CHAPTER XII_Elementary Guide to Literary Criticism

NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF FICTION

+68. Definition.+ Fiction is that form of prose narrative in which the

characters, scenes, and incidents are partly or entirely imaginary. In

its highest form it is a sort of prose epic; and Homer's "Odyssey" finds

a parallel in Fénelon's "Telemachus." In the arrangement of characters

and incidents to form a plot, fiction resembles the drama; and at the

present time every notable work of fiction is apt to make its way to the

stage. Like poetry in general, fiction has its principal source in the

creative imagination, which, working on the basis of experience,

modifies or produces character, scene, and incident.

A common division of fiction, though not consistently observed, is the

_novel_ and the _romance_. The novel is a fictitious narrative in which

the characters and incidents are in keeping with the ordinary train of

events in society. Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield," which brings before

us the simple life of a country pastor, may be taken as a type. A

romance is a fictitious narrative in which the characters and scenes and

incidents are uncommon, improbable, or marvelous. Scott's "Ivanhoe" may

be taken as a representative of the best type of romance. The one form

of fiction may readily shade into the other, and it becomes difficult

in some cases to determine the classification; but in general the two

species are clearly marked.

+69. Romanticism.+ During the past century there were two far-reaching

movements in the field of fiction. Both came in the character of a

reaction; taken together they have given greater breadth and depth to

this department of literature. The first movement, which dates near the

beginning of the last century, is known as _romanticism_. It was a

reaction against the formal and the conventional. Romanticism may be

defined as liberalism in literature; it is a breaking away from

authority and a return to nature. It manifested itself in two

particulars both in fiction and poetry: first, there was greater freedom

in subject, form, and character; and second, there was a return to the

past, particularly to an idealized age of chivalry in the Middle Ages.

Scott was the great leader of the romantic movement both in poetry and

in fiction. In their wide range of character and incident, and in their

idealization of the past, the Waverley Novels are in general perfect

types of romanticism.

+70. Realism.+ Realism came about the middle of the Victorian era as a

reaction against romanticism. It was born of the scientific spirit,

which rendered the public dissatisfied with fanciful pictures of past

ages and with the impossibilities of wild romance. Realism, as the word

indicates, adheres to reality. Discarding what is idealistic or unreal

in characters and situations, it aims at being true to life. All the

great novelists of this period--Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot--were

in the best sense of the word realists.

As an effort to represent life as it is, the worth of realism must be

acknowledged. In its proper application it places the novel on an

immovable basis. While idealism shows us how life might be or ought to

be, realism shows how it actually is. Unfortunately, realistic writers

have not, in many cases, been true to their fundamental principles. The

great continental leaders of realism--Tolstoi, Zola, Ibsen--have been

tainted with a fatal pessimism. Realists of this type seem to see only

one side of life,--the darker side of sin and wretchedness and despair.

They often describe what is coarse, impure, obscene. No doubt their

pictures are true as far as they go; but the fatal defect of their work

is that it does not reflect life as a whole. It does not portray the

pure and noble and happy side of life, which is just as real as the

other.

Except in the hands of genius, realism is apt to be dull. It gives us

uninteresting photographs. There are times when we do not care so much

for instruction as for amusement and recreation. This fact opens a

legitimate field for the imaginative story-teller. There is to-day a

decided reaction against realism in the form of what has been called the

_new romanticism_. It does not present to us elaborate studies of actual

life, but entertains us with an interesting or exciting story.

Stevenson, Weyman, Hope, and Doyle have been leaders in this movement,

and some of the most widely read novels of the past few years have

belonged to this new romanticism.

+71. Idealism.+ The influence of idealism in fiction should be

recognized. It may tinge the work both of romanticism and of realism.

It is, perhaps, to be regarded as an atmosphere rather than as a method.

The aim of idealism is to soften the hard realities of life. It in a

measure portrays things not as they are but as they should be; and as

far as it definitely pursues this course it presents a contrast to

realism. It naturally chooses for the most part the nobler types of

character; and to the villains that may be introduced it metes out in

due time a merited punishment. The trials of life are brought to happy

issue. The hero and heroine, both somewhat above the characters of

ordinary life, at length triumph over all the obstacles that beset their

path. Kept within due bounds, idealism gives a hopeful and uplifting

tone to fiction; but without careful restraint it is in danger of

becoming false and injurious. It presents to the young a caricature of

the world, and exposes them, at a later period, to bitter and dangerous

disillusionment. Among our greatest novelists an idealistic tendency is

very perceptible in Scott and Dickens.

+72. Component Elements.+ In every important work of fiction there are

six things to be considered, namely, the characters, the incidents, the

environment, the plot, the purpose, and the view or philosophy of life.

The first three elements constitute the materials out of which the

novelist builds his work; the last three supply the general plan by

which he builds it. The excellence of the work, as in architecture,

depends both on the character of the materials and on the manner in

which they are put together. When Solomon constructed his famous temple

he not only used cedar and gold but also joined them together according

to a wise design and noble purpose. These various elements are worthy of

separate consideration.

(1) The characters of a novel are of prime importance. As in actual

life, they give tone to the society to which we are introduced. They

should be clearly individualized, as in the drama, and maintain

throughout a reasonable consistency. They may be taken from any class of

society; and writers of large creative genius, like Shakespeare, Scott,

Dickens, Balzac, will be distinguished both for the number and for the

variety of their characters. It is not enough that the characters be

described in their outward appearance and experiences. In all profounder

work, as in George Eliot, there will be an unveiling of the hidden

springs of motive and disposition. The great potentialities of human

nature both for good and evil will be brought to light, and thus the

mimic world of the novelist will reflect the life of the great real

world in its more tragic aspects.

(2) By the incidents of a novel we mean the acts and experiences of the

characters. They make up the connected and progressive story. The

incidents may be as varied, as the occurrences of human life, sweeping

the whole range of toil, sorrow, and joy. They may be either comic or

tragic. The interest of a work of fiction depends largely upon its

incidents. Separately they may be entertaining, absorbing, or thrilling;

and taken together in their sequence they may carry us forward

irresistibly to the conclusion. They should be in keeping with the time

and place, and the several acts of the personages should be in harmony

with their character and culture.

(3) As in real life, the personages of a novel or romance live and move

in the midst of an environment. They are placed in the midst of

circumstances, upon which they act and by which they are acted upon.

They may live on land or sea, in the country or in the city, amid the

wildness of unsubdued forests or the culture of long-established

communities. They may be surrounded by intelligence and luxury or by

ignorance and squalor.

The environment is brought before us by description, which necessarily

constitutes no inconsiderable part of every work of fiction. The

descriptive passages should be true to fact, and graphic enough to

enable the reader to picture the scenes in his mind; but they should not

be so long drawn as to encumber or impede the story. Description is

subordinate in fiction; instead of being an end in itself, its purpose

is to throw light upon the characters and incidents of the story.

(4) By plot, we mean the manner in which the incidents of a story are

arranged with reference to the final issue. The incidents may be loosely

connected or they may be so skillfully ordered as to arouse the reader's

breathless interest. A skillful plot presupposes dramatic talent. This

is not always found in union with a strong creative imagination; and

thus it happens that some of our greatest novelists, as Thackeray and

George Eliot, are defective in dramatic plots. While a skillfully

arranged plot is not an essential element in a work of fiction, it is

always a source of interest and power.

(5) Every work of fiction has an aim or purpose. Sometimes the author

merely aims at telling an interesting story which has no other

significance than to provoke a smile or a tear. Sometimes it may be

intended to illustrate a period in history or the manners of a

particular locality. Sometimes it is designed to throw light on some

phase of human character or human experience. And again, it may be a

vehicle for conveying some form of teaching or for illustrating the

growth of culture and character. In studying a work of fiction the

purpose should be clearly apprehended, for the merit of a novel or

romance depends in a measure upon the author's aim and his degree of

success in realizing it.

(6) Every work of fiction, consciously or unconsciously to the author,

is apt to embody a particular view or philosophy of life. Every

thoughtful person has convictions in regard to God, nature, and man. He

may believe in a personal deity or an unconscious force as the source of

all things. He may think of nature as a creation or as a product of

impersonal natural law. He may think of man as an immortal being or as a

creature whose existence ceases with death. But whatever may be an

author's fundamental beliefs, they will inevitably color his work.

+73. Kinds of Novels.+ Novels may be divided into various classes

according to subject or method of treatment. As to method, we have

already had the general division of romanticism and realism. Another

generic classification has been proposed: first, _novels of life_, which

include the works portraying both past and contemporary life; and

second, _novels of idea_, which include didactic and artistic works of

fiction. The didactic novel discusses some practical problem or advances

some social or moral theory; the artistic novel subordinates the story

to perfection of form.

It will be helpful to the student to distinguish the following classes:

(1) The _society novel_ is devoted to a portrayal of existing men and

manners. The field is a wide one. The characters may be taken from any

class of society. The society novel may bring before us, as in

Thackeray's "Vanity Fair," what is known as fashionable life. It may

again, as in George Eliot's "Adam Bede" or Goldsmith's "Vicar of

Wakefield," introduce us to the lives of plain people. It may acquaint

us, as in Du Maurier's "Trilby," with the Bohemian or artist class in

our great cities. It may deal, as in Dickens's "Oliver Twist" or

Bulwer's "Paul Clifford," with the criminal class. In short, there is no

class of society or type of character that may not become the subject of

treatment in novels of this class.

(2) _Local novels_ are devoted to the portrayal of the life and manners

of a well-marked locality. They are social novels within a restricted

field. Differences of race, of language, of pursuit, and of

intelligence, as seen in particular localities, are reflected in novels

of this kind. There is scarcely any portion of England that has not been

described in some work of fiction. Charlotte Bronté brings Yorkshire

scenery and character before us in "Shirley"; George Eliot portrays the

scenes of her native Warwick in "The Mill on the Floss"; Blackmore's

"Lorna Doone" portrays the scenery, life, and language of Devonshire.

America has afforded a very rich field for the local novel. Not a few of

its choicest works belong to this class. Scarcely any part of our wide

country or any special phase of its life has escaped the eyes of the

enterprising story-teller. In his "Grandissimes," for example, George W.

Cable gives us a glimpse of the Creole life of Louisiana. In the

"Hoosier Schoolmaster" Edward Eggleston describes pioneer life in

Indiana. In "Gabriel Conroy" Bret Harte brings before us the wild and

lawless life of California a half century ago. In various works Miss

Murfree has described the dwellers in the Tennessee mountains. New

England and the South have been portrayed by various writers.

(3) The _historical novel_ is devoted to the description of life in the

past. It should be based on a careful study of the period to be

portrayed. It may deal with the scenes of a hundred years ago or it may

go back a thousand years before the Christian era.

No other department of fiction has a prouder array of great books.

Historical fiction has gone hand in hand with a revived interest in

historical and archæological research. The greatest of all historical

novelists is Scott, whose Waverley series covers the centuries between

the crusades, which "Ivanhoe" describes, and the rebellion of Prince

Edward Charles in 1745, which "Waverley" describes. But other great

names--German, English, American--belong to this class of fiction.

"Uarda," for example, by George Ebers, describes life in Egypt a

thousand years before Christ. Kingsley's "Hypatia" takes us back to the

city of Alexandria in the fifth century of our era. In the "Last Days of

Pompeii" Bulwer Lytton describes the life of the Roman city at the time

of its destruction. George Eliot's "Romola" portrays the spirit and

manners of the city of Florence in the days of Savonarola and the

revival of learning. "Ben Hur" by Lew Wallace is a tale of the Christ.

"The Schönberg-Cotta Family" by Mrs. Elizabeth Charles is a graphic

portrayal of movements and scenes in Germany at the period of the

Reformation.

Recently there has been a notable revival in historical fiction. It has

come, perhaps, as a reaction against a hard realism and empty

romanticism. It probably strikes its roots in the desire for knowledge

which at the present time is so generally characteristic of the American

people. Not a few of the recent books of phenomenal

popularity--Churchill's "Richard Carvel," Miss Johnson's "To Have and to

Hold," Ford's "Janice Meredith," Page's "Red Rock," Thompson's "Alice of

Old Vincennes"--deal with interesting periods in the history of our

country.

(4) The _problem or purpose novel_ has been prominent in recent fiction.

It has been a natural product of this restless, intellectual age.

Fiction has been made the medium for the discussion of political,

social, and religious problems. Not a few of them, as Bellamy's

socialistic "Looking Backward," have had an enormous circulation. "Uncle

Tom's Cabin" by Mrs. Stowe was a severe arraignment of slavery, and

exerted a strong influence in molding the sentiment of a large part of

our country. Recent theological unrest is reflected in Mrs. Ward's

"Robert Elsmere" and in Margaret Deland's "John Ward, Preacher." The

nature and influence of labor organizations are presented in Charles

Reade's "Put Yourself in His Place," and in the anonymous American story

"The Bread Winners." Hall Caine's "Christian" involves a serious

indictment against the church in England. Disraeli traversed the field

of English politics in his "Coningsby" and "Endymion," as did Trollope

in his "Phineas Finn" and "Prime Minister." In his "Guardian Angel" and

"Elsie Venner" Oliver Wendell Holmes traces the effects of heredity, a

subject previously handled by Hawthorne in his "House of Seven Gables."

In this way we see that nearly every great practical question of general

interest may be discussed or portrayed in fiction.

(5) The _love story_ and the _story of adventure_ embrace a considerable

though unambitious part of fiction. The love story deals with courtship

and marriage. As a rule, after encountering more or less opposition or

difficulty, the lovers are at last happily united. A thread of love

usually runs through all the more ambitious types of fiction, for it is

a source of universal interest that cannot lightly be set aside; but in

the love story it is the central and dominant interest.

The story of adventure consists of a succession of interesting or

thrilling incidents. The type of this species of fiction is Defoe's

"Robinson Crusoe." The new romantic movement already referred to lays

much stress on a rapid succession of exciting incidents. This is

illustrated by Hope's "Prisoner of Zenda" or by most of R. L.

Stevenson's works, of which "Kidnapped" and "The Master of Ballantrae"

may be taken as fair examples.

(6) _Naval fiction_ belongs to the sea. It is an interesting field,

though somewhat limited in its range of character and incident. The sea

itself, with its magnificent and changing moods, is a sublime object.

The restricted life on shipboard--the telling of yarns beneath the

starlit skies, the spirit of mingled superstition and daring, the prompt

and brave activities attending a storm, and, above all, the excitement

and dangers of battle--has for the landsman a peculiar charm.

Novelists of the sea are not numerous; for, in order to be in the best

sense successful, the writer must have had a seafaring experience. James

Fenimore Cooper, who had been in the navy, criticised Scott's "Pirate"

as the work of a landsman. He undertook to produce a genuine story of

the sea in his "Pilot," which, whatever else may be its defects, is

correct in sailor's lingo and briny flavor. He was no less successful in

"The Red Rover," the scenes of which antedate the Revolution. But the

prince of marine novelists is unquestionably Frederick Marryat, whose

"Peter Simple," "Jacob Faithful," and "Mr. Midshipman Easy" are perhaps

unsurpassed in their sphere.

(7) The _psychologic novel_ is concerned chiefly with mental analysis.

It traces the workings of the soul under different circumstances and

different influences. It follows the character in its ascent to higher

goodness or in its descent to lower degradation. Stevenson's "Dr.

Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," for example, is a powerful exhibition of the

duality--the brute and the divinity--in human nature. Hawthorne's

"Scarlet Letter," while in one sense a historical novel, is an

incomparable study of the human soul under the weight of guilt and

remorse. Throughout George Eliot's novels there is a constant portrayal

of mental and moral conditions that give to her works an unusual depth

and power. Her method has been justly called psychologic realism. Under

this head we may place what has been called the "art and culture novel,"

the object of which is to exhibit the gradual development of individual

character by means of a changing environment. The type of this sort of

fiction is Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister."

The short story, which our magazines have rendered so popular in recent

years, is a novel in miniature. It paints on a small canvas but with

exceeding delicacy. Like the novel or the romance, it may find its

materials in any age or in any class of society; and in its general

method it conforms to the laws of fiction in general.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

68. What is fiction? How does it resemble the drama? What is said of

dramatized novels? Define _novel_ and _romance_. Give examples of each.

69. What is _romanticism_? When did it manifest itself? In what two

particulars? 70. What is _realism_? Whence did it spring? What are its

merits? What tendency of realistic writers is noted? What is the danger

of realism? What is meant by the _new romanticism_? Mention some of its

representative writers. 71. What is the aim of _idealism_? How does it

do this? What two great novelists show idealistic tendencies? 72. What

six things are to be noted in every novel? What two groups are

distinguished among them? On what does the excellence of a novel depend?

What is said of the characters? Whence may they be drawn? How are great

writers distinguished? What characterizes profound novels? What is meant

by incidents? What is said of their variety? How should they be

arranged? What is meant by environment? What environments may be used?

How may they be brought before us? What should be the character of this

description? What is its place? What is meant by plot? What is

presupposed in a skillful plot? What great writers are lacking in

dramatic power? What purposes may be aimed at? Why should the purpose be

apprehended? About what have thoughtful persons convictions? What is the

effect of these convictions? Why should the writer's aim or purpose be

understood?

73. How may novels and romances be divided? What are _novels of life_?

_novels of idea_? What seven classes are distinguished? What is a

_society novel_? What may it portray? What are _local novels_? What is

said of them in America? Mention some well-known local novels. What is a

_historical novel_? On what should it be based? What is said of

historical fiction? Who is the greatest of historical novelists? Mention

some others. What is said of recent tendencies? Mention some recent

historical novels. What is meant by _problem_ or _purpose novels_?

Illustrate by various examples. What is the nature of the _love story_?

of the _story of adventure_? Illustrate. What is _naval fiction_? Why

are sea novelists not numerous? What is said of Cooper? Who is the chief

of marine novelists? With what is the _psychologic novel_ principally

concerned? Give examples. What gives George Eliot's novels their depth?

What is said of the short story? To what laws is it subject?

NOTE

As illustrative and practical exercises, let the student criticise

several pieces of fiction assigned by the teacher. For this purpose any

of the standard or popular works mentioned in the text may be selected,

or any others to which the student may have access.

After classifying the work and determining its style, the student should

investigate it according to its six component elements,--characters,

incidents, environment, plot, purpose, and views of life. The points to

be investigated under each head are suggested in the text.

As points of special interest, he may inquire into the origin of the

work and the sources from which its materials were derived. This

investigation will frequently reveal, as in the case of Thackeray,

Charlotte Bronté, Dickens, and George Eliot, interesting autobiographic

details.

The results of this investigation may be presented in a written

critique, in which the value of the work as a whole, in the light of

correct æsthetic and critical principles, should be determined. It will

sometimes be found that novels of wide popularity are destitute of great

intrinsic excellence.

INDEX

Æsthetics defined, 34;

æsthetic elements, 35.

Allegory, 71.

Alliteration, 114.

Analogy, argument from, 172.

Anglo-Saxon and Latin elements of English, 56.

Annals, 158.

Antithesis, 75.

Apostrophe, 73.

Argumentation, 87;

four kinds of, 172.

Artistic element in literature, 8.

Author and his work, 19;

personality of, 19;

mental qualities of, 19;

character of, 20;

view of life of, 22;

literary school of, 24;

mood and purpose of, 24;

life of, 27.

Autobiographic elements in literature, 21.

Autobiography, 162.

Ballad defined, 134.

Beauty, 35.

Biography, 160;

three types of, 161;

essentials of, 161.

Blank verse, 117.

Cæsura, 118.

Character and authorship, 21.

Chronicle, 158.

Classic writers, 4.

Climax, 75.

Comedy, 148.

Criticism, defined, 2;

history of, 3;

standard of, 3;

requisites of, 4;

as an art, 5;

diversity of, 5;

diversity of, explained, 6;

utility of, 7;

materials of, 8.

Description, 35, 42, 85.

Diary, 162.

Diction, 58.

Discourse, kinds of, 84.

Drama, 148-153;

unity of, 149;

five principal parts, 150;

other elements, 150.

Dramatis personae, 151.

Elegy, 137.

Eloquence, source of, 169.

English language, composite, 55;

copious, 56;

elements of, 56;

what elements to choose, 57.

_Enjambement_, 118.

Epic poetry, 146;

different species of, 147;

mock epic, 147.

Epigram, 76.

Essay, 167;

principal forms of, 167;

criteria of, 168.

Exclamation, 73.

Exposition, 87.

Fable, 72.

Faculties, symmetrical, 92.

Farce, 149.

Felicity of expression, 38.

Fiction, defined, 178;

elements of, 181;

characters of, 182;

incidents of, 182;

environment in, 183;

plot in, 183;

aim of, 184;

view of life of, 184;

kinds of, 184;

society novel, 185;

local novel, 185;

historical novel, 186;

problem or purpose novel, 187;

love story, 188;

marine novel, 189;

psychologic novel, 189;

short story, 190.

Figures, defined, 68;

kinds of, 68;

of resemblance, 69;

of contrast, 75.

Harmony of thought and expression, 37.

Heroism, 41.

History, defined, 156;

divisions of, 157;

methods of, 158;

criteria of, 163.

Humor, 46.

Hymns, 135.

Hyperbole, 74.

Idealism, 180.

Imagination, 89;

ill-governed, 90.

Interrogation, 76.

Irony, 77.

Life, an author's view of, 22.

Literary school, 24.

Love in literature, 40;

love story, 188.

Ludicrous, the, in literature, 44.

Matter and form in literature, 9.

Metaphor, 70.

Meter, 111, 116.

Metonymy, 72.

Mind, generic differences of, 88.

Mock epic, 147.

Molding influences in literature, 8.

Moral character, 20;

moral sublime, 43.

Narration, 86.

Necessity of understanding a work, 1.

Novel and romance, 178.

_See_ Fiction.

Ode defined, 136.

Opera, 149.

Oration, divisions of, 170;

criteria of, 174.

Oratory, 169;

different kinds of, 170.

Parable, 72.

Paragraph, 62.

Parody, 45.

Period in verse, 118.

Personification, 70.

Poet, the, 105;

as seer, 106.

Poetic license, 120-122.

Poetry, defined, 103;

and prose, 104;

sources of, 104;

classification of, 130;

didactic, 130;

descriptive, 132;

pastoral, 133;

lyric, 134;

criteria of, 138;

epic, 145.

Prose and poetry, 104;

defined, 156.

Purpose of literary study, 1.

Realism, 179.

Rhyme, 112;

different kinds of, 112-114.

Romance, metrical, 147;

defined, 178.

_See_ Fiction.

Romanticism, 179.

Satire, 45, 131.

Sensibilities in ascendant, 90.

Sentences, different kinds of, 60;

qualities of, 61.

Simile, 69.

Song defined, 135.

Sonnet, 137.

Spiritual truth, 39.

Stanza, defined, 115;

different kinds of, 115-117.

Style, 61;

defined, 84;

importance of, 94;

poetic, 120.

Synecdoche, 72.

Tale, metrical, 147;

of adventure, 188.

Taste, literary, 34.

Tenderness and pathos, 43.

Tragedy, 148.

Tragi-comedy, 148.

Versification, defined, 107;

quantity in, 107;

accent in, 107;

poetic feet in, 108-110;

time element in, 111;

meter in, 111.

Vision, 74.

Will, force of, in literature, 91.