FIGURES OF SPEECH
+34. Definition.+ A figure of speech is a deviation from the plain and
ordinary mode of speaking. Its object is greater effect. Figures
originated, perhaps, in a limitation of vocabulary; and many words that
are now regarded as plain were at first figurative. But the use of
figures is natural, and at present they are used to embellish discourse
and to give it greater vividness and force. To say with Thomson, for
example,--
"But yonder comes the powerful King of day,
Rejoicing in the east,"--
is far more vivid and forceful than to say "the sun is rising." Nearly
all great writers, especially poets, enrich their style by the use of
figures.
+35. Kinds of Figures.+ There are various kinds of figures, which may be
reduced, however, to three classes or groups. The figures based upon
_resemblance_ are _simile_, _metaphor_, _personification_, and
_allegory_. Those founded on _contiguity_ are _metonymy_, _synecdoche_,
_exclamation_, _hyperbole_, _apostrophe_, and _vision_. Those resting
upon _contrast_ are _antithesis_, _climax_, _epigram_, and _irony_.
Other forms of classification have been proposed. There are figures of
_diction_ and figures of _thought_; the former are found in the choice
of words, the latter in the form of the sentence. To figures of diction
has been given the name of _figures of intuition_, because they present
a sensible image to the mind; to figures of thought has been given the
name of _figures of emphasis_, because they emphasize the thought. We
thus get the following division:
FIGURES OF INTUITION
Simile
Metaphor
Personification
Allegory
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Apostrophe
Vision
FIGURES OF EMPHASIS
Interrogation
Exclamation
Climax
Antithesis
Epigram
Irony
Hyperbole
+36. Figures of Resemblance.+ (1) _Simile_ is a form of comparison in
which one thing is likened to another. It is usually introduced by
_like_ or _as_, or some other word of comparison; as,--
"The twilight hours _like birds_ flew by,
As lightly and as free."
It is obvious that the things compared in simile should have some sort
of resemblance. When the points of resemblance are too remote the simile
is said to be farfetched. This was a frequent mistake among the
so-called "metaphysical poets" of the seventeenth century. Except in
burlesque or mock-heroic styles, dignified subjects should not be
likened to what is trifling or low. The effect of such a simile is
ridiculous, as in the well-known lines from Butler's "Hudibras":
"And, like a lobster boiled, the morn
From black to red began to turn."
(2) _Metaphor_ is an abridged simile, the words expressing likeness
being omitted. In the sentence, "Roderick Dhu fought like a lion," we
have a simile; but when we say, "He was a lion in the fight," we have a
metaphor. The metaphor is briefer and more striking than the simile; it
springs from greater emotion or mental energy, and often imparts great
force or beauty to a passage. Thus, likening human life to a voyage at
sea, Shakespeare says:
"There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;
Omitted, all the voyage of their life
Is bound in shallows and in miseries."
There are several errors that are not infrequent in the use of metaphor.
A metaphor should not be blended with plain language in the same
sentence, nor should it be extended too far. The latter fault is called
"straining the metaphor." Two incongruous metaphors should not be used
in the same sentence. In the following lines from Addison his muse is
first conceived of as a steed that needs to be restrained with a bridle,
and then as a ship that is eager to be launched:
"I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain,
That longs to launch into a bolder strain."
(3) _Personification_ is the attribution of life to inanimate things.
When we speak of "the _thirsty_ ground" or "the _angry_ ocean," we endow
these objects with the feelings of living creatures. Personification is
a bold species of metaphor; it is the offspring of vivid feeling or
conception, and often lifts discourse to a high plane. Thus, in "Romeo
and Juliet," we read,--
"Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops";
and in Shelley's "Queen Mab,"--
"How wonderful is Death,
Death and his brother Sleep!
One, pale as yonder waning moon,
With lips of lurid blue;
The other, rosy as the morn
When, throned on ocean's wave,
It blushes o'er the world:
Yet both so passing wonderful!"
(4) _Allegory_ is the description of one object in terms of another. It
is a sort of continued metaphor in which, however, the main subject of
discourse is not mentioned. In the following beautiful allegory, the
Jewish people are described in the character of a vine: "Thou hast
brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted
it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep
root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of
it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her
boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then
broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck
her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the
field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts; look down
from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine; and the vineyard which
thy right hand hath planted, and the branch that thou madest strong for
thyself."[72:1]
The _parable_ and the _fable_ are closely akin to allegory. A parable is
a brief narrative of real or imaginary incidents for the purpose of
inculcating some moral or religious truth. It has been described as "an
earthly story with a heavenly meaning." A considerable part of Christ's
teaching was in parables, many of which are as beautiful as they are
profound.
A _fable_ is a fictitious story introducing animals or even inanimate
things as rational speakers and actors, for the purpose of teaching or
enforcing a moral. The fables of Æsop are almost universally known, and
the fables of La Fontaine exhibit a high degree of artistic merit.
+37. Figures of Contiguity.+ (1) _Metonymy_ consists in naming an object
by one of its attributes or accompaniments. It is based, not on
resemblance, but on relation, such as _cause_ and _effect_, _container_
and _thing contained_, _material_ and _thing made of it_, etc. When we
say, for example, that "_gray hairs_ are venerable," we mean _old age_,
putting an effect for the cause. In the sentence, "Socrates drank _the
fatal cup_," the container is put for the thing contained, namely, the
deadly hemlock.
The general effect of metonymy is to bring before the mind a definite
image, and thus to impart a graphic quality to the style. To say, "The
pen is mightier than the sword," is more graphic and forcible than to
say, "Literature is mightier than war."
(2) _Synecdoche_ puts a part for the whole, or a whole for the part; as,
"The harbor was crowded with _masts_." Synecdoche is a species of
metonymy, and has the same effect of giving vividness. This is apparent
in a well-known quatrain from Goethe:
"Who ne'er his _bread_ in sorrow ate,
Who ne'er the mournful _midnight hours_
Weeping upon his bed has sate,
He knows you not, ye heavenly Powers."
(3) _Exclamation_ is a figure of thought. It is the result of kindled
emotion, and expresses in exclamatory form what would usually be stated
in declarative form. Thus Hamlet, outraged at the conduct of his mother,
bursts forth:
"O that this too too solid flesh would melt,
Thaw and resolve itself into a dew!
Or that the Everlasting had not fixed
His canon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God! God!
How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable,
Seem to me all the uses of this world!"
Though chiefly confined to poetry, exclamation is frequent in fervid
prose, and Carlyle's works fairly bristle with exclamation points.
(4) _Apostrophe_ is a direct address to the absent as present, the
inanimate as living, or the abstract as personal. It is closely allied
to personification, with which it is often associated. This figure is
expressive of intense emotion. The following passage from "King Lear"
will serve for illustration:
"Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks! rage! blow!
You cataracts and hurricanoes, spout
Till you have drench'd our steeples, drown'd the cocks!
You sulphurous and thought-executing fires,
Vaunt-couriers to oak-cleaving thunderbolts,
Singe my white head! And thou, all-shaking thunder,
Smite flat the thick rotundity o' the world!"
(5) _Vision_ is a description of absent things as present. It is suited
only to animated discourse in either prose or poetry. In the midst of
the argument of Milton's "Areopagitica" we find this splendid outburst
portraying the future of England: "Methinks I see in my mind a noble and
puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and
shaking her invincible locks; methinks I see her, as an eagle, mewing
her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full midday
beam; purging and scaling her long abused sight at the fountain itself
of heavenly radiance; while the whole noise of timorous and flocking
birds, with those also that love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at
what she means, and in their envious gabble would prognosticate a year
of sects and schisms."
(6) _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated form of statement, and is used to
magnify or diminish an object. It is quite natural, under the impulse of
strong emotion or imagination, to use exaggerated statements, and
frequently it serves to lend piquancy and force to style. But this
tendency is dangerous, and should be kept under restraint. As a rule it
is best to see and describe things as they are. The following from
"Julius Cæsar" will serve as an example of hyperbole:
"Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world
Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about
To find ourselves dishonorable graves."
+38. Figures of Contrast.+ (1) _Antithesis_ presents a strong contrast
of words or sentiments, usually in the form of balanced sentences. It
gives force to style by uniting opposite things in one conception. Its
excessive use, however, becomes monotonous; and antithesis in
construction, without a real contrast of thought, is confusing and
disagreeable. Macaulay, perhaps, makes more frequent use of antithesis
than any other of our great modern writers. Of the Puritans he says: "If
they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they
were deeply read in the oracles of God; if their names were not found in
the registers of heralds, they felt assured that they were recorded in
the Book of Life; if their steps were not accompanied by a splendid
train of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge over them."
(2) _Climax_ arranges its words, phrases, or clauses in an order of
increasing impressiveness. Its proper use gives an accumulative force to
the sentence. No better illustration of the climax can be given than the
well-known one in Cicero's oration against Verres: "To bind a Roman
citizen is an outrage; to scourge him is an atrocious crime; to put him
to death is almost parricide; but to crucify him--what shall I call it?"
The arrangement of the words or clauses in a descending order is called
_anticlimax_ or _bathos_. It is frequently used in wit and humor. The
following sentence is a ridiculous anticlimax: "The enemy is now
hovering upon our borders, preparing to press the knife to our throats,
to devastate our fields, to quarter themselves in our houses, and to
devour our poultry."
The principle of the climax is of wide application. Not only in the
sentence but also in the paragraph, chapter, and entire work, there
should be, as far as possible, progress in the importance, intensity, or
amplitude of the thought.
(3) _Interrogation_ strengthens an affirmation or denial by throwing it
into the form of a question. It is a figure frequent in poetry and
emotional prose. The following example from Gray's "Elegy" will be
sufficient for illustration:
"Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death?"
These questions are not asked for information, but for rhetorical
effect, and they forcibly suggest the truth of their negation.
(4) _Epigram_ is the pungent phrasing of a shrewd observation. It may be
recognized by two characteristics,--it must be brief, and it must have
an unexpected turn of thought. This turn of thought may spring from an
apparent contradiction, from the solemn assertion of a truism, from a
play on words, or from other sources. There is an apparent contradiction
in Wordsworth's epigrammatic line,--
"The child is father of the man."
There is a play on words in the following epigrammatic characterization
of a loud and violent speaker: "He mistakes _perspiration_ for
_inspiration_."
(5) _Irony_ expresses a thought contrary to the form of words. Its
seeming praise is really condemnation; its compliments are insults. Its
advantage lies in the difficulty its victim experiences in making a
reply. It is useful in chastising follies and vices; but as a rule
ironic touches are to be preferred to continuous irony. The following is
from Thackeray: "So was Helen of Greece innocent. She never ran away
with Paris, the dangerous young Trojan. Menelaus, her husband, ill-used
her; and there never was any siege of Troy at all. So was Bluebeard's
wife innocent. She never peeped into the closet where the other wives
were with their heads off. She never dropped the key, or stained it with
blood; and her brothers were quite right in finishing Bluebeard, the
cowardly brute! Yes, Madam Laffarge never poisoned her husband, and Mary
of Scotland never blew up hers; and Eve never took the apple--it was a
cowardly fabrication of the serpent's."
FOOTNOTES:
[72:1] Psalm lxxx. 8-15.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
34. What is a figure? How did it originate? What is its object? In what
two ways is it used? Illustrate. 35. To how many classes may figures be
reduced? On what are these several groups based? Name the figures based
on _resemblance_; those based on _contiguity_; on _contrast_. What name
is given to figures of _diction_? to figures of _thought_? State the
figures of _intuition_; of _emphasis_. 36. What is a _simile_? How is it
introduced? Give an illustration. What errors should be avoided in the
use of simile? What is a _metaphor_? What is its effect as compared with
a simile? What errors in the use of metaphor are to be avoided? What is
_mixed metaphor_? Illustrate. What is _personification_? Give an
example. What is _allegory_? Illustrate. What is a _parable_? Give an
example. What is a _fable_?
37. What is _metonymy_? On what is it based? Illustrate. What is its
effect on style? What is _synecdoche_? Illustrate. What is
_exclamation_? Illustrate. What is _apostrophe_? To what is it closely
related? Illustrate. What is _vision_? Illustrate. What is _hyperbole_?
Give an example. What is said of the use of hyperbole?
38. What is _antithesis_? What is said of its use? Give an example. What
is _climax_? Give an illustration. What is _bathos_? Illustrate. What is
_interrogation_? Illustrate. What is _epigram_? How recognized?
Illustrate. What is _irony_? What is said of its use? Illustrate.
ILLUSTRATIVE AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES
The following passages should be studied in the light of such questions
as these:
What figure or figures does the piece contain? Is it
a figure of resemblance, contiguity, or contrast? Is
it a figure of diction or of thought? What is its
effect? Does it give force or beauty to the sentence?
How would the thought be expressed in plain language?
Is it used consistently? In what way does it
strengthen or weaken the sentence? Is the figure
trite or original? Is it farfetched or natural? What
percentage of sentences is figurative? Are figures
more common in prose or poetry? Why? Do the minor or
the major poets use more figures?
What stronger breast-plate than a heart untainted?
Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just;
And he but naked though locked up in steel
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.
SHAKESPEARE.
Hast thou left thy blue course in heaven, golden-haired son of
the sky? The west hath opened its gates; the bed of thy repose
is there. The waves gather to behold thy beauty; they lift
their trembling heads; they see thee lovely in thy sleep; but
they shrink away with fear. Rest in thy shadowy cave, O Sun!
and let thy return be in joy.--MACPHERSON.
I see before me the Gladiator lie;
He leans upon his hand; his manly brow
Consents to death, but conquers agony,
And his drooped head sinks gradually low;
And through his side the last drops, ebbing slow
From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one,
Like the first of a thunder-shower; and now
The arena swims around him; he is gone,
Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who
won.--BYRON.
If a man indulges himself in murder, very soon he comes to
think little of robbing; and from robbing he comes next to
drinking and Sabbath-breaking, and from that to incivility and
procrastination.--DE QUINCEY.
Assemble all the poor men of your sort;
Draw them to Tiber banks and weep your tears
Into the channel, till the lowest stream
Do kiss the most exalted shores of all.--SHAKESPEARE.
No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with
you.--JOB.
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.--BYRON.
The best of men
That e'er wore earth about him was a sufferer,
The first true gentleman that ever breathed.--DEKKER.
The glories of our birth and state
Are shadows, not substantial things;
There is no armor against fate;
Death lays his icy hand on kings.
Scepter and crown
Must tumble down,
And in the dust be equal made
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.--SHIRLEY.
What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite
in faculty! in form and moving how express and admirable! in
action how like an angel! in apprehension how like a god! the
beauty of this world! the paragon of animals! And yet, to me,
what is this quintessence of dust? man delights not me; no,
nor woman neither, though by your smiling you seem to say
so.--SHAKESPEARE.
Great lords, wise men ne'er sit and wail their loss,
But cheerly seek how to redress their harms.
What though the mast be now thrown overboard,
The cable broke, the holding anchor lost,
And half our sailors swallowed in the flood?
Yet lives our pilot still. Is 't meet that he
Should leave the helm, and, like a fearful lad,
With tearful eyes, add water to the sea,
And give more strength to that which hath too much,
While in his moan the ship splits on the rock,
Which industry and courage might have saved?
Ah, what a shame! ah, what a fault were this!
SHAKESPEARE.
The unwonted lines which momentary passion had ruled in Mr.
Pickwick's clear and open brow gradually melted away, as his
young friend spoke, like the marks of a black lead pencil
beneath the softening influence of India rubber.--DICKENS.
When thus, as I may say, before the use of the loadstone, or
knowledge of the compass, I was sailing in a vast ocean,
without other help than _the pole-star_ of the ancients, and
_the rules_ of the French stage among the moderns.--DRYDEN.
Once as I told in glee
Tales of the stormy sea,
Soft eyes did gaze on me,
Burning but tender;
And as the white stars shine
On the dark Norway pine,
On that dark heart of mine
Fell their soft splendor.--LONGFELLOW.
Since the vessel of thy unbounded ambition hath been wrecked
in the gulf of thy self-love, it would be proper that thou
shouldst take in the sails of thy temerity, and cast the
anchor of repentance in the port of sincerity and justice,
which is the port of safety; lest the tempest of our vengeance
make thee perish in the sea of the punishment thou
deservest.--ANON.
She never told her love,
But let concealment, like a worm in the bud,
Feed on her damask cheek; she pined in thought;
And, with a green and yellow melancholy,
She sat like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief.--SHAKESPEARE.
England ne'er had a king until his time;
Virtue he had, deserving to command;
His brandished sword did blind men with its beams;
His arms spread wider than a dragon's wings;
His sparkling eyes, replete with awful fire,
More dazzled, and drove back his enemies,
Than midday sun fierce beat against their faces.
What should I say? his deeds exceed all speech;
He never lifted up his hand, but conquered.
SHAKESPEARE.
Earth proudly wears the Parthenon,
As the best gem upon her zone,
And Morning opes with haste her lids
To gaze upon the Pyramids;
O'er England's abbeys bends the sky,
As on its friends, with kindred eye;
For out of Thought's interior sphere
Those wonders rose to upper air;
And Nature gladly gave them place,
Adopted them into her race,
And granted them an equal date
With Andes and with Ararat.--EMERSON.
NOTE
In addition to the extracts here given, the student might examine those
connected with previous chapters, and discover the various figures they
contain. Furthermore, it is recommended that he study the figures in a
whole piece; as Milton's "L'Allegro" or "Il Penseroso," Goldsmith's
"Deserted Village," Gray's "Elegy," Burns's "Cotter's Saturday Night,"
Wordsworth's "Ode on Intimations of Immortality," Coleridge's "Ancient
Mariner," Moore's "Paradise and the Peri," Shelley's "Adonais,"
Tennyson's "Passing of Arthur," Longfellow's "Building of the Ship,"
Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal," and many others that will occur to the
teacher. Let him determine the percentage of figurative sentences, and
compare the results with those obtained from an examination of the prose
of Macaulay, Ruskin, Carlyle, De Quincey, Lowell, and other standard
writers. This comparison will throw light on the essential difference
between poetry and prose.