and the Governors are freed from responsibility
in the conduct of affairs.
But now peace and quiet reign over nearly the whole country; the
plundering and fighting which formerly laid the land waste has ceased,
arms are put aside, and trade flourishes, roads have been improved
and extended, and colonists arrive.
Before the French occupation, the tribes in Tunisia were divided into
two parties (“Sof”), of which the adherents changed according
to circumstances. One of these parties termed itself the Bey’s,
but only with the intent of being able to plunder and rob the other
with impunity.
At the head of what were known as the independent tribes were, as a
rule, the Beni Zid, in the neighbourhood of the oasis of El Hamma,
who pretend to be the descendants of a French renegade. The French
traveller Pellissier, in his time, was well received by them on that
score, and they called him cousin. Some years ago the Beni Zid seized
the Kasba at Sfax by a _coup de main_.
Again it was these independent tribes who offered armed resistance to
the French, though certainly not always in great force or with much
success. After the conquest of the country, some thirty thousand of
them emigrated across the frontier into Tripoli, whence they have
now mostly returned.
We have seen that the tribe of Urghamma, on the Tripolitan frontier,
adhered ostensibly to the Bey, but only that under cover of his name
they might commit the worst excesses.
[Illustration: MOORISH WOMEN IN A STREET IN TUNIS.]
After taking leave of the Bey I returned to my hotel. First I glanced
through my letters, and, after a bath and having dressed, I enjoyed
an excellent breakfast, at which I met M. Gauckler, who promised
to help me make various purchases,—which promise he faithfully
kept. On the whole, I cannot sufficiently thank him for all his
valuable assistance. As it turned out that many of the photographs
I had taken were failures, he handed me a collection of views of the
whole of Tunisia, photographed for the “Service des Antiquités,”
and which had in great part been exhibited in Madrid in 1892, and
presented me with all those that I selected, that I might make any
use of them I pleased. Thanks to his generosity, I am able to adorn
my book with many of these interesting pictures. He also undertook
the troublesome task of bargaining on my account with the Jews and
Moors who were to pack all I had bought.
During my absence he had been engaged in making excavations, and
had brought back some fine mosaics for the museum at Bardo. Under
his direction the latter will be enlarged, and will in time contain
some priceless treasures. A law now prohibits the exportation of
antiquities of any kind to foreign countries. Still, under certain
circumstances, exceptions are made, as, for instance, with regard
to some objects found at Carthage, which I had acquired, and which,
during my absence in the south, were stopped at the custom-house;
but, on our Consul applying to M. Gauckler, he had them passed for me.
The remainder of the day I spent in the shops of the Sok, and in
paying visits, amongst others to Drummond Hay, who had long expected
my return. I found him in his beautiful government house, near the
“Porte de France,” where I also called on his wife. They invited
me to spend a day with them in the country, where I had an opportunity
of thanking Drummond Hay for his valuable assistance and advice,
without which my journey would have been made with no fixed purpose,
and, notwithstanding all the kindness and hospitality so generously
shown me, it might have had a far less interesting result.
SUPPLEMENT
THE TRIBES OF TUNISIA—A SYNOPSIS
From a geographical point of view the actual Regency of Tunisia does
not comprise an entire country; in features it does not differ from
the rest of Barbary, since its mountains form part of the same system
as those of Algeria and Morocco. Its chief rivers have their sources
in Algeria, and, as in the above-mentioned countries, mountains,
high tablelands, and the belts of the Sahara succeed each other from
the north to the south, each with its special aspect, climate, fauna,
and flora.
But Tunisia is better situated than Algeria, for its coast trends
towards the south, thus bringing every part of the country near the
sea. For it is a fact that the palm groves of the oases about Gabés
extend right up to the Mediterranean, and there, though virtually
in the heart of the Sahara, one may yet feel the mild influence of
the sea.
The whole of Barbary is in a geological sense sundered from the
rest of Africa, being in reality a continuation of Southern Europe,
of which the mountain formation is found again here. The climate,
therefore, resembles that of the Mediterranean littoral. In the
interior of Tunisia, indeed, it may be extremely hot, but the average
heat over the whole country is about 76°. The winter lasts only
during the two months of January and February, but the summer from
May to October.
Barbary, from Cape Bon to Cape Nun, is everywhere peopled by a
mixture of races, who differ from each other in origin, customs,
and character.
In the fruitful valleys of the northern coast dwells an agricultural
race, whilst the high lands are chiefly peopled by nomads; and one
again finds the agriculturist in the southern mountains and in the
oases. All these different races have settled in those spots where,
according to their circumstances and their temperaments, they were
most likely to find the means of existence.
The Berbers were the aborigines, and, although they comprise more
than two-thirds of the present number of inhabitants, these peaceful
agriculturists—who have always been heavy in their movements and
slow at assembling—invariably succumbed to the warlike Arabs from
the high-lying plains.
The Arabs, when they left Arabia, moved from the east towards
the west.
A great number of negroes are also to be found in Tunisia, brought
principally from the Sudan as slaves. They are everywhere closely
intermingled with the native population.
Lastly, in the towns are found Jews and Moors. The latter are
generally typical of a mixed race; although the type in the different
towns is composed of many races intermingled, it assumes in general
a common resemblance. Their mode of life, habits, hygiene, and
surroundings have produced a hybrid race. In Tunis there are numbers
of Moors, and also in several other Berber towns.
In accordance with the results of the latest researches, I will
endeavour to give a short descriptive sketch of the different peoples
who at the present time inhabit the Regency of Tunisia.
THE BERBERS.
The indigenous population comprised in the races of Tunisia, and known
generally as Berbers, may be computed at about one million. They are a
hybrid people, the descendants of the “Libyans” of Herodotus and
Scylax, of the Mauri or Maurusii, of the Gætulians, of the Romans,
and of the Numidians. All these races have nothing in common with the
Phœnicians. Herodotus already knew this, and remarks that whereas
the Libyans and Ethiopians were the original inhabitants of North
Africa, the Phœnicians and Greeks were immigrants.
It was long before any distinction was made between the various
racial groups of Berbers; it was only observed that there were
amongst them both fair and dark types. It was not until men such
as the archæologist Tissot and the well-known Duveyrier had broken
the ground, and in later years the famous anthropologists, Doctors
Collignon and Bertholon, had succeeded in throwing light on the native
languages, that a way was opened which led to a correct solution of
the origin of the Berber peoples, and their division into groups.
I made the acquaintance of Bertholon in Tunis; he is at present
President of the Geographical Society there, the “Institut de
Carthage.” From my conversations with him, and from the information
I acquired from his works and those of his predecessors, I think I
am able to indicate the principal groups.[6] Within these are again
included lesser groups, not, however, needing special mention here.
1. The Berbers of the oases (of the Néanderthal type).
These are the Gætuli of the ancients, who at the present day
live where they were found in olden times; that is in the southern
oases—the home of the date-palm.
This race, so far as can be ascertained, has always inhabited El
Jerid, to the west of Gabés, for Sallust mentions this people
as dwelling there, and regarded them as the oldest inhabitants of
this country.
They are a peaceful and somewhat indolent race, who cultivate their
gardens and tend their palm trees.
From olden times they have been maltreated by the surrounding warlike
nomads and mountaineers, against whom they were incapable of defending
themselves. Indeed, they have frequently been compelled to pay their
tormentors largely to protect them from other predatory tribes.
They have, therefore, always been in a wretched dependent position,
which has tended to develop their indolence, and has been the source
of the deterioration of their morals.
For instance, since olden days, they have had a regular marriage law,
but this institution has little meaning for them, women being held
in great contempt, and the men not even doing them the honour of
being jealous of them. This state of affairs can be accounted for
by the tendency of the men to form illicit connections. Formerly,
deceived husbands were openly ridiculed in the oasis of Gofsa and
never took serious offence; in fact, it was customary to select as
kaid one of those who had been most compromised in this respect. The
nominee had to undergo a strange ordeal on his election. He had to
ride through the oasis on a donkey, seated facing the tail, and
wearing a grotesque head-dress. Thus he was paraded to the great
amusement of the inhabitants, and, perhaps, to his own satisfaction.
These kind of husbands are known in Tunisia and Algeria alike as
“Tahan,” the word signifying not only he who is betrayed, but
further, he who is betrayed for the sake of gain.
2. The dark Berbers (Dolichocephalous, or long-headed type), of short
stature, like the Iberians, the natives of the Mediterranean littoral,
the Cro-Magnon, and the Sordi types.
The Tunisian Berbers of this group closely resemble the natives
of the Pyrenees and of Languedoc, and of the great islands in the
Mediterranean Sea. Their chief characteristic is a tendency toward
murder, feud, and fray.
In the three “arrondissements” of Ain Drahm (in the Khrumir
mountains), Bizerta and Kef, all in north-west Tunisia, where
this type prevails, no less than forty-one murders and assaults
were committed last year alone, whereas in the whole of the rest
of Tunisia there were only twenty-nine. This computation includes
only the crimes committed by natives. This propensity to shed blood
exists also amongst the kindred race north of the Mediterranean.
It is startling to observe that this temperament prevails wherever
the brown dolichocephalous peoples are found.
Other characteristics which they have in common are their warlike
disposition, their devotion to agriculture, and their pronounced
clannishness.
For example, when the French came to Tunisia, the Khrumirs, the most
typical of the tribes belonging to this group, were formed into three
leagues, composed of fifteen tribes, which were again subdivided into
forty-three divisions, although the whole population numbered only
five thousand and seventy-one persons, of whom only one thousand four
hundred and seventy were men capable of bearing arms. In other words,
there were only forty-three armed men in each division.
The tribe Nefza in the same province had innumerable chiefs of clans.
A peculiarity of the people on either coast of the Mediterranean is
their strong inclination to fetichism, whatever may be the form of
their religion.
The Khrumirs are Mussulmans only in name. Their religion is
confined to observing the fast (Ramadan), and to a holy horror of
all unbelievers. They never pray, and are unacquainted with any
ritual. They own some Marabout tombs, enshrining saints to whom
peculiar influence is attributed, and who are worshipped like
positive idols.
One of these is adored because he takes care that parents who
ill-treat their children shall be punished through his intervention.
Some punish perjurers.
Sid Abdallah-ben-Jemet, the famed Marabout, at whose tomb the Khrumirs
assembled to oppose the French when these arrived in 1881, is, like
many others, celebrated for the cure of fevers. One protects the
crops, another is the special patron of fountains. In short, all these
Marabouts are worshipped as lesser gods. Beneath Islamism, idolatry
flourishes as in olden days; the gods have merely changed their names.
Amongst the Khrumirs, family ties are very slack, woman being
regarded as a mere beast of burden. Marriage can be dissolved with
the greatest facility. In many tribes a man can take to himself a
wife without the intervention of any sort of authority. When the
price agreed on—generally a pair of oxen—is paid, the man takes
his bride home, and then invites the elders of his tribe to a banquet.
Among the Ushetta a peculiar custom holds. After their feast is
concluded, the bridegroom and his friends plunder all the tents of
the “duar” for edibles for another meal—continuing until they
can find nothing more to devour.
The woman is usually bought without her consent being asked, and it
often occurs that, just after a daughter’s marriage, the father
will request the bridegroom to return the bride, as in the meantime
another man has offered for her a higher price. Thus he sometimes
gets double payment, as, when a couple is compelled to separate,
the purchase money is not returned.
The intellectual condition of this people is of the
narrowest. Scarcely a hundred can be found who can read, and few can
count up to a hundred. Neither have they any knowledge of what has
occurred in their own country even within the last century. Their
industrial arts are primitive; even pottery-making is unknown.
The Khrumirs are extremely quarrelsome, and are always fighting among
themselves. No market or feast can pass without blood being shed.
The abduction of women by armed men is common. The comparatively
unattached existence of the women facilitates illegal connections. A
great number of these nomads have, therefore, as mistresses married
women, either in their own “duar,” or in the neighbourhood.
A Khrumir will rove at times both far and wide, and even in winter
will brave snow and bad weather to reach his beloved. Formerly death
was the punishment inflicted on a woman whose guilt was discovered;
since the French occupation they do not venture to kill her, but
she is severely chastised, or sometimes handed over to her lover,
who is forced to pay to the betrayed husband the sum for which he
bought her. Still women continue now, as formerly, to be the primary
cause of many a murder.
For “to die in your bed” the Ushetta say “to die like a
donkey.”
The vendetta with all its consequences prevails to a greater extent
than in Corsica.
In some tribes it was the custom when a mountaineer had been murdered,
and after his death had been sufficiently howled over, to slaughter
a sheep. Kinsmen and friends were invited, and all those who partook
of the meat united in an oath to avenge the death. Blood money (dia)
existed, but was seldom accepted.
When it suited them, all individual differences were laid aside that
they might unite to plunder in fellowship. Anyone venturing amongst
the Nefza tribe in old days was immediately despoiled.
So lately as 1878, when the _Auvergne_ was wrecked near Tabarka,
all on board were completely stripped, even to their shoes. In
1885, when another ship was wrecked at the same place, its cargo
was instantly pillaged, though under the guardianship of the French
authorities. Needless to say, robberies are of daily occurrence. Even
in 1888 an officer’s horse was stolen on the road to Ain Drahm,
in the Khrumir mountains.
The prevalence of theft has originated a peculiar mode of earning a
livelihood. Certain individuals gain their subsistence entirely by
pursuing and finding stolen cattle. They follow the track of the
animals, mark the road taken, and, as a rule, discover where the
booty is concealed. They often offer terms to the thieves if these
show signs of fear, and thus extract money both from the man who has
been robbed, when they recover his property, and from the thief,
who pays not to be given up. The robbers naturally commit murders
and other serious crimes, for to them the concealment of their
robberies is all-important. In 1888 two Kabail were thus plundered
and murdered by the Khrumir. The latter had ordered their women
to burn the corpses, but an inquiry was made and all was revealed,
and subsequently three of the culprits were hanged at Tunis.
Until the French in 1881 put a check on them, the Khrumir were
uncontrolled. When the Bey’s soldiers arrived to collect taxes, they
were received with gun-shots, and were generally compelled to retreat.
Very often they defeated the Bey’s whole army, as in 1855, when
they cut down Ahmed Bey himself as he fled from them; and when the
Nefza massacred three hundred men in a pass north of Beja.
Even since the French occupation they have broken out. When, in 1887,
the officials who controlled the tobacco monopoly went amongst them
to make certain inquiries, they rose in arms, and a regular battle
was fought in which men were both killed and wounded.
To this day they frequently revolt against their own chiefs, and
very often kill them.
Like practical people they sometimes palm off on the authorities a
decrepit old man, who is hung instead of the actual murderer.
They do not venture to make open war against the French, but they
wreak their vengeance by setting fire to the grand cork-woods in the
Khrumir mountains, although aware that if caught and imprisoned they
are undone.
Finally, we must bear in mind that, according to Sallust, the
mingling of the races of Gætuli and Berbers of short stature (the
Cro-Magnon type) resulted in the people known as the Numidians. In
ancient times they had no fixed dwellings. Thus Polybius relates
that Massinissa’s greatest triumph was that he had induced them
to live in settled abodes.
3. The fair-haired Berbers (Brachycephalous—short-headed, the
Grenelle and Celtic type).
(_a_) The Grenelle type is found in Spain and probably in Morocco,
as in Malta and on the coasts of Tunisia.
(_b_) Brachycephalous Berbers of the Ligurian type. In Tunisia these
are found on the island of Jerba, in the Matmata mountains, and,
again, along the coast, more especially about Susa; but they are also
scattered throughout the interior of the country. They are akin to
the Mozabit and the Kabail, and to the old Celtic cognate races.
The resemblance of these types to those of the people on the
corresponding northern shores of the Mediterranean is very
striking. The brachycephalous population of the ancient “Gallia
Cisalpina,” in the valley of the Rhone, in Auvergne, and in the
Alps, is of light complexion, and peaceful temperament, for neither
vendetta, coltetta, nor maffia, nor, generally speaking, any similar
description of crime, is known amongst this people.
In Eastern Tunisia, along the coast from Susa as far as the island
of Jerba, the soil is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The
Berbers there wear a peculiar costume (narrow blue trousers and a
woollen coat, but rarely the burnous). The peaceful agriculturists
are, in some districts, also traders, and in others remarkably good
seamen. The region they inhabit is therefore more highly civilised
than the rest of Tunisia, and most of the soldiers of the 4th
battalion of Tirailleurs are enrolled from amongst these natives,
since they lend themselves better to discipline, and are more easily
commanded than the natives of Algeria.
On the whole, the agriculturist in Tunisia is found only amongst the
brachycephalous tribes. This alone is a remarkable connecting link,
but there are many others which certainly indicate that on both
sides of the Mediterranean we find a cognate race.
As the Auvergnats, the Savoyards, and the Piedmontese leave their
hearths and homes for a while to earn money in various ways in
European towns—how many little Savoyards have we not seen formerly
in Denmark with their hand-organs and marmots?—so do the Berbers
journey forth, the Mzaboas, the Kabail, the people of the island
of Jerba, of Eastern Tunisia, or of the Matmata mountains, to the
towns on the south coast of the Mediterranean to earn a substantial
sum of money, with which on their return home they may buy palms,
a few head of cattle, and—a wife. For instance, at the Grand Hotel
in Tunis I found a couple of men from Duirat serving in the kitchen.
Like their brethren in France, the Berber traders are born democrats.
Between their social organisation and that of the Celts one finds
more than one point of resemblance.
Thus there is a comparatively limited religious spirit, combined with
great superstition, equally amongst the Roman Catholic Auvergnats
and the Mohammedan Kabail.
On my way to Tunis I passed through Auvergne, where I observed many
old villages built on the tops of hills. In the Matmata, and later
in the Kabail mountains, I was struck with the similarity of the
Berber villages to those I had seen in Southern France.
Finally, I may remark that in many places on the North African coast
one sees stone cairns and monuments that are strikingly like those
found in France, and, moreover, at home in Denmark also.
It stands to reason that in a country like Tunisia, which since time
immemorial has been inhabited by so many different races, it is
not always easy to trace the various types when these are closely
intermingled. Still there may always be found amongst these mixed
peoples a few individuals who bear, in a greater or lesser degree,
the impress of a marked racial tendency.
In the oases that lie towards the south-east, one finds, for instance,
brachycephalous Berbers intermingled with the original Berbers of
the oases—the descendants of the Gætulians.
One is soon struck with the consequence, amongst others, of the high
value set on the chastity of the girls whom they desire to marry;
in direct contrast in this respect to the dwellers in other oases.
In Central and Western Tunisia one finds not a few Berbers mingled
with the Arabs. Those who are nomads live as do the aristocratic
Arabs; but those who have fixed abodes are, on the contrary,
republican in thought and feeling.
They were originally governed by a “Jemáa,” or superior assembly,
whose decrees were made in accordance with local tradition (kanun),
which was regarded as law; the kanun being held in even greater
honour than the Koran.
Since the French occupation, legal jurisdiction has been established
over the whole country, with kaids, khalifas, and sheikhs, and
a superior tribunal in Tunis. This curtailment of their former
liberties has placed the Berbers on the same footing as the Arabs,
and has led to the disappearance of their ancient institutions.
The Berber language is distinct from the Semitic. It has now nearly
died out in Tunis, and is supplanted by Arabic, but it still survives
on the island of Jerba, where at least one document exists written
in the ancient characters. Also I found it still spoken in many of
the villages near Duirat in the Matmata mountains, but the written
language is absolutely forgotten there.
According to Tissot, this language is in the main similar to all the
dialects spoken in the Sahara by the Tibu and the Tuareg right away
from Senegal to Nubia, but of course not including the new dialects
spoken by the Negroes or Sudanese.
The Tuareg language is that which most nearly approaches that of the
Berbers; but those independent peoples, who call themselves Imoshag,
Amazigh, Shloh, may be said to be more closely akin to the Kabail,
Zauau of Algeria, and the Berbers of Tunisia.
In my book, _Algeria and the Sahara_, I described my travels through
the Sahara, and at the same time gave a short sketch of the Tuareg
bands. Here I will give from the best works[7] of French travellers,
but adhering as far as possible to Bertholon’s account, a brief
supplementary commentary on the status of woman in these desert
tribe communities, for their position is quite different from that
occupied by their sisters in Mohammedan countries.
A Tuareg woman exercises a decided right of option in the matter of
marriage. Indeed, without her consent, and unless she herself has
chosen a husband, she cannot be given in marriage, and, in spite
of the Koran, she has found the way to prevent her husband taking
a second wife.
Amongst the Tuareg tribes in the Western Sahara, monogamy is so
firmly established that it has given rise to the following adage:
“The man who takes two wives invites death to his tent.”
Divorce, so easily obtainable amongst Mohammedans, is almost unknown
to the Tuareg, and is, besides, very difficult of accomplishment. It
can only take place after the case has been submitted to a court
of arbitration composed of four persons—two for each of the
married pair.
The Tuareg woman is not her husband’s slave; she is his equal,
she sits beside him at meals, and can take long journeys alone,
for she is not shut up like an Arab woman.
Whilst the man journeys afar with the caravans, or on freebooting
expeditions, she remains at home to direct affairs. But this is
not all, for she studies old traditions, is highly enlightened, and
far in advance of the men in knowledge of old customs and manners,
and also of the art of reading and writing the Tuareg language. In
short, it is she who preserves their traditions and is acquainted
with their literature, and indeed sometimes ranks as the highest
authority of the tribe.
Duveyrier relates that amongst the eastern Tuareg the women take part
in the councils when the tribes assemble, just as did the Iberian
women in ancient days.
In the battlefield it is often dread of the women’s scorn which
drives the men to make the utmost efforts to return victorious.
“This trait reminds one of the Iberian maidens, who chose their
husbands from amongst the bravest warriors.”
Descent on the mother’s side alone ennobles, and the children
belong to the family of the wife.
For instance, the son of a nobly born woman and a slave is
acknowledged as free born, whereas the son of a slave and a free man
remains a slave. But, in favour of the latter, certain tribes have
created a particular caste called “Iradjenat,” who, though yet
slaves, are exempt from certain heavy labour.
It must be added that the women have entire control over their
own property.
Inheritance in the tribes goes from a man to his brother, and,
in default, to the son of a sister, but never to the direct progeny.
In such communities misconduct on the part of women is not tolerated,
it is simply punished with death. Captain Bissuel relates that a
native of the province of Setif killed his sister by order of his
father, they having learnt that she was leading a dissolute life. Both
father and brother mourned for the poor culprit, but were convinced
that they had only done their duty.
On the other hand, according to Duveyrier, the Tuareg lawfully claim
_le droit du seigneur_ from their female slaves, before these marry.
The same custom is mentioned by Herodotus as obtaining amongst the
Adyrmachidæ in the neighbourhood of Egypt.
The western Tuareg regard this custom as despicable.
The Tuareg have to give their wives a dowry, which varies in
amount. The western Tuareg, for instance, give at least six camels,
a negress, and a complete costume.
These are the principal features of Tuareg customs. They have many
points in common with those of the mystical Amazons and the Iberians
of antiquity.
Even now among the Basques the man plays a subordinate part. The
woman rules and controls the house. “The husband is her head
servant,” who brings to the house only himself and his labour,
together with a stipulation for progeny.
THE ARABS.
The Arabs in Tunisia are, like those in Algeria, nearly all
nomads. They reside chiefly in the southern and central portions of
the Regency.
They are recognisable by their tall, slender figures, their lean,
muscular build, and by their dignified nobility of carriage.
The Arab cast of countenance is narrow, the nose curved, the lips
thin and graced by a delicate black beard, the black eyes are lively,
but the expression crafty.
The Arab woman is endowed with a pretty, well-formed figure, but
she is of small stature. She is, on the whole, attractive, but fades
early, being old and ugly through hard work by the time she attains
her twentieth year. Unlike the Berber woman, she is usually obliged
to go abroad veiled.
As the Bey was too weak to collect his own taxes, he united the
various groups of nomad Arabs to form his auxiliary troops. These
tribes were thence designated “Mahzen,” were almost exempt
from taxation, or only paid in kind, such as oil, dates, etc. In
return they bound themselves to fight the robber bands (Jish) who
frequently harassed the country. Were they victorious, all spoils
were theirs. Their ostensible duty was to assist the Bey’s own
soldiers to recover the taxes. This collection resolved itself
into sheer plunder. The least of their perquisites was the right to
“diffa” and “alfa,” which means hospitality for themselves
and their horses; of this they took advantage to the greatest extent,
often pillaging wherever they appeared.
For instance, the holy city of Kairwan was often compelled to raise
forced contributions under this pretext.
Their morals, as a rule, are very lax. The abduction of married
women and girls is common, and adultery a matter of course.
The upbringing that an Arab woman receives in a tent is not exactly
calculated to ensure in any way a moral tone. A young girl is from
the very outset of her innocent life apt to see and learn much that
to us appears offensive.
Whereas the man has every possible right of control over his wife,
she has only the “justice of God” (el hak Allah), meaning that
he must fulfil his obligations towards her as her husband, failing
which she can demand a divorce, not an infrequent occurrence.
After the enactment of the law emancipating slaves, the men in some
tribes married their negresses, with a view to thus evading the
law. But it befell that the former went into court and complained
that they were defrauded of their rights as wives.
Although the Arabs, as aliens, have always been in a minority in the
land of the Berbers, yet they were the masters until the arrival of
the French. They had steadily spread themselves over all the open
plains and lower tablelands, moving ever from east to west. Thus
each tribe continually changed its territory, one tribe ever pressing
another before it farther westward.
Long before Mohammed’s day this immigration had already begun,
but it was not until after his time that it made any real headway,
and the conquest of the country and its conversion to Mohammedanism
took place.
Not until much later, in the middle of the eleventh century, was the
great migration accomplished, in which both Mongols and Egyptians
were included. Such great waves, however, always cause a counter
wave. When the tribes reached the shores of the Atlantic on the
most distant coasts of Morocco, the tide turned. Thus the tribe
that claims to be the chief of all the tribes, namely, the Shorfa,
or “Followers of the Prophet,” is precisely that which, having
been to Morocco, returned eastwards.
Yet another receding wave brought back the “Arabs” who had
conquered Spain, and who were afterwards driven forth again.
These Spanish “Arabs” were for the most part Berbers who had been
carried westward by the tide, and who returned, after a long sojourn
on the Iberian peninsula, blended with other races—Ligurians,
Iberians, Celts, and Western Goths.
The greater proportion of these refugees, who are known in Barbary
as “Andaluz,” established themselves in the towns, where they
introduced a new strain into the already mixed race of Moors. These
Spanish Moors are more especially represented in Tunis.
It is quite natural that, in a country so often invaded and peopled
by foreigners who to this day have never really amalgamated, there
should be an entire lack of patriotism such as is found in Europe. It
is as Mussulmans that these races have united to make war against
the Christian. Amongst themselves they are often at enmity.
MOHAMMEDANISM.
Though it is an undoubted fact that the various races of Berbers and
Arabs have preserved much of their identity, it is also noticeable
that, to a stranger arriving in the country for the first time,
the inhabitants appear, as it were, to be fused into one race. This
fusion is the result of their creed, for Mohammedanism has been
drawn like a veil over the whole country.
Mohammed, through the Koran, gave to even daily labour the stamp of
religion, and in a marvellous way moulded all the various races, who
thus became “the faithful,” into one mode of thought and life,
which gradually shaped them all to one pattern, although hereditary
inclinations and customs contended, and are still contending,
against such constraint.
The features which appear most strongly marked in these various
races who have become Mussulmans, are their individual absorption
in their religion and their family organisation.
The stubborn influence of Islamism on the community is entirely
expressed in the phrase “Mektub” (it is written). Fatalism
has destroyed all initiative, all progress. How men may act is
immaterial. “It is written.”
To the Mussulmans, authority is of divine origin. Their creed
ordains that everyone must bow to authority. This has given rise
to the most complete absolutism, alike from the Bey, whose title
is “The chosen of God and the owner of the kingdom of Tunisia,”
down to the lowest of officials.
But yet the yoke may prove too heavy—then the oppressed revolt,
as has so often happened.
The influence of religion is manifest in the treatment of the
insane, whose utterances are held as sacred. The number of real
and pretended lunatics is consequently very great. Hospitality is
not exactly gladly offered to such afflicted persons, but they are
permitted to take whatever they please from a house, a liberty often
very widely interpreted. Latterly a madman in Tunis declared several
houses to be under a ban. All the inmates at once fled, and could
not be persuaded to return. This individual was also inspired with
the sublime idea of erecting a barricade in one of the most populous
streets, by means of doors which he lifted from their hinges.
The Prophet organised the family on the lines best adapted to the
nomad tribes, who were destined to be great conquerors. He ordained
the absorption of the vanquished into the family; while the males
were killed or, if fortunate, made slaves, the women were allowed
to enter the family.
This was the foundation of the rapid conquest of North Africa
by Islam.
To ensure unity in the family, composed of so many and varied
elements, the man is invested with the most absolute authority. He
does not marry but he _buys_ his wife, who becomes his property. He
is unquestionably her lord and master, he can maltreat her, kill
her if she is untrue to him, without risking injury to a hair of
his own head. All that he owes her is the “hak Allah.”
Crimes against women are more rare now through fear of the French;
but as there is no legal census, many murders may be committed which
are never brought to light.
Religious influence first and foremost, also life in common under
equal conditions of many generations of different extraction,
have obliterated many of the characteristics of the natives of
Tunisia. Many Berber tribes have been entirely transformed into Arabs,
and, on the other hand, many Arab tribes have been Berberised. Indeed,
there are tribes forming a subdivision, of which it is well known
some are Berbers, some Arabs.
Of the religious brotherhoods, so numerous elsewhere under Islam,
there are comparatively few in Tunisia. We find the “Tidyanya,”
“Medaniya,” and the “Aissaua,” and, besides these, many
scattered “Shorfa.”
In the towns there is more fanaticism than in the country. In this
respect “those who can read and write are the worst.”
Yet many customs and reminiscences may be found of a former age
before Mohammedanism was forced on the Tunisians.
For instance, the people hang bits of rag all over sacred trees;
many fear the “evil eye,” or honour _five_ as a peculiarly lucky
number. For this reason they set the mark of their own five fingers
on their houses to protect the latter. Indeed, it is not uncommon
for a man who has more than five children, if questioned as to their
number, to reply that he has five, rather than be obliged to name
an unlucky number.
If rain is long delayed, they take refuge in exorcism, and will on
occasion even dip their kaid in a fountain so that his beard may be
wetted—that surely brings rain.
THE MOORS.
Nowhere has all origin of race been so entirely effaced as in the
towns. There have sprung up the Moors—quite a new race of town
dwellers, which may be said to have absorbed all others.
Whereas the population of the interior of the country to a great
extent escaped intermixture with the new elements, up to the time
of the arrival of the Arabs, it has been quite otherwise in the
towns, where foreign traders settled and intermingled with the
native inhabitants.
Amongst the Moors in the towns are found, as has been said, the
so-called “Andaluz,” who were driven out of Spain. Several
of these distinguished families have carefully preserved the
records of their genealogy, and some of them still possess the
keys of their houses in Seville and Granada. They have certainly
intermarried with other families of different origin, but still cling
to their traditions, and retain and exercise to a certain extent
the handicrafts and occupations of their forefathers in Spain. The
gardeners of “Teburka,” for instance, are descendants of the
gardeners of the Guadalquivir, and the forefathers of the potters
near Nebel were potters at Malaga.
The blood of slaves of all nationalities has also been introduced
into the people known as Moors.
The complexion of the Moor is fair, or, more rarely, olive; it
resembles that of the Southern Italian or Spaniard. The shape of
the head is oval the nose long, and they have thick eyebrows and
very black beards. Of medium height, they are well built, and their
carriage is easy and graceful. They are considered more honourable
than either Jews or Christians, and were noted formerly for their kind
treatment of their slaves. Though clever workmen and well educated,
their moral tone is not high. In old days the town of Tunis was
the great market frequented by the people of the Sudan; nothing was
considered worth having that had not been made by a Tunisian.
The Turkish element, as represented by the Bey and his surroundings,
has long since ceased to have any influence on the Moorish race
in Tunisia. No real Turks are now to be found in the country. In
the towns, however, are a few descendants of Turkish soldiers and
Tunisian women; they are called “Kurughis,” and are lazy, vain,
and ignorant, and consequently not much respected.
The Moors, or the town dwellers, on the whole, are, however, not
so vigorous and energetic as the nomads and the mountaineers; their
manners are more effeminate, and they are lazier.
Crimes against the person, such as assault or murder, are rare in
the towns, but drunkenness on the sly is common, and immorality
is prevalent.
THE JEWS.
The ancient conquerors of the country, the Carthaginians and Romans,
who covered it with towns, forts, and monuments, have left no impress
of themselves on the appearance of the present inhabitants, nor do
there survive amongst the tribes any traditions concerning them.
No more remains to recall the Vandals and Goths, yet the latest
researches prove the existence in early days of other Semitic peoples
besides the Arab.
The earliest importation to the country of Semitic blood was
doubtless the Phœnician. To this is due the fact that many of
the types portrayed on Chaldaic and Assyrian ruins are now found
scattered throughout Tunisia.
At the same time as the Phœnicians may be mentioned the Jews,
the earliest of whom probably came to Barbary at the same time as
the former, but their number was largely added to later, after
the conquest of Jerusalem by Titus. Moreover, it is known that
many Berber tribes were converted to Judaism and remained Jews,
even after the Arab conquest. The classic type of European Jew is
therefore rarely met with in Tunisia.
After the Mohammedans the Jews are, numerically, most strongly
represented in Barbary. They form somewhat important communities,
not only in the town of Tunis, but also in all other towns, even in
the island of Jerba. Possibly with theirs has mingled the blood of
the ancient Carthaginians.
There are also a great number of Jews whose ancestors were ejected
from Spain and Portugal; these are called “Grana,” from their
former most important trading city in Spain.
These “Grana” were under the protection of the foreign consuls,
and therefore have had nothing to complain of; but the old Jews were
in a disastrous condition in former days, and suffered much, so much
that some isolated families abjured Judaism and became Mohammedans;
such they are still, but they always associate with their former
co-religionists. Other Jews—those of Jerba, for instance—have
modified their religious forms, pray to Mohammedan saints, and hold
their Marabouts in honour.
A peculiar head-dress distinguishes those Jews who are under no
protection, from those who are protected by the consuls. It is an
irony of fate that many Jews have placed themselves under Spanish
protection, because they knew that Spain was their home in old
days. Now they are protected by the country that formerly drove them
forth. Somewhat similar is the case of the Algerian Jews in Tunis
who seek French protection.
All the Jews of Tunis retain the ancient Spanish ritual. They are
peaceful and well behaved, and not so grasping as others of their
faith, but they are clever at taking advantage of a good opportunity
when there is a prospect of making money, or when their trade may
be extended. Commerce is therefore in great measure in their hands.
In the whole Regency of Tunisia there are over fifty thousand Jews,
and their numbers increase rapidly. In the town of Tunis there is
a “ghetto,” the quarter formerly devoted to them, and where
they were compelled to dwell. It has long since become too small,
and the Jews have now spread over all the other quarters, and in
the bazaars have wrested from the Moors many of their shops.
This Jewish community is an interesting study, and one is
astonished to find how in many respects they so little resemble
their co-religionists in other countries.
COSTUMES
THE DRESS OF THE COUNTRYWOMEN (ARABS—BERBERS)
Over the whole of Tunisia the countrywomen, whether Arab or Berber,
wear a similar costume, which must be almost identical with that
worn by the Grecian women in olden days.
The dress of the women of ancient Greece consisted of what was known
as the “peplos”[8] (πέπλος), a white wrapper gathered in by a belt
about the waist (ζώνη), and supported on the shoulders by pins (περόναι
and ἐνεται). As head-dress, or for ornament, they wore a kind of
forehead band (χρήδεμνον) or veil, and, in addition to these, earrings,
necklets, bracelets, etc. etc.
The “peplos” was a large piece of stuff without seam, which was
folded round the body from one side.
The dress of a Tunisian woman of to-day is the same. It consists of
a “m’lhalfa,” which resembles the “peplos,” being a long
narrow piece of stuff, wound round the body in such a manner that
it entirely covers the back and shoulders. One end is brought over
the breast, and hangs down in front; the other end covers the lower
limbs, and forms a skirt. The piece is so long that it hangs in folds,
which partly conceal the sides. Whilst the Greek “peplos” was held
together by “fibulæ” on the shoulders, the clasps that confine
the “m’lhalfa” are placed rather forward—over the breast. The
Grecian woman’s neck was bare, her chest covered. But it is the
contrary with the Tunisian woman. In other words, the “m’lhalfa”
is merely a “peplos” which has been drawn forward. Many Tunisian
women draw the “m’lhalfa” over the breast, and arrange one
end to form a full drapery; others, as in the Matmata villages,
omit this, but wear over their bosom a thin square of stuff called
“katfia.” This is secured by the clasps already mentioned.
In a few places, such as the Khrumir mountains, the “m’lhalfa”
is composed of two pieces of stuff worn one in front and one behind,
held together by the breast clasp. Over the neck and shoulders is
laid a rather large towel. The “m’lhalfa” is always bound
in at the waist by a long woollen belt, generally white or of some
bright colour.
The clothes for daily wear are, as a rule, of a dark blue woollen
material, but for festivals or weddings they wear red, yellow,
or parti-coloured garments of silk, cotton, or wool.
In most regions a kerchief is worn on the head (tadchira); round
this is wound a turban (assaba), composed of a long piece of stuff
ornamented with coins or trinkets. Over this again is thrown a large,
often embroidered, cloth, in which the face is enveloped (begnuk).
Generally speaking, the Tunisian women wear no underclothing, at
all events not in daily life in the country. On festive occasions,
especially in the towns of the oases, they assume a white shirt
(suïera). It has very short or no sleeves. A bride, as a rule,
wears one. The bridal shirt (gomedj) is generally embroidered about
the opening at the neck in silk or cotton, in stripes of black,
yellow, blue, and red.
In daily life they do not wear shoes, but go barefoot. At the feasts
the women put on yellow shoes without heels (balgha).
The ornaments worn by the poor are mostly of brass, copper, or horn;
by those in better circumstances, of silver; or sometimes by the rich,
of gold.
Round the neck are worn strings of glass beads, and in the ears
large slight earrings (“khoras,” from cross); on the wrists,
broad open bracelets (addide). Finally, they wear large heavy anklets
called “kralkral,” that are generally made not to meet.
To fasten the “m’lhalfa” on the shoulders large brooches are
commonly employed. These are in the form of an open circle, through
which passes a pin (khlel).
On the breast they wear a silver chain (ghomra), from which depend
coins or flat plates of metal. These chains are fastened to the
breast-pins. All these ornaments are made by the Jews of the towns
or oases, and are really artistic productions.
The women do not usually wear straw hats, though some may amongst
the Berbers of the island of Jerba. These hats are precisely similar
to those depicted on some of the Tanagra figures found in Greece.
In Jerba are worn crescent-shaped breast ornaments, said to come
from Tripoli; also ornaments in filagree work from Zarsis.
The women often carry a little looking-glass tied to their
breast-pins, and also the requisites for applying henna and kohol.
When they fetch water in their great pitchers they carry these
slung on their backs by means of a wide band round the forehead,
or in the end of their turban, loosened for the purpose.
Their hair is never plaited, but is covered by the cloth or turban. A
woman is rarely seen in stockings. In a few places where the roads
are bad they wear wooden shoes. The Khrumirs are proficient in
making these.
Much of the material employed in the women’s dress is woven or
made by themselves in the region in which it is worn, but some is
brought from Tripoli, the Sudan, or from Europe. As a rule, however,
the countrywomen wear only their own handiwork.
In the Matmata mountains and the neighbouring oases I was able to
collect and buy a complete costume, the whole of which had been made
in that region, and chiefly of native materials.
It must be mentioned that the Berber women have everywhere more
freedom than their Arab sisters, and are therefore often unveiled. Yet
many of the tribes have gradually adopted Arab customs, and in this
particular follow their example—at all events in the vicinity of
a town, for in the country the women all go unveiled, only hiding
their faces on occasion.
We will now examine the dress of the men, both Arabs and Berbers.
In contradistinction to the Kabail of Algeria, the Arabs always
cover their heads. In Tunis, where the races are so mixed, nearly
all the men go covered. They wear white cotton caps under the red
“shashia,” allowing a narrow edge of white to appear beneath
the latter.
The Arabs always wear a haik or burnous; the Berbers, generally.
The burnous, as is known, consists of a cape united at the breast.
The “haik” is a piece of thinner stuff, which is worn as a
drapery, usually under the burnous, but also alone.
In the southern mountains of Tunisia I found that many of the
mountaineers wore, instead of burnous or haik, a piece of stuff
without hood or seam. In this they draped themselves so that the
head was covered. It was usually of brown or grey wool. The burnous
is as a rule white, as is also the haik. Many of the poorer folk,
especially amongst the Berbers, wear nothing else in daily life;
but they assume a shirt, waistcoat, and coat, as also a gala burnous
(sjebba) on festive occasions. This last is shorter than the real
burnous, and is made with short wide sleeves, of bright coloured
stuff, often embroidered in silk.
The people on the coast near Susa and to the south have a still
shorter brown-hooded garment in place of a haik or burnous, and they
wear trousers. This costume is convenient for fishermen.
A large broad-brimmed straw hat is worn by the denizens of the
plains. Shoes or sandals of morocco leather or hide are worn by many.
Red morocco leather boots, worn inside a shoe, are used by riders,
also spurs.
The purse is a long, narrow, knitted or woven bag.
The Berber often wears a shirt, and, in such cases, only a haik over
it, and no burnous.
The usual costume of the Arab is that worn in Algeria—the burnous
and the haik, the latter bound on with a camel’s-hair cord;
shoes (or boots). Of the Berber, shirt, haik, burnous, bare legs,
and uncovered head.
Such variations of these costumes as may exist in Tunisia have been
brought about by an altered mode of life and the admixture of races.
Dr. Bertholon declares that most of the costumes are of very ancient
origin. That of the Jews, for instance, he dates back to the days
of the Carthaginians; the burnous, he says, resembles the hooded
Roman cloak.
The Moorish woman’s dress is very pretty, but extremely
coquettish. It is overladen with ornaments.
“In the morning she wears a very scanty costume. If one has the
luck to catch a glimpse of her at an early hour as she moves hither
and thither in the harem, she is not easily forgotten. She is clad
in a simple shirt, with short sleeves, which leave her plump arms
exposed. Under this she wears trousers, so short that they scarcely
reach the knees; a little shawl, of which the ends are knotted
in front at the waist, replaces a skirt, and enfolds her pretty
form. Her bosoms are supported by a narrow bodice, and about her hair
is bound a silk kerchief, but her locks fall down over her neck”
(_Des Godins de Souhesnes_).
When she leaves the house she wears a “gandura,” a kind of cloak
of transparent material, fastened on the shoulders by gold or silver
pins. Besides this she has put on wrinkled white linen trousers
reaching to her ankles; over her head she throws a white kerchief;
and, lastly, she conceals her face with a long embroidered veil.
The Moorish woman blackens her eyebrows, enhances the beauty of
her eyes with antimony (khol), and stains with orange-red henna the
nails of her fingers and toes and the palms of her hands.
The dress of the Moor much resembles that of the Jew. He wears a
tasselled cap (shashia), surrounded by a turban, and a silken vest
or coat, embroidered in gold or silver.
The trousers are very wide, and fall in heavy folds; the lower part
of the leg is uncovered, and on his bare feet he wears broad shoes
of red or yellow morocco leather (babush).
The costume of the Jews, as worn by them before they were free,
to distinguish them from the Arabs, is very picturesque, and,
fortunately, still universal.
The men, who are generally handsome, wear a tasselled shashia, often
surrounded by a turban. Their wide, pleated Turkish trousers reach a
little below the knee, and are secured at the waist by a belt. They
wear also coat and waistcoat, stockings, and shoes.
Many have now adopted European attire, but the characteristic Jewish
type is easily distinguished.
The Jewish women are not veiled. They wear shirts, narrow embroidered
silk trousers, cotton stockings, shoes, and on their heads a
pointed cap.
These women, when young, are very pretty, but also very immoral. They
are generally spoilt by being too stout, young girls being fed up
to make them attractive for their wedding.
There is no native industry peculiar to Tunisia, but there are a
few which may be considered worth notice.
The holy town of Kairwan is famed for its beautiful carpets. In
Gefsa and Jerba also curious and beautiful carpets are woven.
Clay ware is a speciality of Nebel, where, to this day, pottery is
made that recalls that found in the Phœnician and Roman tombs near
Carthage. Pottery is also made at Jerba in the form of jars, vases,
etc., which are sent to different parts of the country—northern
Tunisia obtaining its pottery from Nebel; southern, from Jerba.
Amongst the tribes, pottery is also made by the women and negresses,
but generally without the aid of the potter’s wheel. The Khrumir
in particular are noted for their peculiar ornamented pottery.
In the towns, moreover, and especially in Tunis, there are numbers
of shoemakers, leather workers, saddlers, harness and pouch makers,
etc. etc. There are also excellent dyers and makers of perfumes.
In the oases are made fans, and baskets of palm leaves and of alfa
straw; baskets, hats, and great crates for corn, which take the
place in these regions of the clay jars of the Kabail.
Tripoli lies quite close to Tunis, and there manufactures attain
a high level; a great quantity therefore of stuffs—carpets and
worked leather articles—are imported thence. The Jews are the
goldsmiths, and, even in the interior and in the southern oases,
possess the art of making pretty bracelets and ornaments.
The inhabitants of Zarsis are renowned for their peculiar filigree
work.
POSTSCRIPT
The information adjoined regarding the number of souls included in
each of the Berber tribes, and of their domestic animals, came to
hand only after the first portion of my book had gone to press. I
therefore add it here. This information has been collected with
great pains throughout the Government of El Arad by the kindly
help of M. Destailleur, Contrôleur Civil to that Government. It is
positively reliable, the calculations which I was able to make in
person during my stay in several of the villages, with the same view,
corresponding exactly to those in the table. Only—as an outsider—I
must aver that the number of horses may not be quite correct, but
for some places appears computed too low. As for instance in Hadeij,
where, it is said, none are to be found, which was certainly not the
case. Possibly the explanation may be that the sheikhs feared that
the inquiry made by the Government arose from a desire to know how
many mounted men this tribe could place in the field in time of war.
[N.I.: Number of Inhabitants.
A. : Asses.
O. : Oxen.
H. : Horses.
C. : Camels.
S.G.: Sheep and Goats.
M. : Mules]
+----------------------------------+----+----+---+---+----+------+--+
| Names of Tribes and Villages. |N.I.| A. | O.| H.| C. | S.G. |M.|
+----------------------------------+----+----+---+---+----+------+--+
| Jara |1925| 500| 40|100| 40| 700|40|
| Menzel |2200| 600| 60| 35| 40| 410|90|
| Shenini |1040| 300| 2| 25| 30| 185|30|
| Ghenush | 350| 100| 4| 3| 8| 200|40|
| Bu Shma | 50| 20| | | 10| 30| |
| Udref | 750| 280| 70| 8| 120| 450| 2|
| Metuia |1800| 200| 20| 10| 100| 600|60|
| Tebulbu | 235| 45| 25| 4| 38| 350| 1|
| Zarat | 165| 45| 55| 3| 12| 1000| |
| Ghraïra | 450| 100| | 8| 390| 1450| |
| Alaia | 232| 30| | | 20| 351| |
| Hazem |1229| 210| 4| 36| 240| 2880| |
| Hamernas |2100| 600| 57| 37| 300| 2100| 1|
| | | | | | | | |
| {Gassur | 900| 140| 70| 20| 50| 350|10|
| {Debdaba |1390| 115| 22| 40| 92| 520|19|
|Beni-Zider, {El Begla |1455| 432| | 41| 535| 1830| |
| South {Shelahsha |1689| 400| | 95|1400|10,000| 4|
| of the {Matmata |1000| 120| 8| 20| 400| 1800| |
| Shott. {Shehel |1100| 150| | 25|1200| 2500| |
| {El Heurja |1000| 140| | 30| 420| 2000| |
| {Zauia | 868| 320| | 35| 800| 8000| 4|
| | | | | | | | |
| {Tujud | 210| 15| 30| 2| 55| 520| |
| {Zarua | 604| 55| 27| 1| 207| 713| 2|
| {Dehibat | 100| 20| 3| 2| 50| 1000| |
| {Ben Aissa | 340| 25| 25| 3| 65| 311| |
| {Guelaa Ben Aissa | 495| 40| 45| 3| 115| 410| |
| Matmata {Smerten | 105| 10| | 1| 25| 265| |
| Mountains. {Beni Sultan | 632| 43| 73| 1| 55| 200| 2|
| {Tujan |1071| 51| 80| 3| 169| 1000| 1|
| {Uled-Sliman-Hadeij |1300| 200|200| | 300| 2700| 8|
| {Lasheish |1020| 120|223| 6| 263| 2036| 2|
| {Tamezred |1082| 50|100| 7| 400| 4600| 4|
| | | | | | | | |
| {Neffat |3830| 826| 46|221|3371| 9926| 3|
| {Accara |5496| 750|250|110|1335| 6060| |
| {Tuasin |2461|1203| 15|600|6945|15,263| |
| {Khezur |3411| 890|150|142|1353| 9745| |
| {Ghomrasen |1376| 565| 3| 43| 684| 2848| |
| {Shenini-Duirat | 410| 80| 20| 3| 300| 1960| 1|
| {Guermasa | 460| 80| 30| 8| 170| 1150| |
| { {Hamidia | 287| 60| | 25| 255| 890| |
| {Uderma. {Uled-Debab | 389| 150| | 20| 200| 2000| |
| { {Deghagha | 585| 250| 10| 34| 300| 300| |
| Urghamma. {Uled Shada | 330| 125| | 42| 320| 1200| |
| {Suabria-Duirat | 153| 7| 2| 2| 32| 800| |
| {Beni Barka | 125| 25| 7| 2| 60| 240| |
| {Zedra | 117| 25| 12| 1| 14| 360| |
| {Gatufa | 130| 30| 15| 4| 11| 400| |
| { {Uled-Lazareg| | | | | | | |
| {Jelidat {Uled-Aun | 302| 100| 4| 50| 300| 1100| |
| { {Uled-Ashiri | | | | | | | |
| {Quadid | 125| 30| 4| 4| 80| 600| |
| {Duiri |1357| 63| 54| 10| 280| 3400| |
+----------------------------------+----+----+---+---+----+------+--+
PRINTED BY
MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED, EDINBURGH.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: More accurately the coffee-house of the
dome.—Translator’s Note.]
[Footnote 2: The Arabs in this country keep no account of their
age. The most they can remember is that they were born the year this
or that happened.]
[Footnote 3: Chest.]
[Footnote 4: Correspondence in the Paris newspaper, the _Journal
des Debats_ of 5th September 1893.]
[Footnote 5: M. Rouvier is newly appointed to Stockholm as French
Representative.]
[Footnote 6: _Anthropologie Criminelle des Tunisiens Musulmans; Les
formes de la famille chez les premiers habitants de l’Afrique du
Nord; Exploration anthropologique de la Khroumirie_.]
[Footnote 7: Duveyrier, _Les Touareg du Nord_; Captain Bissuel,
_Les Touareg de l’Ouest_; Largeau, _Le Sahara Algerien_.]
[Footnote 8: From Dr. E. F. Bojesen’s _Handbook on Greek
Antiquities_.]