gasoline engine or electric motor power. Then you'll want to know how to
figure the cost of electricity, as well as the cost of the original
equipment. First of all, you should know how to read an electric meter.
Reading a Meter
Electric meters read in kilowatt hours, just as a water meter reads in
gallons and a gas meter in cubic feet. A kilowatt hour is the electrical
energy consumed by 1000 watts of electricity used for one hour. Ten
100-watt light bulbs burning for one hour would use one
kilowatt-hour--one kwh.
[Illustration: Figure 1. Some meters give the reading directly, like the
mileage total on a speedometer.]
Some meters are read directly, as shown in Figure 1. The more common
type has four dials which are read from right to left--just the opposite
from the way things are usually read. The hand on the extreme right
turns clockwise, the next hand turns counter-clockwise, the next
clockwise; the last hand on the left turns counter-clockwise.
The first dial on the right can register up to 10 kilowatt-hours; the
second up to 100 kwh; the third, to 1000 kwh; the fourth, to 10,000 kwh.
After that, the meter starts over again. To take a reading you must read
all four dials of the meter, from right to left.
[Illustration: Figure 2. Meter dials are read from right to left.]
To read each dial, you use the number last passed by the dial hand. This
may not be nearest the hand. For instance, if the pointer has passed 6
and is almost on 7, you read it as 6. Write down the figures in the same
order you read the dial, from right to left. Practice reading the meters
shown in Figure 3 on the following page.
What's Your Electric Bill?
Meters aren't set back each month when the meter reader comes around.
The difference in the readings from one month to the next shows how
many kilowatt-hours have been used. If you know your electric rates, you
can figure your bill by yourself. Your power supplier will furnish you
with a rate schedule on request.
[Illustration: Figure 3. See if you can read the above correctly. The
answers are shown in a box on the next page.]
It will be interesting to you to find out how much it costs to operate
the various electric appliances in your home. A sample rate schedule is
shown in Figure 4.
[Illustration: Figure 4. Sample rate schedule. Note that as the use of
electricity increases, the average cost per kwh is reduced.]
Estimating Operating Costs
To find the cost of operating any single appliance, three steps are
necessary:
1. Learn the wattage of the appliance.
2. Estimate how many hours the appliance is used.
3. Find its operating cost.
_To Find Wattage:_
Watts, you know, are the measure of electrical power. They are the
product of voltage (pressure) times amperes (rate of flow). Volts times
Amps equals Watts. The nameplate on the appliance will give the voltage
required for proper operation as well as either amperage or watts. If it
gives wattage, you have the information you want. Otherwise you must
multiply volts times amps to get the wattage. When voltage is given as
110-120, use 120 as your voltage. 120 volts is nominal today.
_How Much Will You Use?_
Now that you know the wattage of the appliance, multiply this figure by
number of hours the equipment operates in one day. Divide this by 1000
to get the kwh. Now multiply the result by the number of days the
appliance is used each month. This tells you the number of kwh used by
the appliance during the month.
|---------------------------------------------|
| |
|Example No. 1 |
|_Yard Light:_ 300-watt lamp |
| |
|Amount of use: 3 hours per night. |
| |
|Multiply lamp wattage times hours of use |
|per night to get watt-hours per night. |
| |
|300 times 3 = 900 watt-hours per night. |
| |
|Divide watt-hours by 1000 to get kwh per |
|night. |
| |
|900 divided by 1000 = .9 kwh per night. |
| |
|Multiply kwh per night times 30 to get kwh |
|per month. |
| |
|.9 times 30 = 27 kwh per month. |
| |
|If the yard light is used 3 hours per night, |
|it consumes 27 kwh per month. |
|---------------------------------------------|
Example No. 2
_Coffee Maker_: 120 volts, 550 watts (from nameplate)
Amount of use: 1/2 hour per day.
Multiply wattage of coffee maker times hours of use per day to get
watt-hours per day.
550 times 1/2 hour = 275 watt-hours per day.
Divide watt-hours by 1000 to get kwh per day.
275 divided by 1000 = .275 kwh per day.
Multiply kwh per day times 30 to get kwh per month.
.275 times 30 = 7.250 kwh per month.
If the coffee maker is used l/2 hour daily, it consumes 7.25 kwh per
month.
_Calculate Operating Cost Per Month_
Now that you know the number of kilowatt hours an appliance uses, go to
your rate schedule and your electric bill to see what the average kwh
costs. Find the average cost of 1 kwh by dividing the amount of your
bill by the total number of kwh used in a month.
_Example_: 410 kwh used. $14.35 total monthly bill
Average cost per kwh equals $14.35 divided by 410 kwh-3-1/2 cents per
kwh.
Therefore, the cost of operating the coffee maker for a month would be
3-1/2 cents times 7.25 kwh--25.4 or 25 cents. Cost of operating the yard
light would have been 94.5 or 95 cents a month.
(a) 6357 (b) 1963 (c) 8996
Correct answers to the meter readings shown on the preceding page.
Adding Low Cost Helpers
You can see, by looking at your rate schedule, that the average cost per
kwh gets lower as you use more electricity. To find the cost of
operating additional electrical equipment, the cost per kilowatt hour is
found from the last "step" in the bill--the lowest cost per kwh of the
electricity you're now using. Sometimes power suppliers give special
rates for such equipment as electric water heaters.
WHAT TO DO: Find the Cost of Operating Electrical Equipment
Make and fill in the blanks of a chart showing the electrical equipment
you have and the operating costs per month.
Make a chart for the home (refer to chart one). Show the probable
operating cost of equipment you might add to what you now have.
Demonstrations You Can Give
Show how to read a meter, making one with plywood or cardboard. Dials
can be painted on the main board. Arrows can be attached so they will
revolve to give different readings.
Show how to find the wattage of various types of equipment.
Show how to figure the cost of the average kwh in a home.
For Further Information
Your leader can get additional material for you or you may want to have
someone from your power supplier talk to your club, telling about
meters, how they work and how they are regularly checked for accuracy.
Chart One-THE HOME
Column No. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Item Wattage Hours KWH per Cost per
Rating Used Month Month
per (col. 1x2)/ (Col. 3 x av. Remarks
Month 1000 kwh cost)
Electric Iron 1100 30 33 .80
Stove 880 60 52.8 1.21 (Special
rate)
LESSON NO. B-8
Credit Points 3
IRONING IS FUN WITH THE MODERN HAND IRON
When you are getting ready to go to school or to a party, it probably
gives you a good feeling to put on a clean, freshly-ironed skirt, blouse
or dress. But did you ever think about the electric iron that helps so
much to give you that well-dressed feeling? When you were younger, you
may have had a play iron and pretended to iron your doll's dresses. Now
you are old enough to learn about real irons--the different kinds of
irons, how the iron heats, the kind of cord needed, the type of outlet
necessary, how to use safety rules when you iron, and even how to help
with the ironing.
Important Things to Know
There are many different irons, but the two kinds most important for you
to know about now are the regular dry iron and the combination
steam-and-dry iron.
[Illustration: The thermostat keeps the iron at an even temperature.]
It isn't weight alone that makes an iron do its job, but the heat of the
iron. The heat is given off in the sole plate. The automatic iron has
what is called a _thermostatic_ control which holds the temperature of the
iron at the heat you want. Some clothes need to be ironed with a very
hot iron, while others need only to be pressed lightly with a cool iron.
The thermostat keeps the iron at an even temperature after you set it
for the heat you want. The thermostat is the heart of the iron.
Take a look at the iron used in your home. It isn't heavy to lift, and
has a handle that fits your hand easily. It looks graceful and has a
smooth bottom, called the sole plate. And it may have a narrow, pointed
tip which is helpful in ironing pleats, corners and gathers.
[Illustration: Your iron has a smooth bottom called the sole plate.]
The Iron and Safety
If you are going to learn to do some ironing yourself, the most
important thing for you to remember is SAFETY. You should read all about
the iron first in the instructions which came with it.
Never use an iron carelessly. Remember the safety rules:
1. An iron should never be left even for a few minutes without being
disconnected. Turn off by removing the plug from the outlet, or by
turning the control lever to "off."
[Illustration: Take hold of the plug--not the cord--when you disconnect
it from the outlet.]
2. Let the iron cool before putting it away.
3. Wrap the cord carefully around the iron after it is cold.
4. Always stand the iron where it will not fall off on a child or pet or
your own toes.
WHAT TO DO: Learn About Your Iron
Materials Needed: An automatic iron, some old play clothes, towels,
napkins or handkerchiefs, and an ironing board.
Steps to Take:
1. Watch an experienced person iron.
2. Ask questions about what clothes need to be sprinkled.
3. Study the thermostat settings on the dial or indicator.
[Illustration: Most irons have a dial to set for the proper heat for
different fabrics.]
4. Ask about the kind of fabric each piece of clothing is--cotton,
linen, silk, nylon, etc.--and why the iron should be at high heat for
some, cooler for others.
5. Set the thermostat for the amount of heat needed, and with an older
person watching you, iron some handkerchiefs, napkins, bath towels, and
a pair of play shorts or blue jeans.
6. During a month iron some of these articles for your family, keeping a
record of how many you do and what they were.
7. Take care of your iron. Be responsible for storing it.
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
| | No. | | Store Iron Properly |
| Date | Articles Ironed | Type of Article | (check) |
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
| | | | |
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
| | | | |
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
IRONING IS FUN
1. I (use) (do not use) an adjustable ironing Board at home. If I do, I
adjust it to the height that just clears my knees easily as I sit in a
comfortable chair. Yes No
2. There are three kinds of irons usually used--dry iron, steam iron or
a combination steam or dry iron. I use a ---- iron.
3. I (have) (do not have) the instruction book. (If you do, read about
the iron.) I know the iron's parts by their correct names. They are----.
4. I disconnect the iron if I leave it even for only a minute. This is a
safety measure as fires have been known to start from irons left
connected. Yes No
5. I take hold of the plug--not the cord--when disconnecting the iron.
Yes No
6. I wait until the iron is cold before wrapping the cord around the
handle and storing the iron because----.
7. Most irons have a thermostatic control. The iron I am using has
settings for----.
8. The purpose of the thermostat is----.
9. These fabrics need high temperature.----
These fabrics need medium temperature.----
These fabrics need low temperature.----
10. These fabrics need sprinkling.----
11. The heat and smoothness of the sole plate smoothes the wrinkles.
Pushing down on the handle or moving the iron rapidly only makes ironing
hard work. I will iron slowly and steadily arranging and moving the
garment with the left hand while guiding the iron with the right hand.
(Or the other way for the left handed.) Yes No
12. I have watched an experienced person iron. Yes No
13. I have practiced on handkerchiefs, napkins and pillow cases.
14. Here is my record of ironing for one month.
Month ----
Your Name ----
Date I have ironed:
---------+------------------------------------------------
|
|
Demonstrations You Can Give
1. Show a dry iron and a steam-and-dry iron. Tell the difference between
them and when each is to be used.
2. Display garments that look nice because they have been ironed
properly, and those that have been ironed improperly. Explain about the
heat, thermostat, type of iron and why results differ.
For More Information
At a club meeting ask a parent to give a demonstration of ironing
different articles. Some power suppliers or dealers have people who will
demonstrate the proper way to iron, and how to care for irons.
LESSON NO. B-9
Credit Points 2
LET'S BE FRIENDS WITH ELECTRICITY
Plan a Hazard Hunt
Electricity can be your important lifelong friend and helper, so you
will want to know all you can about it and how to treat it properly.
However, careless and improper use of electricity can do a lot of harm.
Used properly, and treated with respect, electricity can do wonderful
things to help you every day in many ways.
For safe and proper use of electricity, all wiring, fittings,
insulation, cords and plugs must be in good condition. You can be a
detective and track down defects in any such type of electrical
equipment that you may be using in your home or on your farm.
When you find anything that is wrong, and know where it is, and know
what to do about it, you can very likely correct the condition yourself,
such as replacing a worn extension cord with a new one. If you find
defects in permanent wiring, or some places where wires are bare or
terminals are needed, you should tell your parents about them.
SAFETY FIRST, remember, should always be on your mind when working with
anything electrical.
WHAT TO DO:
_1. Have A Hazard Hunt_
Go on a Hazard Hunt to see how many electrical hazards you can find.
Look for defects such as broken insulation, worn cords, splices that are
not properly soldered and taped, loose connections, or switches that
aren't working properly.
There are many ways to have a Hazard Hunt. Choose the method that will
be the most fun. Use the Hazard Hunt Guide in this outline to check your
home, and other buildings. Maybe you'll want to have a friend help check
your home, then you help him check his. Or, why not give each member of
your family a Hazard Hunt Guide and have a contest? Parents may want to
team up against you and other younger members of your family to see
which team can find the most electrical hazards in some set time--say 30
minutes.
Have a Hazard Hunt Committee in your club check all member's homes and
buildings and report its findings at the next club meeting.
_To Make It More Fun_
1. Put a hazard tag, like the one shown, (Figure 1) by each hazard that
is found. Leave it until the hazard is corrected. Have another contest
to see which member of the family corrects the most hazards.
[Illustration: Figure 1]
2. Report on your Hazard Hunt at the next club meeting. Tell about the
Hazards found, and what you have done or plan to do about them.
3. Suggest that the entire club have an Electric Hazard Hunt at your
club meeting places or any community building. This could be part of one
meeting.
4. Have a contest between two teams in the club to see which team can
get the most homes in your community checked by the Hazard Hunt Guide.
Losers could give a party for the winners.
_2. Get Others Interested_
Promote a community Electric Hazard Hunt. Enlist the support of power
suppliers, electric supply and equipment dealers, schools, newspapers,
radio and television stations.
_What To Look For_
Make a complete tour of your home and other buildings and see how many
hazards you can locate. When you find a hazard, put a tag near it to
mark it.
SAFETY TIPS
Put hazard tags _near_ the hazard but _not_ directly on broken or frayed
wires, insulators, fittings, or other wiring equipment. Do not touch
them either. Badly-frayed wires should be disconnected immediately from
the power supply. In this way, you will not expose yourself to shock by
accidentally touching an exposed live wire that may be carrying current.
4-H Electric Hazard Hunt Guide
_Wiring and Protective Devices_
1. Cable or conduit splices not in boxes----
2. Cable or conduit not securely clamped in boxes----
3. Conduit or armored cable not properly grounded----
4. Cracked or broken insulators (Figure 2)----
5. Wire not completely covered with insulation----
6. Worn insulation on wire----
[Illustration: Figure 2]
7. Old unused wiring not yet removed----
8. Outlets, junction and switch boxes not securely fastened and covers
not in place----
9. Switches not working properly (sparks fly as switch is flipped)
(Figure 3)----
10. Fuses not of proper ampere rating for circuit----
11. Extension cord used in place of permanent wiring----
12. Pull chain socket without an insulating link in the chain----
13. Pull chain socket near plumbing fixtures or where hands may be wet
or one may stand in water----
[Illustration: Figure 3]
14. No moisture-proof cords for outside weather conditions or heavy
rubber cords for motors and motor driven appliances
_Lighting_
1. Fixtures in farm buildings installed so that they might be easily
damaged
2. Lights in haymows and other dusty locations not protected by
dustproof globes
3. Outside sockets not waterproof
4. Heat lamps not properly supported by non-current carrying wire,
chains, or brackets (Figure 4)
5. Light bulbs not frosted, shaded, or placed so that light is diffused
to prevent glare
[Illustration: Figure 4]
_Auxiliary Wiring_
1. Outlets overloaded--in other words, "octopus wiring"
2. Extension cords placed under rugs
3. Extension cords run through doorways (Figure 5)
[Illustration: Figure 5]
4. Extension cords or lamp cords should use underwriters' knot (Figure
6)
[Illustration: Figure 6]
5. Plug connections fuzzy (Figure 7)
[Illustration: Figure 7]
6. Extension cords run over heaters or radiators
7. Extension cords, or appliance or lamp cords, worn or frayed
8. Heating appliances without regular asbestos covered wire
9. Open sockets or outlets where a baby or small child might stick a
finger or metal toy
10. Broken plugs (Figure 8)----
11. Loose prongs on appliance or lamps plugs----
[Illustration: Figure 8]
How Many Hazards Did You Find?
Make a chart listing the hazards, their locations and what you did about
them. Make your own chart and list what you find.
Demonstrations You Can Give
Show and tell others how to have a Hazard Hunt.
For Further Information
Check with your leader, then ask your power supplier or a local
electrician to tell you about safe electrical wiring, connections and
fixtures.
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
|Hazard | Location |What I Did |
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
|_Loose prong on lamp plug|Living Room |Replaced with new plug_ |
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
|_Cracked insultor on |Back of house|Notified power _ |
|_service wire in house | |supplier_ |
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
|_Conduit not securely |Basement by |Notified parents_ |
|_clamped to box |fuse box_ | |
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
|_Extension cord, old and |Basement, by |Replaced with new_ |
|_worn |washing |rubber-covered one and_ |
| |_machine |protected it from _ |
| | |_water_ |
+-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
LESSON NO. B-10
Credit Points 3
HOW ELECTRIC BELLS WORK--FOR YOU
When was the last time you wanted to get a simple message like "You're
wanted on the telephone," "There's someone here to see you," or "There's
a car in the driveway," to someone around your place? Did you have to
walk or run some distance and perhaps shout, too, to be heard by the
other person? Perhaps you had to stop some other work, or interrupt your
favorite kind of fun, to do this bit of messenger work.
If the nature of the message is like one of those mentioned, and the
number of people in hearing is not too great, then perhaps you can use
bells or buzzers or both to do some of your messenger work for you. Even
though a bell or a buzzer can't talk, it can convey a message.
What to Do
1. Learn how bells and buzzers work, and learn about the many different
kinds.
2. Plan and install a bell system for your home or farm.
Bells and Buzzers Can Tell a Lot
Electric bells and buzzers use the same basic principle as the telegraph
system, invented by Samuel Morse in 1840. Although not as important
today as it was before radio, telephone, and teletype became common, the
telegraph is still in use.
Bells and buzzers, however, are very common and have many uses. They are
most often seen in the form of doorbells, and rare is the new home that
does not have one or more. Service stations have bell systems to let the
operator know that a car is waiting at the gas pumps. A clock signal
reminds the homemaker when the cooking time is completed. Children are
called to and released from school classes by means of bells and
buzzers.
Also, various alarms employing bells and buzzers warn us when it's time
to get up, or even that the place is on fire, or that a burglar is
trying to break in!
Let's find out how bells and buzzers work, what different kinds there
are, the different ways you can control them, and how you can put them
to work for you.
You'll find that buzzers and bells can help you with your 4-H projects,
and with the proper controls, can be your eyes and voice in a dozen
places at once.
Why They Buzz or Ring--Electromagnetism
If we were to look at an electric bell with the cover off, we'd find
that it would be very much like Figure 1.
A push on the button, which is just a switch that is normally held
"open" or off by means of a spring, sends the current from the battery
or transformer through the circuit.
[Illustration: Figure 1]
You will see that the current passes first through two small coils of
wire, and each coil has at its center a piece of soft iron called the
core. When the current is on, the core becomes magnetized and attracts
another piece of iron called the armature with its clapper attached.
This action rings the bell, but it also breaks the current by pulling
the spring away from the screw on its return to the power supply.
With the power off, the electromagnet lets the spring return the
armature to its normal position, contact is made again, and the cycle
starts all over again--just as long as you continue to push on the
button.
Buzzers work exactly the same way, except that they do not have a bell
and depend instead on the vibration of the armature for a noise that's
not as loud or as musical.
Gongs or chimes, that strike only once when the button is pushed, are
made by connecting the armature with the screw by means of a flexible
wire.
A Special Kind of Electricity
Most buzzers and bells work on a much lower voltage than you normally
find in the wires in your house. Some are made to work at 6 volts,
others at 10 volts, and still others at slightly higher voltages.
You can get these low voltages by using one or more batteries, or by
using a transformer connected to your house current. Most bells and
buzzers are now powered through transformers.
How to Control Them
The push button is the most common means of control. You can use one
button to control several bells, or several buttons to control one bell,
or have several buttons control several bells. Because low voltage is
used, adding extra buttons is simple, inexpensive, and safe.
Buzzers and bells can also be controlled by: _clocks_, as in the
interval timer on an electric range or in a school class bell system;
_temperature detectors_, as in a fire alarm or freezer alarm; _door and
window trips_, as in a one-man repair shop or in a burglar alarm; and
_treadles_, as in the driveway of a service station.
[Illustration: Figure 2]
Pick the Right Bell or Buzzer
Some of the many different types of bells, and various ways of
controlling them are suggested in the table below. Just remember that no
matter what the job or conditions, you can probably find a bell or
buzzer and controls that suit your need.
SOME TYPICAL JOBS FOR BELLS & BUZZERS