startling title “What is Property? Theft”. In it he demonstrated that
a _rentier_, or person living, as we now put it, by owning instead of
by working, inflicts on society precisely the same injury as a thief.
Proudhon was a poor Frenchman; but a generation later John Ruskin,
a rich Englishman of the most conservative education and culture,
declared that whoever was not a worker was either a beggar or a robber,
and published accounts of his personal activities and expenditure
to prove that he had given good value for his rents and dividends.
A generation later again Cecil Rhodes, an ultra-imperialist, made a
famous will bequeathing his large fortune for public purposes, and
attaching the condition that no idler should ever benefit by it. It
may be said that from the moment when Capitalism established itself
as a reasoned-out system to be taught at the universities as standard
political economy, it began to lose its moral plausibility, and, in
spite of its dazzling mechanical triumphs and financial miracles,
steadily progressed from inspiring the sanguine optimism of Macaulay
and his contemporaries to provoking a sentiment which became more and
more like abhorrence among the more thoughtful even of the capitalists
themselves.
All such moral revolutions have their literary prophets and theorists;
and among them the first place was taken by Karl Marx, in the second
half of the nineteenth century, with his history of Capital, an
overwhelming exposure of the horrors of the industrial revolution
and the condition to which it had reduced the proletariat. Marx’s
contribution to the abstract economic theory of value, by which
he set much store, was a blunder which was presently corrected and
superseded by the theory of Jevons; but as Marx’s category of “surplus
value” (Mehrwerth), meaning rent, interest, and profits, represented
solid facts, his blunder in no way invalidated his indictment of
the capitalist system, nor his historical generalization as to the
evolution of society on economic lines. His so-called Historic
Materialism is easily vulnerable to criticism as a law of nature; but
his postulate that human society does in fact evolve on its belly,
as an army marches, and that its belly biases its brains, is a safe
working one. Buckle’s much less read History of Civilization, also a
work of the mind changing sort, has the same thesis but a different
moral: to wit, that progress depends on the critical people who do not
believe everything they are told: that is, on scepticism.
Even before Karl Marx the Capitalist economists had lost their
confidence, and its ordinary exponents become disingenuously evasive.
Not so the bigger men. John Stuart Mill began as a Ricardian and ended
as an avowed Socialist. Cairnes still saw no practicable alternative to
Capitalism; but his contempt for the “drones in the hive” who live by
owning was as thorough and outspoken as Ruskin’s. Their latest academic
successor, Mr Maynard Keynes, dismisses Laisser-faire contemptuously as
an exploded fallacy.
After Cairnes a school of British Socialist economists arose, notably
Sidney and Beatrice Webb of the Fabian Society, who substituted the
term Political Science for Political Economy. They gave historical
consciousness to the proletarian movement by writing its history
with the intimate knowledge and biographical vivacity needed to give
substance to the abstract proletariat described by Marx. The evolution
of Trade Unionism, Co-operation, and proletarian politics (Industrial
Democracy) was reasoned out and documented by them. Their histories
of English local government and of the Poor Law cover a huge part
of the general field of British constitutional and administrative
activity, past and present. They cured Fabianism of the romantic
amateurishness which had made the older Socialist agitations negligible
and ridiculous, and contributed most of the Fabian Society’s practical
proposals for the solution of pressing problems. They shattered the
old Capitalist theory of the impotence of the State for anything but
mischief in industry, and demonstrated not only that communal and
collective enterprise has already attained a development undreamt of by
Ricardo and his contemporaries, but that Capitalism itself is dependent
for its existence on State guidance, and has evolved collective
forms of its own which have taken it far beyond the control of the
individual private investor, and left it ripe for transfer to national
or municipal ownership. Their volume on the decay of Capitalism has
completed Marx’s work of driving Capitalism from its old pretension to
be normal, inevitable, and in the long run always beneficial in modern
society, to a position comparable to that of an army digging itself
into its last ditch after a long series of surrenders and retreats.
They estimate roughly that in its hundred years of supremacy Capitalism
justified its existence, _faute de mieux_, for the first fifty years,
and for the last fifty has been collapsing more and more on its crazy
foundation.
Beatrice Webb’s curious mixture of spiritual and technical
autobiography, entitled My Apprenticeship, describes how an intelligent
girl-capitalist, with a sensitive social conscience and a will of her
own, critically impervious to mere persuasion, and impressible by
first hand evidence and personal experience only, was led to Socialism
by stubbornly investigating the facts of Capitalist civilization for
herself. The Intelligent Woman with a turn for investigation or an
interest in character study, or both, should read it.
Between Karl Marx and the Webbs came Henry George with his Progress and
Poverty, which converted many to Land Nationalization. It was the work
of a man who had seen that the conversion of an American village to a
city of millionaires was also the conversion of a place where people
could live and let live in tolerable comfort to an inferno of seething
poverty and misery. Tolstoy was one of his notable converts. George’s
omission to consider what the State should do with the national rent
after it had taken it into the public treasury stopped him on the
threshold of Socialism; but most of the young men whom he had led up
to it went through (like myself) into the Fabian Society and other
Socialist bodies. Progress and Poverty is still Ricardian in theory:
indeed it is on its abstract side a repetition of De Quincey’s Logic
of Political Economy; but whereas De Quincey, as a true-blue British
Tory of a century ago, accepted the Capitalist unequal distribution of
income, and the consequent division of society into rich gentry and
poor proletarians, as a most natural and desirable arrangement, George,
as an equally true-blue American republican, was revolted by it.
After Progress and Poverty the next milestone is Fabian Essays,
edited by myself, in which Sidney Webb first entered the field as a
definitely Socialist writer with Graham Wallas, whose later treatises
on constitutional problems are important, and Sydney Olivier (Lord
Olivier) whose studies of the phenomenon of the “poor white” in Africa
and America, facing the competition of the black proletariats created
by negro slavery, should be read by Colonial Ministers. In Fabian
Essays Socialism is presented for the first time as a completely
constitutional political movement, which the most respectable and
least revolutionary citizen can join as irreproachably as he might
join the nearest Conservative club. Marx is not mentioned; and his
peculiar theory of value is entirely ignored, the economic theories
relied on being Jevons’ theory of value and Ricardo’s theory of the
rent of land, the latter being developed so as to apply to industrial
capital and interests as well. In short, Socialism appears in Fabian
Essays purged of all its unorthodox views and insurrectionary Liberal
associations. This is what distinguished the volume at that time
from such works as the England For All of Henry Mayers Hyndman, the
founder of the Social-Democratic Federation, who, until 1918, when
the Russian Marxists outraged his British patriotism by the treaty
of Brest Litovsk, clung to Marx’s value theory, and to the Marxian
traditions of the barricade Liberalism of 1848, with a strong dash of
the freethinking gentlemanly cosmopolitanism of the advanced republican
_littérateurs_ of the middle of the nineteenth century.
After Fabian Essays treatises on Socialism followed, first singly, then
in dozens, then in scores, and now in such profusion that I never read
them unless I know the writers personally, nor always, I confess, even
then.
If you read Sociology, not for information but for entertainment (small
blame to you!), you will find that the nineteenth-century poets and
prophets who denounced the wickedness of our Capitalism exactly as
the Hebrew prophets denounced the Capitalism of their time, are much
more exciting to read than the economists and writers on political
science who worked out the economic theory and political requirements
of Socialism. Carlyle’s Past and Present and Shooting Niagara,
Ruskin’s Ethics of the Dust and Fors Clavigera, William Morris’s News
from Nowhere (the best of all the Utopias), Dickens’s Hard Times and
Little Dorrit, are notable examples: Ruskin in particular leaving
all the professed Socialists, even Karl Marx, miles behind in force
of invective. Lenin’s criticisms of modern society seem like the
platitudes of a rural dean in comparison. Lenin wisely reserved his
most blighting invectives for his own mistakes.
But I doubt whether nineteenth-century writers can be as entertaining
to you as they are to me, who spent the first forty-four years of my
life in that benighted period. If you would appreciate the enormous
change from nineteenth-century self-satisfaction to twentieth-century
self-criticism you can read The Pickwick Papers (jolly early Dickens)
and then read Our Mutual Friend (disillusioned mature Dickens),
after which you can try Dickens’s successor H. G. Wells, who, never
having had any illusions about the nineteenth century, is utterly
impatient of its blunderings, and full of the possibilities of social
reconstruction. When you have studied nineteenth-century county
gentility in the novels of Anthony Trollope and Thackeray for the sake
of understanding your more behind-hand friends, you must study it
up-to-date in the novels of John Galsworthy. To realize how ignorant
even so great an observer as Dickens could be of English life outside
London and the main coaching routes you can compare his attempt to
describe the Potteries in Hard Times with Arnold Bennett’s native
pictures of the Five Towns; but to appreciate his much more serious and
complete ignorance of working-class history and organization in his own
day you would have to turn from fiction to the Webbs’ History of Trade
Unionism.
The earlier nineteenth-century literature, for all its invective,
satire, derision and caricature, made amiable by its generous
indignation, was not a literature of revolt. It was pre-Marxian.
Post-Marxian literature, even in its most goodhumored pages by men who
never read Marx, is revolutionary: it does not contemplate the survival
of the present order, which Thackeray, for instance, in his bitterest
moods seems never to have doubted.
For women the division is made by Marx’s Norwegian contemporary Ibsen
rather than by Marx. Ibsen’s women are all in revolt against Capitalist
morality; and the clever ladies who have since filled our bookshelves
with more or less autobiographical descriptions of female frustration
and slavery are all post-Ibsen. The modern literature of male
frustration, much less copious, is post-Strindberg. In neither branch
are there any happy endings. They have the Capitalist horror without
the Socialist hope.
The post-Marxian, post-Ibsen psychology gave way in 1914-18 to the
post-war psychology. It is very curious; but it is too young, and I
too old, for more than this bare mention of its existence and its
literature.
Finally I may mention some writings of my own, mostly in the form of
prefaces to my published plays. One of the oddities of English literary
tradition is that plays should be printed with prefaces which have
nothing to do with them, and are really essays, or manifestoes, or
pamphlets, with the plays as a bait to catch readers. I have exploited
this tradition very freely, puzzling many good people who thought the
prefaces must be part of the plays. In this guise I contended that
poverty should be neither pitied as an inevitable misfortune, nor
tolerated as a just retribution for misconduct, but resolutely stamped
out and prevented from recurring as a disease fatal to human society.
I also made it quite clear that Socialism means equality of income
or nothing, and that under Socialism you would not be allowed to be
poor. You would be forcibly fed, clothed, lodged, taught, and employed
whether you liked it or not. If it were discovered that you had not
character and industry enough to be worth all this trouble, you might
possibly be executed in a kindly manner; but whilst you were permitted
to live you would have to live well. Also you would not be allowed to
have half a crown an hour when other women had only two shillings, or
to be content with two shillings when they had half a crown. As far as
I know I was the first Socialist writer to whom it occurred to state
this explicitly as a necessary postulate of permanent civilization; but
as nothing that is true is ever new I daresay it had been said again
and again before I was born.
Two Fabian booklets of mine entitled Socialism and Superior Brains and
The Common Sense of Municipal Trading are still probably worth reading,
as they are written from personal experience of both.
INDEX
BY BEATRICE WHITE, M.A.
Abatement, smoke, 145
Aberdeen, 262
Abernethy, John, 203
Ability, managerial, 67, 181;
to maintain discipline, 334, 335;
necessary to nationalize, 341
Abortion, 88;
surgical, 410
Abraham, 410
Access to rare books and pictures, 388
Accountants, 173, 176, 179, 225, 328
Acrobats, 205
Actors, 23, 169, 205, 419
Actresses, 22;
popular, 331
Acts of Parliament, 254, 299, 309, 322, 356, 371, 384, 412
Admiralty, the, 32, 274, 276
Adoption, compulsory, 413
Adulterators, 203
Adults, dysgenic, 436
Adventurers, 310
Advertisements, 135, 203, 310
Aerodromes, 402
Aeroplane lines, the, 388
Aeroplane pilots, 397
Aeroplanes, 313, 345, 402
Affiliation allowances, 200
Afforestation, 281
Africa, 52, 143, 150, 152, 154, 157, 409
African markets, 154
African “medicine”, 367
Agents, 166
Agitators, Socialistic, 305
Agnostics, 436, 438
Agricultural harvests, 240
Agricultural laborers, 204
Air services, 312, 313
Airships, 402
Albert Hall, the, 333
Alcohol, 395, 396, 397, 398
Alexander the Great, 54
Alfonso, King, 318, 371, 379
Alfred, King, 40, 309
Algeria, 152
Allah, 367
Alliances, 153
Allotment holders, 340
Almsgiving, 95
Ambassadors, 75
Ambulance porters, 52
America, 8, 57, 98, 120, 124, 142, 144, 154, 176, 188, 193, 194, 225,
275, 293, 294, 296, 306, 307, 314, 370, 374, 401, 409, 430,
431, 444, 466
America, United States of, 141, 369, 381, 396, 450;
anti-British feeling in, 158-159
American dollars, 256;
employers and financiers, methods of, 306, 307;
hotheads, 396;
plantations, 215;
presidents, 328, 381;
State Legislatures, 436;
statistics, 397;
villages, 217
Americans, the, 410
Amsterdam, 259
Amusements, 165
Ananias and Sapphira, 12
Anarchism, 445, 447
Anarchists, 94, 203, 220, 444, 446
Anarchy, 29-30, 381
Andes, the, 235
Anglican Churches, the, 404
Anglo-Catholics, 219, 346, 360
Anne, Queen, 139
Anti-clericalism, 439
Anti-clericals, 345
Anti-Russian scare, the 1924, 346
Anti-Socialists, 346
Apostles, the, 12, 13, 14, 19
Apostles’ creed, the, 308, 426
Apothecaries, 419
_Apprentice, The Sorcerer’s_, 157-61
Appropriation Act, the, 113
Arabian desert, the, 457
Arabs, the, 87
Archbishop Laud, 374, 430, 431, 439
Archbishops, 28, 93, 340, 436, 439
Architects, 169
Arcos, raid on, 223
Aristocracy, the landed, 214
Aristotle, 94
Armada, the, 321
Armaments, 144;
the race of, 154
Armistice, the, 156
Army, the, 31, 289
Arnold, Matthew, 98
Arnold, Whately, 272
Art, 30, 31, 39, 48, 157
Art of living, the, 60
Articles, the Thirty-nine, 425, 441, 445
Artificial happiness, 395, 398
Artificial overpopulation, 357, 409
Artists, 78, 81, 386
Asia, 89, 152;
British Empire in, 431
Asquith, Herbert Henry, 218
Assaults in school, 416
Assistants, shop, 78, 145, 163, 177, 334, 397, 446
Associated work, 73
Astor property, the, 8
Astronomer Royal, the, 3, 17
Astronomers, 16, 169, 327, 341
Astronomy, Copernican, 361
Asylums, lunatic, 33
Athanasian creed, the, 426
Atheists, 215, 345, 435
Athenian democracy, 453
Athens, 297
Athletes, champion, 398, 429
Atlantic, the, 106, 312
Attendants, picture gallery, 79
Augury, ancient, 367
Augustine, Saint, 92, 93, 441
Austin’s Lectures on Jurisprudence, 466
Australasia, 409
Australia, 89, 193, 194, 361;
uncles in, 67
Australians, the, 410
Austria, 263
Austrian Government, the, 255
Authority, 37-8;
and subordination, 337
Authors, 169, 172, 225
Averaging. _See_ Nationalization
Babies, 6, 384, 433;
superfluous, 410
Babylon, 372
Bachelors, 349
Baghdad, 314
Bagmen, 343
Baked-potato men, 184
Bakers, 9, 52, 266
Baldwin, Stanley, 218, 222
Balfour, Arthur James, 218
Bank of England, 167, 231, 244, 248, 249, 250, 259, 261, 292
Bank Holiday, 77, 81
Bank Holiday Acts, 322
Bank managers, 55, 268
Bank rate, the, 244, 249, 295
Bank transactions, 245
Banker-General, 273
Bankers, 131, 178, 181, 266, 268, 297
Banking, 243-51;
nationalization of, 35, 140, 181, 264-8, 386
Banks, 278;
Scottish and Irish, 259;
national and municipal, 140, 266
Baptism, 4, 424, 433
Barbers, 419
Bargemen, 21
Barges, 401
Barristers, _See_ Lawyers
Baronets, surgical, 332
Bass Rock ideal, the, 412
Bastille, the, 413
Battlefields, 87, 292
Battleships, 349
Beachcombers, 151
Beaconsfield, Earl of, 217
Becket, Thomas à, 430
Bedford, endowed schools of, 300
Bees, 86, 90
Beethoven, 414
Behaviour, 172, 173
Belgium, 153
Belief, differences of, 366, 367;
mostly bias, 460, 461
Bell, answering the, 78
Bench, the, 339
Bennett, Arnold, 469
Betterton, 419
Biarritz, 280
Bible, the, 189, 203, 233, 361, 374, 403, 424, 432, 459;
astronomy and biology of, 361;
of the working classes, 441
Bibles, 50, 143
Big business, 225;
capitalist, 308
Billiard markers, 397
Birmingham, 146, 214, 266, 271, 336;
municipal bank of, 266
Birth control, _See_ Contraception
Bishops, 434
Bismarck, 54, 165, 380, 381, 453
Blacklegs, 207
Blacksmiths, 27, 138;
village, 167, 386
Bloated aristocrats, 444
Blocks, parliamentary, 351
Blockmakers, parliamentary, 351
Boards, 353
Boatswains, 335
Boer ideal, the, 412
Bogey Bolshevism, 14
Bogies, 95
Bolsheviks, 65, 94, 110, 208, 270, 343, 368, 374, 444;
Communist, 375
Bolshevism, 113
Bombay Ginning Mills, 191
Bombing aeroplanes, 380
Bonar Law, Mr, 218
Bond Street, 278, 280, 399, 429
Book of Common Prayer, 406
Bookkeepers, 173, 225, 328, 397
Bookkeeping, 184
Bookmakers, 242
Bootle, 280
Bootlegging, 142
Bootmakers, 357
Boots, broken, 50
Borneo, 313
Borough Councils, 351
Borrovians, 220
Borrow, George, 219
Borrowing and hiring, 231, 232
Borrowing from and taxing capitalists, 290
Bound feet, 427
Bounderby, 303
Bountiful ladies, 65
Bourgeois, the, 369, 444
Bournemouth, 146, 278, 280, 372
Bourneville, 307, 375
Bourrienne, memoirs of, 328
Bourses, Continental, 243
Boy Scouts, 413
Bradlaugh, Charles, 435
Brahma, 367
Brains, proper social use of, 331
Bread, communization of, 15
Bread and circuses, 96
Breadwinning, 164, 197
Breaking a bank, 246
Breakwaters, 135
Bremerhaven, 154
Brewers, 177
Briand, Aristide, 351
Bricklayers, 167, 205, 208, 224, 356
Brickmakers, 23
Bridges, 391
Brigadiers, 357
Brigham Young, 380, 410, 411;
a Mormon Moses, 431
Bright, John, 190
Brighton, 134
Bristol, 143, 272
Britain, 311, 379, 431
British army and navy, 313;
brains, 311;
Commonwealth, 313;
courage, 311;
Empire, 253, 259, 313, 367;
in Asia, 431;
flag, 313;
genius, 311;
human nature, 330;
husbands, 406;
people, 313;
proletariat, 359;
proletarian voters, 369;
Museum, 16;
anti-Socialist governments, 287;
employers, 306;
Government, 255, 306;
race, 310;
Raj, 453;
religions, variety and incompatibility of, 425;
taxpayers, 313;
workman, 219;
turf, 236;
Socialists, 141;
Isles, 141;
Trade Unionists, 306
Brobdingnag, the King of, 155
Brummagem buttons, 214
Brunswick, Duke of, 369
Buccaneers, capitalist, 417
Bucket shops, 242
Buckingham Palace, 37, 118, 426
Buckle’s History of Civilization, 467
Budget, the, 285;
annual debates on, 286
Budgets, 384
Building societies, 129;
trades, 205
Bullion, 259
Bulls and bears, 241
Bumble, Mr, 413
Bunyan, John, 5, 298, 329;
his Simple, Sloth, and Presumption, 318
Bureaucracy. _See_ Civil Service Burglars, 457
Bus conductors, 251
Business, wholesale, 386;
private, 387, 388
Business ability, 131
Business man, the practical, 226, 249
Business men, 24, 130, 170, 171, 248
Business principles, 208
Butchers, 422
Butler, Samuel, 140
Byron, Lord, 344
Cabinet, the, 353, 354
Cabinet Ministers, 216, 348, 353
Cabinets, British, 348
Cablegrams, 136
Ca’canny, 208, 211
Cadbury, Mr, 307
Cæsar, Julius, 54, 380
Cæsars, 348
Cairnes, John Elliot, 467
Calculus, the, 422, 428
Calcutta Sweep, the, 67
Calvin, John, 431
Cambridge University, 169, 418, 429
Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry, 218
Canada, 89
Canadians, French, 159
Canals, 401
Candidates, the No-Compensation, 271
Candide, 462
Canossa, 430, 442
Canterbury, 430
Capel Court, 243
Capital, 33, 115, 127-31, 133;
export of, 140-44, 150;
definition of, 100;
driven abroad, 34-5;
homeless and at home everywhere, 140;
party of, 218;
levy, 227, 229, 230;
investing and “realizing”, 228;
taxation of, 277, 294;
domestic, 225-31
Capitalism, 10, 100-104, 185, 233, 368, 378, 459;
adventurous and experimental, 312;
diehard, 447;
Liberal constitutional, 447;
limitations of, 133-7;
mammonist morality of, 374;
in perpetual motion, 308-14;
on paper, 310;
a principle of, 331;
provides selfish motives for doing good, 300;
secular, 443;
ruthless, 314;
uncontrollable, 317;
well-established method of, 300;
runaway car of, 314-19
Capitalist and genius, the, 311
Capitalist morality, 200, 291, 359, 360;
law, 325;
system, one of worst vices of, 337;
papers, 116, 342;
Government and Opposition, 344;
crusade, 369;
exploitations of the taxpayers, 388, 389;
oligarchy, 431;
mankind detestable, 456;
and Socialist Governments, difference between, 390
Capitalists, 444;
dictatorship of, 376
Captains, navy, 70;
sea, 422
Cardinals, 436
Careerists, 95
Careers open to women, 174
Carlyle, Thomas, 5, 93;
his Past and Present, 424, 469;
Sartor Resartus, 425;
Shooting Niagara, 469
Carnegie, Andrew, 37, 332
Carnegie charities, 160
Carpenters, 23, 69, 205, 356, 399;
village, 167
Carriage of mails oversea, 388
Carriers, village, 387, 388, 389
C.O.D. parcel post, 271, 272
Casual labor, 118-20
Casual people, 73
Cathedrals, the, 438
Catholic Church, the, 441
Catholic theoracy, 442
Catholicism, 185
Catholics, 68, 93, 445
Celibacy, 407
Chambermaids, 149
Chancellor of the Exchequer, 113, 121, 227, 276, 281,
285, 287, 290, 295
Chanceries, 353
Change, continuous, 2;
constructive, must be parliamentary, 380-86
Changes, social, 39
Chaplains, 185
Charabancs, 164, 165, 312
Character, 26
Charity, 95, 144
Charlemagne, 433
Charles I, King, 321, 345, 371, 405
Charles, II, King, 305, 329, 345
Chartists, 444
Charwomen, 17, 35, 78, 79, 84, 105, 118, 119, 146, 198, 234, 342, 420
Chauffeurs, 75
Cheap and nasty, 139
Cheltenham, 146
Chemists, 310, 312, 327, 341
Cheques and clearing houses, 261
Cheques and Bills, 265
Chicago municipal elections, 159
Chicago pork kings, 343
Child-bearing, 74, 88, 176, 196
Child fanciers, 415
Child farming, 415
Child labor, 192
Child life, organization of, 413
Children, 53, 76, 360, 361, 362, 363, 392, 393, 423, 428, 436, 460;
and parents, 134, 193, 364, 366, 408;
and young persons overworked, 309;
bearing and rearing of, 74, 196, 326;
cost of, 87-8;
exposure of female, 89;
illegitimate, 200, 410;
institutional treatment of, 413;
matter-of-fact, 363;
Roman Catholic, 365;
ugly, 55
Children’s ordinary human rights, disregard of, 415
Children’s religion, dictated by parents, 360
Children’s wages, 196
China, 34, 142, 151, 194, 365, 374, 406
Chocolate creams, 145, 146
Cholera epidemics, 189, 427
Christ, 4, 54, 69, 94, 98, 367, 368, 424, 433, 441;
the mother of, 432
Christ Scientist, the Church of, 329, 431, 433
Christian Science, 433
Christian Scientists, 432
Christian Socialists, 458
Christianity, 89, 92, 143;
early, 459
Christians, 93, 313, 367, 369;
early, 89, 92
Christmas, 63;
cards, 156