Standard Methods for the Sampling and Analysis of Commercial Fats and
Oils[22]
The following report of the _Committee on Analysis of Commercial Fats
and Oils_ of the _Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical
Engineers_ of the American Chemical Society was adopted April 14, 1919,
by unanimous vote:
W. D. RICHARDSON, _Chairman_,
Swift and Co., Chicago, Ill.
R. W. BAILEY,
Stillwell and Gladding, New York City.
W. J. GASCOYNE,
W. J. Gascoyne and Co., Baltimore, Md.
I. KATZ,[A]
Wilson and Co., Chicago, Ill.
A. LOWENSTEIN,[A]
Morris and Co., Chicago, Ill.
H. J. MORRISON,
Proctor and Gamble Co.,
Ivorydale, Ohio.
J. R. POWELL,
Armour Soap Works, Chicago, Ill.
R. J. QUINN,[A]
Midland Chemical Co., Argo, Ill.
PAUL RUDNICK,
Armour and Co., Chicago, Ill.
L. M. TOLMAN,
Wilson and Co., Chicago, Ill.
E. TWITCHELL,[A]
Emery Candle Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.
J. J. VOLLERTSEN,
Morris and Co., Chicago, Ill.
[Note A: Resigned.]
Scope, Applicability and Limitations of the Methods.
SCOPE.
These methods are intended to aid in determining the commercial
valuation of fats and fatty oils in their purchase and sale, based on
the fundamental assumption commonly recognized in the trade, namely,
that the product is true to name and is not adulterated. For methods for
determining the identity of oils and fats, the absence of adulterants
therein and for specific tests used in particular industries, the
chemist is referred to standard works on the analysis of fats and oils.
APPLICABILITY.
The methods are applicable in commercial transactions involving fats and
fatty oils used in the soap, candle and tanning industries, to edible
fats and oils and to fats and fatty oils intended for lubricating and
burning purposes. The methods are applicable to the raw oils used in the
varnish and paint industry with the exceptions noted under limitations,
but special methods have not been included.
LIMITATIONS.
The methods have not been developed with special reference to waxes
(beeswax, carnauba wax, wool wax, etc.) although some of them may be
found applicable to these substances. The Committee considers the Wijs
method superior to the Hanus method for the determination of iodine
number of linseed oil as well as other oils, although the Hanus method
has been considered standard for this work for some time and has been
adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials and in various
specifications. It has been customary to use the Huebl method for the
determination of iodine value of tung oil (China wood oil) but the
Committee's work indicates that the Wijs method is satisfactory for this
determination.
Sampling.
TANK CARS.
1. SAMPLING WHILE LOADING--Sample shall be taken at discharge of pipe
where it enters tank car dome. The total sample taken shall be not less
than 50 lbs. and shall be a composite of small samples of about 1 pound
each, taken at regular intervals during the entire period of loading.
The sample thus obtained is thoroughly mixed and uniform 3-lb. portions
placed in air-tight 3-lb. metal containers. At least three such samples
shall be put up, one for the buyer, one for the seller, and the third to
be sent to a referee chemist in case of dispute. All samples are to be
promptly and correctly labeled and sealed.
2. SAMPLING FROM CAR ON TRACK[23]--(_a_) _When contents are solid._[24]
In this case the sample is taken by means of a large tryer measuring
about 2 in. across and about 1-1/2 times the depth of the car in length.
Several tryerfuls are taken vertically and obliquely toward the ends of
the car until 50 lbs. are accumulated, when the sample is softened,
mixed and handled as under (1). In case the contents of the tank car
have assumed a very hard condition, as in Winter weather, so that it is
impossible to insert the tryer, and it becomes necessary to soften the
contents of the car by means of the closed steam coil (in nearly all
tank cars the closed steam coil leaks) or by means of open steam in
order to draw a proper sample, suitable arrangements must be made
between buyer and seller for the sampling of the car after it is
sufficiently softened, due consideration being given to the possible
presence of water in the material in the car as received and also to the
possible addition of water during the steaming. The Committee knows of
no direct method for sampling a hard-frozen tank car of tallow in a
satisfactory manner.
(_b_) _When contents are liquid._ The sample taken is to be a 50-lb.
composite made up of numerous small samples taken from the top, bottom
and intermediate points by means of a bottle or metal container with
removable stopper or top. This device attached to a suitable pole is
lowered to the various desired depths, when the stopper or top is
removed and the container allowed to fill. The 50-lb. sample thus
obtained is handled as under (1).
In place of the device described above, any sampler capable of taking a
sample from the top, bottom, and center, or from a section through car,
may be used.
(_c_) _When contents are in semi-solid condition, or when stearine has
separated from liquid portions._ In this case, a combination of (_a_)
and (_b_) may be used or by agreement of the parties the whole may be
melted and procedure (_b_) followed.
BARRELS, TIERCES, CASKS, DRUMS, AND OTHER PACKAGES.
All packages shall be sampled, unless by special agreement the parties
arrange to sample a lesser number; but in any case not less than 10 per
cent of the total number shall be sampled. The total sample taken shall
be at least 20 lbs. in weight for each 100 barrels, or equivalent.
1. BARRELS, TIERCES AND CASKS--(_a_) _When contents are solid._ The
small samples shall be taken by a tryer through the bunghole or through
a special hole bored in the head or side for the purpose, with a 1-in.
or larger auger. Care should be taken to avoid and eliminate all borings
and chips from the sample. The tryer is inserted in such a way as to
reach the head of the barrel, tierce, or cask. The large sample is
softened, mixed and handled according to TANK CARS (1).
(_b_) _When contents are liquid._ In this case use is made of a glass
tube with constricted lower end. This is inserted slowly and allowed to
fill with the liquid, when the upper end is closed and the tube
withdrawn, the contents being allowed to drain into the sample
container. After the entire sample is taken it is thoroughly mixed and
handled according to TANK CARS (1).
(_c_) _When contents are semi-solid._ In this case the tryer or a glass
tube with larger outlet is used, depending on the degree of fluidity.
(_d_) _Very hard materials, such as natural and artificial stearines._
By preference the barrels are stripped and samples obtained by breaking
up contents of at least 10 per cent of the packages. This procedure is
to be followed also in the case of cakes shipped in sacks. When shipped
in the form of small pieces in sacks they can be sampled by grab
sampling and quartering. In all cases the final procedure is as outlined
under TANK CARS (1).
2. DRUMS--Samples are to be taken as under (1), use being made of the
bunghole. The tryer or tube should be sufficiently long to reach to the
ends of the drum.
3. OTHER PACKAGES--Tubs, pails and other small packages not mentioned
above are to be sampled by tryer or tube (depending on fluidity) as
outlined above, the tryer or tube being inserted diagonally whenever
possible.
4. MIXED LOTS AND PACKAGES--When lots of tallow or other fats are
received in packages of various shapes and sizes, and especially wherein
the fat itself is of variable composition, such must be left to the
judgment of the sampler. If variable, the contents of each package
should be mixed as thoroughly as possible and the amount of the
individual samples taken made proportional to the sizes of the packages.
Analysis.
SAMPLE.
The sample must be representative and at least three pounds in weight
and taken in accordance with the STANDARD METHODS FOR THE SAMPLING OF
COMMERCIAL FATS AND OILS. It must be kept in an air-tight container, in
a dark, cool place.
Soften the sample if necessary by means of a gentle heat, taking care
not to melt it. When sufficiently softened, mix the sample thoroughly by
means of a mechanical egg beater or other equally effective mechanical
mixer.
MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.
APPARATUS: _Vacuum Oven_--The Committee Standard Oven.
DESCRIPTION--The Standard F. A. C. Vacuum Oven has been designed with
the idea of affording a simple and compact vacuum oven which will give
as uniform temperatures as possible on the shelf. As the figure shows,
it consists of an iron casting of rectangular sections with hinged front
door made tight by means of a gasket and which can be lowered on opening
the oven so as to form a shelf on which samples may be rested. The oven
contains but one shelf which is heated from above as well as below by
means of resistance coils. Several thermometer holes are provided in
order to ascertain definitely the temperature at different points on the
shelf. In a vacuum oven where the heating is done almost entirely by
radiation it is difficult to maintain uniform temperatures at all
points, but the F. A. C. oven accomplishes this rather better than most
vacuum ovens. Larger ovens containing more than one shelf have been
tried by the Committee, but have been found to be lacking in temperature
uniformity and means of control. The entire oven is supported by means
of a 4-in. standard pipe which screws into the base of the oven and
which in turn is supported by being screwed into a blind flange of
suitable diameter which rests on the floor or work table.
_Moisture Dish_--A shallow, glass dish, lipped, beaker form,
approximately 6 to 7 cm. diameter and 4 cm. deep, shall be standard.
DETERMINATION--Weigh out 5 grams (= 0.2 g. of the prepared sample) into
a moisture dish. Dry to constant weight in _vacuo_ at a uniform
temperature, not less than 15deg. C. nor more than 20deg. C. above the
boiling point of water at the working pressure, which must not exceed
100 mm. of mercury.[25] Constant weight is attained when successive
dryings for 1-hr. periods show an additional loss of not more that 0.05
per cent. Report loss in weight as MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.[26]
[Illustration: STANDARD VACUUM OVEN]
The vacuum-oven method cannot be considered accurate in the case of fats
of the coconut oil group containing free acid and the Committee
recommends that it be used only for oils of this group when they contain
less than 1 per cent free acid. In the case of oils of this group
containing more than 1 per cent free acid, recourse should be had
temporarily to the routine control method for moisture and volatile
matter[27] until the Committee develops a more satisfactory method.
The air-oven method cannot be considered even approximately accurate in
the case of the drying and semi-drying oils and those of the coconut oil
group. Therefore, in the case of such oils as cottonseed oil, maize oil
(corn oil), soy bean oil, linseed oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil,
etc., the vacuum-oven method should always be used, except in the case
of fats of the coconut group containing more than 1 per cent free acid,
as noted above.
INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.
Dissolve the residue from the moisture and volatile matter determination
by heating it on a steam bath with 50 cc. of kerosene. Filter the
solution through a Gooch crucible properly prepared with asbestos,[28]
wash the insoluble matter five times with 10-cc. portions of hot
kerosene, and finally wash the residual kerosene out thoroughly with
petroleum ether. Dry the crucible and contents to constant weight, as in
the determination of moisture and volatile matter and report results as
INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.
SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.
Place the combined kerosene filtrate and kerosene washings from the
insoluble impurities determination in a platinum dish. Place in this an
ashless filter paper folded in the form of a cone, apex up. Light the
apex of the cone, whereupon the bulk of the kerosene burns quietly. Ash
the residue in a muffle, to constant weight, taking care that the
decomposition of alkaline earth carbonates is complete, and report the
result as SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.[29] When the percentage of soluble
mineral matter amounts to more than 0.1 per cent, multiply the
percentage by 10 and add this amount to the percentage of free fatty
acids as determined.[30]
FREE FATTY ACIDS.
The ALCOHOL[31] used shall be approximately 95 per cent ethyl alcohol,
freshly distilled from sodium hydroxide, which with phenolphthalein
gives a definite and distinct end-point.
DETERMINATION--Weigh 1 to 15 g. of the prepared sample into an
Erlenmeyer flask, using the smaller quantity in the case of
dark-colored, high acid fats. Add 50 to 100 cc. hot, neutral alcohol,
and titrate with _N_/2, _N_/4 or _N_/10 sodium hydroxide depending on
the fatty acid content, using phenolphthalein as indicator. Calculate to
oleic acid, except that in the case of palm oil the results may also be
expressed in terms of palmitic acid, clearly indicating the two methods
of calculation in the report. In the case of coconut and palm kernel
oils, calculate to and report in terms of lauric acid in addition to
oleic acid, clearly indicating the two methods of calculation in the
report. In the case of fats or greases containing more than 0.1 per cent
of soluble mineral matter, add to the percentages of free fatty acids as
determined 10 times the percentage of bases in the soluble mineral
matter as determined.[30] This addition gives the equivalent of fatty
acids combined with the soluble mineral matter.
TITER.
STANDARD THERMOMETER--The thermometer is graduated at zero and in tenth
degrees from 10deg. C. to 65deg. C., with one auxiliary reservoir at the
upper end and another between the zero mark and the 10deg. mark. The
cavity in the capillary tube between the zero mark and the 10deg. mark
is at least 1 cm. below the 10deg. mark, the 10deg. mark is about 3 or 4
cm. above the bulb, the length of the thermometer being about 37 cm.
over all. The thermometer has been annealed for 75 hrs. at 450deg. C.
and the bulb is of Jena normal 16''' glass, or its equivalent,
moderately thin, so that the thermometer will be quick-acting. The bulb
is about 3 cm. long and 6 mm. in diameter. The stem of the thermometer
is 6 mm. in diameter and made of the best thermometer tubing, with scale
etched on the stem, the graduation is clear-cut and distinct, but quite
fine. The thermometer must be certified by the U. S. Bureau of
Standards.
GLYCEROL CAUSTIC SOLUTION--Dissolve 250 g. potassium hydroxide in 1900
cc. dynamite glycerin with the aid of heat.
DETERMINATION--Heat 75 cc. of the glycerol-caustic solution to 150deg.
C. and add 50 g. of the melted fat. Stir the mixture well and continue
heating until the melt is homogeneous, at no time allowing the
temperature to exceed 150deg. C. Allow to cool somewhat and carefully
add 50 cc. 30 per cent sulfuric acid. Now add hot water and heat until
the fatty acids separate out perfectly clear. Draw off the acid water
and wash the fatty acids with hot water until free from mineral acid,
then filter and heat to 130deg. C. as rapidly as possible while
stirring. Transfer the fatty acids, when cooled somewhat, to a 1-in. by
4-in. titer tube, placed in a 16-oz. salt-mouth bottle of clear glass,
fitted with a cork that is perforated so as to hold the tube rigidly
when in position. Suspend the titer thermometer so that it can be used
as a stirrer and stir the fatty acids slowly (about 100 revolutions per
minute) until the mercury remains stationary for 30 seconds. Allow the
thermometer to hang quietly with the bulb in the center of the tube and
report the highest point to which the mercury rises as the titer of the
fatty acids. The titer should be made at about 20deg. C. for all fats
having a titer above 30deg. C. and at 10deg. C. below the titer for all
other fats. Any convenient means may be used for obtaining a temperature
of 10deg. below the titer of the various fats. The committee recommends
first of all a chill room for this purpose; second, an artificially
chilled small chamber with glass window; third, immersion of the
salt-mouth bottle in water or other liquid of the desired temperature.
UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER.
EXTRACTION CYLINDER--The cylinder shall be glass-stoppered, graduated at
40 cc., 80 cc. and 130 cc., and of the following dimensions: diameter
about 1-3/8 in., height about 12 in.
PETROLEUM ETHER--Redistilled petroleum ether, boiling under 75deg. C.,
shall be used. A blank must be made by evaporating 250 cc. with about
0.25 g. of stearine or other hard fat (previously brought to constant
weight by heating) and drying as in the actual determination. The blank
must not exceed a few milligrams.
DETERMINATION--Weigh 5 g. (+-0.20 g.) of the prepared sample into a
200-cc. Erlenmeyer flask, add 30 cc. of redistilled 95 per cent
(approximately) ethyl alcohol and 5 cc. of 50 per cent aqueous potassium
hydroxide, and boil the mixture for one hour under a reflux condenser.
Transfer to the extraction cylinder and wash to the 40-cc. mark with
redistilled 95 per cent ethyl alcohol. Complete the transfer, first with
warm, then with cold water, till the total volume amounts to 80 cc. Cool
the cylinder and contents to room temperature and add 50 cc. of
petroleum ether. Shake _vigorously_ for one minute and allow to settle
until both layers are clear, when the volume of the upper layer should
be about 40 cc. Draw off the petroleum ether layer as closely as
possible by means of a slender glass siphon into a separatory funnel of
500 cc. capacity. Repeat extraction at least four more times, using 50
cc. of petroleum ether each time. More extractions than five are
necessary where the unsaponifiable matter runs high, say over 5 per
cent, and also in some cases where it is lower than 5 per cent, but is
extracted with difficulty. Wash the combined extracts in a separatory
funnel three times with 25-cc. portions of 10 per cent alcohol, shaking
vigorously each time. Transfer the petroleum ether extract to a
wide-mouth tared flask or beaker, and evaporate the petroleum ether on a
steam bath in an air current. Dry as in the method for MOISTURE AND
VOLATILE MATTER. Any blank must be deducted from the weight before
calculating unsaponifiable matter. Test the final residue for solubility
in 50 cc. petroleum ether at room temperature. Filter and wash free from
the insoluble residue, if any, evaporate and dry in the same manner as
before. The Committee wishes to emphasize the necessity of thorough and
vigorous shaking in order to secure accurate results. The two phases
must be brought into the most intimate contact possible, otherwise low
and disagreeing results may be obtained.
IODINE NUMBER--WIJS METHOD.
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS--_Wijs Iodine Solution_--Dissolve 13.0 g. of
resublimed iodine in one liter of C. P. glacial acetic acid and pass in
washed and dried chlorine gas until the original thiosulfate titration
of the solution is not quite doubled. The solution is then preserved in
amber glass-stoppered bottles, sealed with paraffin until ready for use.
Mark the date on which the solution is prepared on the bottle or bottles
and do not use Wijs solution which is more than 30 days old.
There should be no more than a slight excess of iodine, and no excess of
chlorine. When the solution is made from iodine and chlorine, this point
can be ascertained by not quite doubling the titration.[32]
The glacial acetic acid used for preparation of the Wijs solution should
be of 99.0 to 99.5 per cent strength. In case of glacial acetic acids of
somewhat lower strength, the Committee recommends freezing and
centrifuging or draining as a means of purification.
_N_/10 _Sodium Thiosulfate Solution_--Dissolve 24.8 g. of C. P. sodium
thiosulfate in recently boiled distilled water and dilute with the same
to one liter at the temperature at which the titrations are to be made.
_Starch Paste_--Boil 1 g. of starch in 200 cc. of distilled water for 10
min. and cool to room temperature.
An improved starch solution may be prepared by autoclaving 2 g. of
starch and 6 g. of boric acid dissolved in 200 cc. water at 15 lbs.
pressure for 15 min. This solution has good keeping qualities.
_Potassium Iodide Solution_--Dissolve 150 g. of potassium iodide in
water and make up to one liter.
_N_/10 _Potassium Bichromate_--Dissolve 4.903 g. of C. P. potassium
bichromate in water and make the volume up to one liter at the
temperature at which titrations are to be made.
The Committee calls attention to the fact that occasionally potassium
bichromate is found containing sodium bichromate, although this is of
rare occurrence. If the analyst suspects that he is dealing with an
impure potassium bichromate, the purity can be ascertained by titration
against re-sublimed iodine. However, this is unnecessary in the great
majority of cases.
_Standardization of the Sodium Thiosulfate Solution_--Place 40 cc. of
the potassium bichromate solution, to which has been added 10 cc. of the
solution of potassium iodide, in a glass-stoppered flask. Add to this 5
cc. of strong hydro-chloric acid. Dilute with 100 cc. of water, and
allow the _N_/10 sodium thiosulfate to flow slowly into the flask until
the yellow color of the liquid has almost disappeared. Add a few drops
of the starch paste, and with constant shaking continue to add the
_N_/10 sodium thiosulfate solution until the blue color just disappears.
DETERMINATION--Weigh accurately from 0.10 to 0.50 g. (depending on the
iodine number) of the melted and filtered sample into a clean, dry,
16-oz. glass-stoppered bottle containing 15-20 cc. of carbon
tetrachloride or chloroform. Add 25 cc. of iodine solution from a
pipette, allowing to drain for a definite time. The excess of iodine
should be from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of the amount added, that is,
from 100 per cent to 150 per cent of the amount absorbed. Moisten the
stopper with a 15 per cent potassium iodide solution to prevent loss of
iodine or chlorine but guard against an amount sufficient to run down
inside the bottle. Let the bottle stand in a dark place for 1/2 hr. at a
uniform temperature. At the end of that time add 20 cc. of 15 per cent
potassium iodide solution and 100 cc. of distilled water. Titrate the
iodine with _N_/10 sodium thiosulfate solution which is added gradually,
with constant shaking, until the yellow color of the solution has almost
disappeared. Add a few drops of starch paste and continue titration
until the blue color has entirely disappeared. Toward the end of the
reaction stopper the bottle and shake violently so that any iodine
remaining in solution in the tetrachloride or chloroform may be taken up
by the potassium iodide solution. Conduct two determinations on blanks
which must be run in the same manner as the sample except that no fat is
used in the blanks. Slight variations in temperature quite appreciably
affect the titer of the iodine solution, as acetic acid has a high
coefficient of expansion. It is, therefore, essential that the blanks
and determinations on the sample be made at the same time. The number of
cc. of standard thiosulfate solution required by the blank, less the
amount used in the determination, gives the thiosulfate equivalent of
the iodine absorbed by the amount of sample used in the determination.
Calculate to centigrams of iodine absorbed by 1 g. of sample (= per cent
iodine absorbed).
DETERMINATION, TUNG OIL--Tung oil shows an erratic behavior with most
iodine reagents and this is particularly noticeable in the case of the
Hanus reagent which is entirely unsuitable for determining the iodine
number of this oil since extremely high and irregular results are
obtained. The Huebl solution shows a progressive absorption up to 24 hrs.
and probably for a longer time but the period required is entirely too
long for a chemical determination. The Wijs solution gives good results
if the following precautions are observed:
Weigh out 0.15 +- 0.05 g., use an excess of 55 +- 3 per cent Wijs
solution. Conduct the absorption at a temperature of 20-25deg. C. for 1
hr. In other respects follow the instructions detailed above.
SAPONIFICATION NUMBER (KOETTSTORFER NUMBER).
PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. _N/2 Hydrochloric Acid_--Carefully
standardized.
_Alcoholic Potassium Hydroxide Solution_--Dissolve 40 g. of pure
potassium hydroxide in one liter of 95 per cent redistilled alcohol (by
volume). The alcohol should be redistilled from potassium hydroxide over
which it has been standing for some time, or with which it has been
boiled for some time, using a reflux condenser. The solution must be
clear and the potassium hydroxide free from carbonates.
DETERMINATION--Weigh accurate about 5 g. of the filtered sample into a
250 to 300 cc. Erlenmeyer flask. Pipette 50 cc. of the alcoholic
potassium hydroxide solution into the flask, allowing the pipette to
drain for a definite time. Connect the flask with an air condenser and
boil until the fat is completely saponified (about 30 minutes). Cool and
titrate with the _N_/2 hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein as an
indicator. Calculate the Koettstorfer number (mg. of potassium hydroxide
required to saponify 1 g. of fat). Conduct 2 or 3 blank determinations,
using the same pipette and draining for the same length of time as
above.
MELTING POINT.
APPARATUS--_Capillary tubes_ made from 5 mm. inside diameter thin-walled
glass tubing drawn out to 1 mm. inside diameter. Length of capillary
part of tubes to be about 5 cm. Length of tube over all 8 cm.
_Standard thermometer_ graduated in tenths of a degree.
_600 cc. beaker._
DETERMINATION--The sample should be clear when melted and entirely free
from moisture, or incorrect results will be obtained.
Melt and thoroughly mix the sample. Dip three of the capillary tubes
above described in the oil so that the fat in the tube stands about 1
cm. in height. Now fuse the capillary end carefully by means of a small
blast flame and allow to cool. These tubes are placed in a refrigerator
over night at a temperature of from 40 to 50deg. F. They are then
fastened by means of a rubber band or other suitable means to the bulb
of a thermometer graduated in tenths of a degree. The thermometer is
suspended in a beaker of water (which is agitated by air or other
suitable means) so that the bottom of the bulb of the thermometer is
immersed to a depth of about 3 cm. The temperature of the water is
increased gradually at the rate of about 1deg. per minute.
The point at which the sample becomes opalescent is first noted and the
heating continued until the contents of the tube becomes uniformly
transparent. The latter temperature is reported as the melting point.
Before finally melting to a perfectly clear fluid, the sample becomes
opalescent and usually appears clear at the top, bottom, and sides
before becoming clear at the center. The heating is continued until the
contents of the tube become uniformly clear and transparent. This
temperature is reported as the melting point.[33] It is usually only a
fraction of a degree above the opalescent point noted. The thermometer
should be read to the nearest 1/2deg. C., and in addition this
temperature may be reported to the nearest degree Fahrenheit if desired.
CLOUD TEST.
PRECAUTIONS--(1) The oil must be perfectly dry, because the presence of
moisture will produce a turbidity before the clouding point is reached.
(2) The oil must be heated to 150deg. C. over a free flame, immediately
before making the test.
(3) There must not be too much discrepancy between the temperature of
the bath and the clouding point of the oil. An oil that will cloud at
the temperature of hydrant water should be tested in a bath of that
temperature. An oil that will cloud in a mixture of ice and water should
be tested in such a bath. An oil that will not cloud in a bath of ice
and water must be tested in a bath of salt, ice, and water.
DETERMINATION--The oil is heated in a porcelain casserole over a free
flame to 150deg. C., stirring with the thermometer. As soon as it can be
done with safety, the oil is transferred to a 4 oz. oil bottle, which
must be perfectly dry. One and one-half ounces of the oil are sufficient
for the test. A dry centigrade thermometer is placed in the oil, and the
bottle is then cooled by immersion in a suitable bath. The oil is
constantly stirred with the thermometer, taking care not to remove the
thermometer from the oil at any time during the test, so as to avoid
stirring air bubbles into the oil. The bottle is frequently removed from
the bath for a few moments. The oil must not be allowed to chill on the
sides and bottom of the bottle. This is effected by constant and
vigorous stirring with the thermometer. As soon as the first permanent
cloud shows in the body of the oil, the temperature at which this cloud
occurs is noted.
With care, results concordant to within 1/2deg. C. can be obtained by
this method. A Fahrenheit thermometer is sometimes used because it has
become customary to report results in degrees Fahrenheit.
The oil must be tested within a short time after heating to 150deg. C.
and a re-test must always be preceded by reheating to that temperature.
The cloud point should be approached as quickly as possible, yet not so
fast that the oil is frozen on the sides or bottom of the bottle before
the cloud test is reached.
Notes on the Above Methods.
SAMPLING.
The standard size of sample adopted by the committee is at least 3 lbs.
in weight. The committee realizes that this amount is larger than any
samples usually furnished even when representing shipments of from
20,000 to 60,000 lbs. but it believes that the requirement of a larger
sample is desirable and will work toward uniform and more concordant
results in analysis. It will probably continue to be the custom of the
trade to submit smaller buyers' samples than required by the committee,
but these are to be considered only as samples for inspection and not
for analysis. The standard analytical sample must consist of 3 lbs. or
more.
The reasons for keeping samples in a dark, cool place are obvious. This
is to prevent any increase in rancidity and any undue increase in free
fatty acids. In the case of many fats the committee has found in its
co-operative analytical work that free acid tends to increase very
rapidly. This tendency is minimized by low temperatures.
MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.
After careful consideration the committee has decided that moisture is
best determined in a vacuum oven of the design which accompanies the
above report. Numerous results on check samples have confirmed the
committee's conclusions. The oven recommended by the committee is
constructed on the basis of well-known principles and it is hoped that
this type will be adopted generally by chemists who are called upon to
analyze fats and oils. The experiments of the committee indicate that it
is a most difficult matter to design a vacuum oven which will produce
uniform temperatures throughout; and one of the principal ideas in the
design adopted is uniformity of temperature over the entire single
shelf. This idea has not quite been realized in practice but,
nevertheless, the present design approaches much closer to the ideal
than other vacuum ovens commonly used. In the drawing the essential
dimensions are those between the heating units and the shelf and the
length and breadth of the outer casting. The standard Fat Analysis
Committee Oven (F. A. C. Oven) can be furnished by Messrs. E. H. Sargent
& Company, 125 West Lake street, Chicago.
The committee realizes that for routine work a quicker method is
desirable and has added one such method and has also stated the
conditions under which comparable results can be obtained by means of
the ordinary well-ventilated air oven held at 105 to 110deg. C. However,
in accordance with a fundamental principle adopted by the committee at
its first meeting, only one standard method is adopted and declared
official for each determination.
The committee realizes that in the case of all methods for determining
moisture by means of loss on heating there may be a loss due to volatile
matter (especially fatty acids) other than water. The title of the
determination MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER indicates this idea, but any
considerable error from this source may occur only in the case of high
acid fats and oils and particularly those containing lower fatty acids
such as coconut and palm kernel oil. In the case of extracted greases
which have not been properly purified, some of the solvent may also be
included in the moisture and volatile matter determination, but inasmuch
as the solvent, usually a petroleum product, can only be considered as
foreign matter, for commercial purposes, it is entirely proper to
include it with the moisture.
The committee has also considered the various distillation methods for
the determination of moisture in fats and oils, but since according to
the fundamental principles which it was endeavoring to follow it could
only standardize one method, it was decided that the most desirable one
on the whole was the vacuum-oven method as given. There are cases
wherein a chemist may find it desirable to check a moisture
determination or investigate the moisture content of a fat or oil
further by means of one of the distillation methods.
However, in co-operative work the distillation method in various types
of apparatus has not yielded satisfactory results. The difficulties
appear to be connected with a proper choice of solvent and particularly
with the tendency of drops of water to adhere to various parts of the
glass apparatus instead of passing on to the measuring device. When
working on coconut oil containing a high percentage of free fatty acids,
concordant results could not be obtained by the various members of the
committee when working with identical samples, solvents and apparatus.
On the other hand, the committee found by individual work, co-operative
work and collaborative work by several members of the committee in one
laboratory, that the old, well-known direct heating method (which the
committee has designated the hot plate method) yielded very satisfactory
results on all sorts of fats and oils including emulsions such as butter
and oleomargarine and even on coconut oil samples containing 15 to 20
per cent free fatty acids and 5 to 6 per cent of moisture.
Unfortunately, this method depends altogether on the operator's skill
and while the method may be taught to any person whether a chemist or
not so that he can obtain excellent results with it, it is difficult to
give a sufficiently, complete description of it so that any chemist
anywhere after reading the description could follow it successfully. The
method is undoubtedly worthy of much confidence in careful hands. It is
quick, accurate and reliable. It is probably the best single method for
the determination of moisture in all sorts of samples for routine
laboratory work. On account of this fact the committee desires to
announce its willingness to instruct any person in the proper use of the
method who desires to become acquainted with it and who will visit any
committee member's laboratory.
INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.
This determination, the title for which was adopted after careful
consideration, determines the impurities which have generally been known
as dirt, suspended matter, suspended solids, foreign solids, foreign
matter, etc., in the past. The first solvent recommended by the
committee is hot kerosene to be followed by petroleum ether kept at
ordinary room temperature. Petroleum ether, cold or only slightly warm,
is not a good fat and metallic soap solvent, whereas hot kerosene
dissolves these substances readily, and for this reason the committee
has recommended the double solvent method so as to exclude metallic
soaps which are determined below as soluble mineral matter.
SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.
Soluble mineral matter represents mineral matter combined with fatty
acids in the form of soaps in solution in the fat or oil. Formerly, this
mineral matter was often determined in combination by weighing the
separated metallic soap or by weighing it in conjunction with the
insoluble impurities. Since the soaps present consist mostly of lime
soap, it has been customary to calculate the lime present therein by
taking 0.1 the weight of the total metallic soaps. The standard method
as given above is direct and involves no calculation. The routine method
given in the note has been placed among the methods for the reason that
it is used in some laboratories, but has not been adopted as a standard
method in view of the fact that the committee has made it a rule to
adopt only one standard method. It should be pointed out, however, that
the method cannot be considered accurate for the reason that insoluble
impurities may vary from sample to sample to a considerable extent and
the error due to the presence of large particles of insoluble impurities
is thus transferred to the soluble mineral matter. The committee has
found one type of grease (naphtha bone grease) which shows most unusual
characteristics. The type sample contains 4.3 per cent soluble mineral
matter by the committee method which would be equivalent to 43.0 per
cent free fatty acid. The kerosene and gasoline filtrate was
particularly clear, nevertheless the ash was found to contain 36.43 per
cent P_{2}O_{5} equivalent to 79.60 per cent of Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} and
9.63 per cent of Fe_{2}O_{3}. The method, therefore, determines the
soluble mineral matter in this case satisfactorily but the factor 10 is
not applicable for calculating the fatty acids combined therewith. It is
necessary, therefore, in order to determine the fatty acids combined
with soluble mineral matter in the original sample to determine the
actual bases in the soluble mineral matter as obtained by ashing the
kerosene and gasoline filtrate. To the bases so determined the factor 10
can then be applied.
FREE FATTY ACID.
The fatty acid method adopted is sufficiently accurate for commercial
purposes. In many routine laboratories the fat or oil is measured and
not weighed, but the committee recommends weighing the sample in all
cases. For scientific purposes the result is often expressed as "acid
number," meaning the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize
the free acids in one gram of fat, but the commercial practice has been,
and is, to express the fatty acids as oleic acid or in the case of palm
oil, as palmitic acid, in some instances. The committee sees no
objection to the continuation of this custom so long as the analytical
report clearly indicates how the free acid is expressed. For a more
exact expression of the free acid in a given fat, the committee
recommends that the ratio of acid number to saponification number be
used. This method of expressing results is subject to error when
unsaponifiable fatty matter is present, since the result expresses the
ratio of free fatty acid to total saponifiable fatty matter present.
TITER.
At the present time the prices of glycerol and caustic potash are
abnormally high, but the committee has considered that the methods
adopted are for normal times and normal prices. For routine work during
the period of high prices the following method may be used for preparing
the fatty acids and is recommended by the committee:
Fifty grams of fat are saponified with 60 cc. of a solution of 2 parts
of methyl alcohol to 1 of 50 per cent NaOH. The soap is dried,
pulverized and dissolved in 1000 cc. of water in a porcelain dish and
then decomposed with 25 cc. of 75 per cent sulphuric acid. The fatty
acids are boiled until clear oil is formed and then collected and
settled in a 150-cc. beaker and filtered into a 50-cc. beaker. They are
then heated to 130deg. C. as rapidly as possible with stirring, and
transferred, after they have cooled somewhat, to the usual 1-in. by
4-in. titer tube.
The method of taking the titer, including handling the thermometer, to
be followed is the same as that described in the standard method. Even
at present high prices many laboratories are using the glycerol-caustic
potash method for preparing the fatty acids, figuring that the saving of
time more than compensates for the extra cost of the reagents. Caustic
soda cannot be substituted for caustic potash in the glycerol method.
UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER.
The committee has considered unsaponifiable matter to include those
substances frequently found dissolved in fats and oils which are not
saponified by the caustic alkalies and which at the same time are
soluble in the ordinary fat solvents. The term includes such substances
as the higher alcohols, such as cholesterol which is found in animal
fats, phytosterol found in some vegetable fats, paraffin and petroleum
oils, etc. UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER should not be confused in the lay mind
with INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES OR SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.
The method adopted by the committee has been selected only after the
most careful consideration of other methods, such as the dry extraction
method and the wet method making use of the separatory funnel. At first
consideration the dry extraction process would seem to offer the best
basis for an unsaponifiable matter method, but in practice it has been
found absolutely impossible for different analysts to obtain agreeing
results when using any of the dry extraction methods proposed.
Therefore, this method had to be abandoned after numerous trials,
although several members of the committee strongly favored it in the
beginning.
IODINE NUMBER--The iodine number adopted by the committee is that
determined by the well-known Wijs method. This method was adopted after
careful comparison with the Hanus and Huebl methods. The Huebl method was
eliminated from consideration almost at the beginning of the committee's
work for the reason that the time required for complete absorption of
the iodine is unnecessarily long and, in fact, even after absorption has
gone on over night, it is apparently not complete. In the case of the
Hanus and Wijs methods complete absorption takes place in from 15
minutes to an hour, depending on conditions. Formerly, many chemists
thought the Hanus solution rather easier to prepare than the Wijs
solution, but the experience of the committee was that the Wijs solution
was no more difficult to prepare than the Hanus. Furthermore, absorption
of iodine from the Wijs solution appeared to take place with greater
promptness and certainty than from the Hanus and was complete in a
shorter time. Results by the Wijs method were also in better agreement
in the case of oils showing high iodine absorption than with the Hanus
solution and showed a slightly higher iodine absorption for the same
length of time. However, the difference was not great. The committee
investigated the question of substitution since it has been suggested
that in case of the Wijs solution substitution of iodine in the organic
molecule might occur, and found no evidence of this in the time required
for the determination, namely, 1/2 hr., or even for a somewhat longer
period. One member of the committee felt that it was not desirable to
introduce the Wijs method into these standard methods since the Hanus
method was already standardized by the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists, but the committee felt that it must follow the
principle established at the commencement of its work, namely, that of
adopting the method which appeared to be the best from all standpoints,
taking into consideration accuracy, convenience, simplicity, time,
expense, etc., without allowing precedent to have the deciding vote.
IODINE NUMBER, TUNG OIL--The committee has made an extensive study of
the application of the Wijs method to the determination of iodine value
in the case of tung oil with the result that it recommends the method
for this oil but has thought it desirable to limit the conditions under
which the determination is conducted rather narrowly, although
reasonably good results are obtained by the committee method without
making use of the special limitations.
The co-operative work of the committee and the special investigations
conducted by individual members bring out the following points:
_Influence of Temperature_--From 16deg. C. to 30deg. C. there is a
moderate increase in the absorption, but above 30deg. the increase is
rather rapid so that it was thought best to limit the temperature in the
case of tung oil to 20deg. to 25deg. C.
_Influence of Time_--The absorption increases with the time but
apparently complete absorption, so far as unsaturated bonds are
concerned, occurs well within one hour's time. Consequently, one hour
was set as the practical limit.
_Influence of Excess_--The excess of iodine solution also tends to
increase the iodine number, hence the Committee thought it necessary to
limit the excess rather rigidly to 55 +- 3 per cent, although with
greater latitude results were reasonably good.
_Influence of Age of Solution_--Old solutions tend to give low results
although up to 2 mo. no great differences were observed. Nevertheless,
it was thought best to limit the age of the solution to 30 days--long
enough for all practical purposes.
_Amount of Sample_--As a practical amount of sample to be weighed out
the Committee decided on 0.15 g. with a tolerance of 0.05 g. in either
direction according to preference. In other words, the amount of sample
to be taken for the determination to be from 0.1 to 0.2 g. in the
discretion of the analyst.
The Committee's study of the Huebl method which has been adopted by the
Society for Testing Materials in the case of tung oil indicates that
this method when applied to tung oil is subject to the same influences
as the Wijs method and it has the additional very serious disadvantage
of requiring a long period of time for absorption which cannot be
considered reasonable for a modern analytical method. When using the
Huebl solution, the absorption is not complete in the case of tung oil at
3, 7, 18 or even 24 hrs.
The Hanus method in the case of tung oil gives very high and erratic
results, as high as 180 to 240 in ordinary cases for an oil whose true
iodine number is about 165.
MELTING POINT.
A melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance assumes
the liquid condition. If the solid is a pure substance in the
crystalline condition the melting point is sharp and well defined for
any given pressure. With increased pressure the melting point is lowered
or raised, depending on whether the substance contracts or expands in
melting. The lowering or raising of the melting point with pressure is
very slight and ordinarily is not taken into consideration.
Melting-point determinations are commonly carried out under ordinary
atmospheric pressures without correction. The general effect of soluble
impurities is to lower the melting point, and this holds true whether
the impurity has a higher or lower melting point than the pure substance
(solvent). Thus if a small amount of stearic acid be added to liquid
palmitic acid and the solution frozen, the melting point of this solid
will be lower than that of palmitic acid. Likewise the melting point of
stearic acid is lowered by the addition of a small amount of palmitic
acid. A eutectic mixture results when two components solidify
simultaneously at a definite temperature. Such a mixture has a constant
melting point and because of this and also because both solid and liquid
phases have the same composition, eutectic mixtures were formerly looked
upon as compounds. The phenomenon of double melting points has been
observed in the case of a number of glycerides. Such a glyceride when
placed in the usual capillary tube and subjected to increasing
temperature quickly resolidifies only to melt again and remain melted at
a still higher temperature. This phenomenon has not yet been
sufficiently investigated to afford a satisfactory explanation.
Non-crystalline substances such as glass, sealing wax and various other
waxes and wax mixtures, and most colloidal substances do not exhibit a
sharp melting point, but under the application of heat first soften very
gradually and at a considerably higher temperature melt sufficiently to
flow. This phenomenon of melting through a long range of temperature may
be due to the amorphous nature of the substance or to the fact that it
consists of a very large number of components of many different melting
points.
The fats and oils of natural origin, that is, the animal and vegetable
fats and oils, consist of mixtures of glycerides and, generally
speaking, of a considerable number of such components. These components
are crystalline and when separated in the pure state have definite
melting points, although some exhibit the phenomenon of double melting
point. For the most part the naturally occurring glycerides are mixed
glycerides. In the natural fats and oils there are present also certain
higher alcohols, of which cholesterol is characteristic of the animal
fats and oils and phytosterol of many of the vegetable fats and oils. In
addition to the crystalline glycerides and the higher alcohols present
in neutral fats, there are in fats of lower grade, fatty acids, which
are crystalline, and also various non-crystalline impurities of an
unsaponifiable nature, and the presence of these impurities tends to
lower the melting point. They also tend to induce undercooling and when
the liquid fat or oil is being chilled for purposes of solidification or
in determination of titer.
The presence of water, especially when this is thoroughly mixed or
emulsified with a fat or oil, also influences the melting point to a
marked extent, causing the mixture to melt through a longer range of
temperatures than would be the case if the water were absent. This is
particularly true of emulsified fats and oils, such as butter and
oleomargarine, both of which contain, besides water, the solids
naturally present in milk or cream and including casein, milk sugar, and
salts. The melting-point method recommended by the Committee is not
applicable to such emulsions or other watery mixtures and the Committee
has found it impossible to devise an accurate method for making
softening-point or melting-point determinations on products of this
nature. Not only the amount of water present but also the fineness of
its particles, that is, its state of subdivision and distribution, in a
fat or oil influences the softening point or melting point and causes it
to vary widely in different samples.
As a consequence of the foregoing facts, natural fats and oils do not
exhibit a definite melting point, composed as they are of mixtures of
various crystalline glycerides, higher alcohols, fatty acids, and
non-crystalline substances. Therefore, the term melting point when
applied to them requires further definition. They exhibit first a lower
melting point (the melting point of the lowest melting component) or
what might be called the softening point and following this the fat
softens through a shorter or longer range of temperature to the final
melting point at which temperature the fat is entirely liquid. This is
the melting point determined by the Committee's melting-point method.
The range between the softening point and the final melting point varies
greatly with the different fats and oils depending on their chemical
components, the water associated with them, emulsification, etc. In the
case of coconut oil the range between softening point and final melting
point is rather short; in the case of butter, long. Various methods have
been devised to determine the so-called melting point of fats and oils.
Most of these methods, however, determine, not the melting point, but
the softening point or the flow point of the fat and the great
difficulty has been in the past to devise a method which would determine
even this point with reasonable accuracy and so that results could be
easily duplicated. It has been the aim of the Committee to devise a
simple method for the determination of the melting point of fats and
oils, but it should be understood that the term melting point in the
scientific sense is not applicable to natural fats and oils.
FOOTNOTES:
[22] Approved by the Supervisory Committee on Standard Methods of
Analysis of the American Chemical Society.
[23] Live steam must not be turned into tank cars or coils before
samples are drawn, since there is no certain way of telling when coils
are free from leaks.
[24] If there is water present under the solid material this must be
noted and estimated separately.
[25] Boiling point of water at reduced pressures.
Pressure Boiling Point Boiling Point Boiling Point
Mm. Hg. to 1deg. C. +15deg. C. +20deg. C.
100 52deg. C. 67deg. C. 72deg. C.
90 50 65 70
80 47 62 67
70 45 60 65
60 42 57 62
50 38 53 58
40 34 49 54
[26] Results comparable to those of the Standard Method may be obtained
on most fats and oils by drying 5-g. portions of the sample, prepared
and weighed as above, to constant weight in a well-constructed and
well-ventilated air oven held uniformly at a temperature of 105deg. to
110deg. C. The thermometer bulb should be close to the sample. The
definition of constant weight is the same as for the Standard Method.
[27] The following method is suggested by the Committee for routine
control work: Weigh out 5- to 25-g. portions of prepared sample into a
glass or aluminum (_Caution_: Aluminum soap may be formed) beaker or
casserole and heat on a heavy asbestos board over burner or hot plate,
taking care that the temperature of the sample does not go above 130deg. C.
at any time. During the heating rotate the vessel gently on the board by
hand to avoid sputtering or too rapid evolution of moisture. The proper
length of time of heating is judged by absence of rising bubbles of
steam, by the absence of foam or by other signs known to the operator.
Avoid overheating of sample as indicated by smoking or darkening. Cool
in desiccator and weigh.
By co-operative work in several laboratories, the Committee has
demonstrated that this method can be used and satisfactory results
obtained on coconut oil even when a considerable percentage of free
fatty acids is present, and the method is recommended for this purpose.
Unfortunately on account of the very great personal factor involved, the
Committee cannot establish this method as a preferred method.
Nevertheless, after an operator has learned the technique of the method,
it gives perfectly satisfactory results for ordinary oils and fats,
butter, oleomargarine and coconut oil, and deserves more recognition
than it has heretofore received.
[28] For routine control work, filter paper is sometimes more convenient
than the prepared Gooch crucible, but must be very carefully washed,
especially around the rim, to remove the last traces of fat.
[29] For routine work, an ash may be run on the original fat, and the
soluble mineral matter obtained by deducting the ash on the insoluble
impurities from this. In this case the Gooch crucible should be prepared
with an ignited asbestos mat so that the impurities may be ashed
directly after being weighed. In all cases ignition should be to
constant weight so as to insure complete decomposition of carbonates.
[30] See note on Soluble Mineral Matter following these methods. When
the ash contains phosphates the factor 10 cannot be applied, but the
bases consisting of calcium oxide, etc., must be determined, and the
factor 10 applied to them.
[31] For routine work methyl or denatured ethyl alcohol of approximately
95 per cent strength may be used. With these reagents the end-point is
not sharp.
[32] P. C. McIlhiney, _J. Am. Chem. Soc._, 29 (1917), 1222, gives the
following details for the preparation of the iodine monochloride
solution:
The preparation of the iodine monochloride solution presents no great
difficulty, but it must be done with care and accuracy in order to
obtain satisfactory results. There must be in the solution no sensible
excess either of iodine or more particularly of chlorine, over that
required to form the monochloride. This condition is most satisfactorily
attained by dissolving in the whole of the acetic acid to be used the
requisite quantity of iodine, using a gentle heat to assist the
solution, if it is found necessary, setting aside a small portion of
this solution, while pure and dry chlorine is passed into the remainder
until the halogen content of the whole solution is doubled. Ordinarily
it will be found that by passing the chlorine into the main part of the
solution until the characteristic color of free iodine has just been
discharged there will be a slight excess of chlorine which is corrected
by the addition of the requisite amount of the unchlorinated portion
until all free chlorine has been destroyed. A slight excess of iodine
does little or no harm, but excess of chlorine must be avoided.
[33] The melting point of oils may be determined in general according to
the above procedure, taking into consideration the lower temperature
required.
PLANT AND MACHINERY
Illustrations of machinery and layouts of the plant of a modern
soap-making establishment.
[Illustration: HOIST, LYE TANK, ETC.]
[Illustration: MELTING-OUT TROUGH]
[Illustration: LAUNDRY SOAP PLANT]
[Illustration: DRYING RACK]
[Illustration: SOAP KETTLE]
[Illustration: REMELTER]
[Illustration: CRUTCHER (Cross Section)]
[Illustration: HORIZONTAL CRUTCHER]
[Illustration: CRUTCHER]
[Illustration: WRAPPING MACHINE (LAUNDRY SOAP)]
[Illustration: SLABBER]
[Illustration: CUTTING TABLE]
[Illustration: AUTOMATIC POWER CUTTING TABLE]
[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PRESS (LAUNDRY)]
[Illustration: CUTTING TABLE (HAND)]
[Illustration: CARTON WRAPPING MACHINE]
[Illustration: DRYING RACKS]
[Illustration: SOAP POWDER BOX]
[Illustration: SCOURING SOAP PRESS]
[Illustration: FRAME]
[Illustration: SOAP POWDER EQUIPMENT]
[Illustration: FLUFFY SOAP POWDER EQUIPMENT]
[Illustration: SOAP POWDER MIXER]
[Illustration: SOAP POWDER MILL]
[Illustration: TOILET SOAP EQUIPMENT]
[Illustration: TOILET SOAP DRYER]
[Illustration: MILLING BOX]
[Illustration: AMALGAMATOR]
[Illustration: TOILET SOAP MILL]
[Illustration: TOILET SOAP MILL]
[Illustration: CHIPPER]
[Illustration: PLODDER]
[Illustration: HORIZONTAL CHIPPER]
[Illustration: AMALGAMATOR (IMPROVED)]
[Illustration: PRESS (LETTERING ON 4 SIDES OF CAKE)]
[Illustration: Press (Foot)]
[Illustration: Press (Foot)]
[Illustration: PLODDER]
[Illustration: AUTOMATIC PRESS (TOILET)]
[Illustration: MULTIPLE CAKE CUTTER]
[Illustration: CAKE CUTTER]
[Illustration: CHIPPER]
[Illustration: GLYCERINE DISTILLING PLANT]
[Illustration: CRUDE GLYCERINE PLANT]
[Illustration: H-A FATTY ACID DISTILLING PLANT]
Appendix
Tables marked * are taken from the German Year Book for Soap Industry.
(U. S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS)
THE METRIC SYSTEM.
The fundamental unit of the metric system is the meter (the unit of
length). From this the units of mass (gram) and capacity (liter) are
derived. All other units are the decimal sub-divisions or multiples of
these. These three units are simply related, so that for all practical
purposes the volume of one kilogram of water (one liter) is equal to one
cubic decimeter.
============================================================
|
Prefixes. Meaning. | Units.
________________________________________|___________________
|
Milli- = one thousandth 1-1000 .001 |
Centi- = one hundredth 1-100 .01 | Meter for length.
Deci- = one tenth 1-10 .1 |
Unit = one 1. | Gram for mass.
Deka- = ten 10-1 10. |
Hecto- = one hundred 100-1 100. | Liter for capacity.
Kilo- = one thousand 1000-1 1000. |
============================================================
The metric terms are formed by combining the words "Meter," "Gram" and
"Liter" with the six numerical prefixes.
LENGTH
10 milli-meters mm = 1 centi-meter c m
10 centi-meters = 1 deci-meter d m
10 deci-meters = 1 meter (about 40 inches) m
10 meters = 1 deka-meter d k m
10 deka-meters = 1 hecto-meter h m
10 hecto-meters = 1 kilo-meter (about 5/8 mile) k m
MASS.
10 milli-grams. m g = 1 centi-gram c g
10 centi-grams = 1 deci-gram d g
10 deci-grams = 1 gram (about 15 grains) g
10 grams = 1 deka-gram d k g
10 Deka-grams = 1 hecto-gram h g
10 hecto-grams = 1 kilo-gram (about 2 pounds) k g
CAPACITY.
10 milli-liters. m l = 1 centi-liter c l
10 centi-liters = 1 deci-liter d l
10 deci-liters = 1 liter (about 1 quart) l
10 liters = 1 deka-liter d k l
10 deka-liters = 1 hecto-liter (about a barrel) h l
10 hecto-liters = 1 kilo-liter k l
The square and cubic units are the squares and cubes of the linear
units.
The ordinary unit of land area is the Hectare (about 2-1/2 acres).
U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLE OF METRIC EQUIVALENTS
Meter = 39.37 inches.
Legal Equivalent Adopted by Act of Congress July 28, 1866.
LENGTH.
Centimeter = 0.3937 inch
Meter = 3.28 feet
Meter = 1.094 yards
Kilometer = 0.621 statute mile
Kilometer = 0.5396 nautical mile
Inch = 2.540 centimeters
Foot = 0.305 meter
Yard = 0.914 meter
Statute mile = 1.61 kilometers
Nautical mile = 1.853 kilometers
AREA.
Sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inch
Sq. meter = 10.76 sq. feet
Sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yards
Hectare = 2.47 acres
Sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. mile
Sq. inch = 6.45 sq. centimeters
Sq. foot = 0.0929 sq. meter
Sq. yard = 0.836 sq. meter
Acre = 0.405 hectare
Sq. mile = 2.59 sq. kilometers
WEIGHT.
Gram = 15.43 grains
Gram = 0.772 U. S. apoth. scruple
Gram = 0.2572 U. S. apoth. dram
Gram = 0.0353 avoir. ounce
Gram = 0.03215 troy ounce
Kilogram = 2.205 avoir. pounds
Kilogram = 2.679 troy pounds
Metric ton = 0.984 gross or long ton
Metric ton = 1.102 short or net tons
Grain = 0.064 gram
U. S. apoth. scruple = 1.296 grams
U. S. apoth. dram = 3.89 grams
Avoir. ounce = 28.35 grams
Troy ounce = 31.10 grams
Avoir. pound = 0.4536 kilogram
Troy pound = 0.373 kilogram
Gross or long ton = 1.016 metric tons
Short or net ton = 0.907 metric ton
VOLUME.
Cu. centimeter = 0.0610 cu. inch
Cu. meter = 35.3 cu. feet
Cu. meter = 1.308 cu. yards
Cu. inch = 16.39 cu. centimeters
Cu. foot = 0.283 cu. meter
Cu. yard = 0.765 cu. meter
CAPACITY.
Millimeter = 0.0338 U. S. liq. ounce
Millimeter = 0.2705 U. S. apoth. dram
Liter = 1.057 U. S. liq. quarts
Liter = 0.2642 U. S. liq. gallon
Liter = 0.908 U. S. dry quart
Dekaliter = 1.135 U. S. pecks
Hectoliter = 2.838 U. S. bushels
U. S. liq. ounce = 29.57 millimeters
U. S. apoth. dram = 3.70 millimeters
U. S. liq. quarts = 0.946 liter
U. S. dry quarts = 1.101 liters
U. S. liq. gallon = 3.785 liters
U. S. peck = 0.881 dekaliter
U. S. bushel = 0.3524 hectoliter
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
1 pound = 16 ounces = 256 drams
1 ounce = 16 "
TROY (APOTHECARIES') WEIGHT (U. S.)
1 pound = 12 ounces = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5,760 grains
1 ounce = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains
1 dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains
1 scruple = 20 grains
WINE (APOTHECARIES) LIQUID MEASURE (U. S.)
1 gallon = 8 pints = 128 fl. ozs. = 1,024 fl. drams = 61,440 minims
1 pint = 16 fl. ozs. = 128 fl. drams = 7,689 minims
1 fl. oz. = 8 fl. drams = 480 minims
1 fl. dram = 60 minims
_To find diameter of a circle_ multiply circumference by .31831.
_To find circumference of a circle_, multiply diameter by 3.1416.
_To find area of a circle_, multiply square of diameter by .7854.
_To find surface of a ball_, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416.
_To find side of an equal square_, multiply diameter by .8862.
_To find cubic inches in a ball_, multiply cube of diameter by .5236.
_Doubling the diameter of a pipe_, increases its capacity four times.
_One cubic foot of anthracite coal_ weighs about 53 lbs.
_One cubic foot of bituminous coal_ weighs from 47 to 50 pounds.
_A gallon of water_ (U. S. standard) weighs 8-1/3 pounds and contains
231 cubic inches.
_A cubic foot of water_ contains 7-1/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches and
weighs 62-1/2 pounds.
_To find the number of pounds of water a cylindrical_ tank contains,
square the diameter, multiply by .785 and then by the height in feet.
This gives the number of cubic feet which multiplied by 62-1/2 gives the
capacity in pounds of water. Divide by 7-1/2 and this gives the capacity
in gallons.
_A horse-power_ is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds 1 foot per
minute, or 550 pounds 1 foot per second.
_The friction of water in pipes_ is as the square of velocity. The
capacity of pipes is as the square of their diameters; thus, doubling
the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.
_To find the diameter of a pump cylinder_ to move a given quantity of
water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed),
divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the
product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder.
_To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water_ to a given height,
multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in pounds by the
height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance should be
added for water friction, and a further allowance for loss in steam
cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent).
_To compute the capacity of pumping engines_, multiply the area of water
piston, in inches, by the distance it travels, in inches, in a given
time. Deduct 3 per cent for slip and rod displacement. The product
divided by 231 gives the number of gallons in time named.
_To find the velocity in feet per minute_ necessary to discharge a given
volume of water in a given time, multiply the number of cubic feet of
water by 144 and divide the product by the area of the pipe in inches.
_To find the area of a required pipe_, the volume and velocity of water
being given, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and
divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute. The area being
found, the diameter can be learned by using any table giving the "area
of circles" and finding the nearest area, opposite to which will be
found the diameter to correspond.
Physical and Chemical Constants of Fixed Oils and Fats.
(FROM LEWKOWITSCH AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.)
______________________________________________________________________________
| |Specific | | |
| Specific |gravity | Melting- |Solidifying- |
| gravity | at | point. | point. |
| at 15deg.C.|100deg.C. | deg. C. | deg. C. |
_______________________|____________|__________|_____________|_______________|
| | | | |
Linseed oil | 0.931-0.938| 0.880 | -16 to -26 | -16 |
Hemp-seed oil | 0.925-0.931| | | -27 |
Walnut oil | 0.925-0.926| 0.871 | | -27 |
Poppy-seed oil | 0.924-0.927| 0.873 | | -18 |
Sunflower oil | 0.924-0.926| 0.919 | | -17 |
Fir-seed oil | 0.925-0.928| | | -27 to -30 |
Maize oil | 0.921-0.926| | | -10 to -15 |
Cotton-seed oil | 0.922-0.930| 0.867 | | 12 |
Sesame oil | 0.923-0.924| 0.871 | | -5 |
Rape-seed oil | 0.914-0.917| 0.863 | | -2 to -10 |
Black mustard oil | 0.916-0.920| | | -17.5 |
Croton oil | 0.942-0.955| | | -16 |
Castor oil | 0.960-0.966| 0.910 | | -12 to -18 |
Apricot-kernel oil | 0.915-0.919| | | -14 |
Almond oil | | 0.915-0.920| | | -10 to -20 |
Peanut (arachis) oil | 0.916-0.920| 0.867 | | -3 to -7 |
Olive oil | 0.914-0.917| 0.862 | | 2 |
Menhaden oil | 0.927-0.933| | | -4 |
Cod-liver oil | 0.922-0.927| 0.874 | | 0 to -10 |
Seal oil | 0.924-0.929| 0.873 | | 3 |
Whale oil | 0.920-0.930| 0.872 | | -2 |
Dolphin oil | 0.917-0.918| | | 5 to -3 |
Porpoise oil | 0.926 | 0.871 | | -16 |
Neat's-foot oil | 0.914-0.916| 0.861 | | 0 to 1.5 |
Cotton-seed stearine | 0.919-0.923| 0.867 | 40 | 31 to 32.5 |
Palm oil | 0.921-0.925| 0.856 | 27 to 42 | |
Cacao butter | 0.950-0.952| 0.858 | 30 to 33 | 25 to 26 |
Cocoa-nut oil | 0.925-0.926| 0.873 | 20 to 26 | 16 to 20 |
Myrtle wax | 0.995 | 0.875 | 40 to 44 | 39 to 43 |
Japan wax | 0.970-0.980| 0.875 | 51 to 54.5 | 46 |
Lard | 0.931-0.938| 0.861 | 41 to 46 | 29 |
Bone fat | 0.914-0.916| | 21 to 22 | 15 to 17 |
Tallow | 0.943-0.952| 0.860 | 42 to 46 | 35 to 37 |
Butter fat | 0.927-0.936| 0.866 | 29.5 to 33 | 19 to 20 |
Oleomargarine | 0.924-0.930| 0.859 | | |
Sperm oil | 0.875-0.884| 0.833 | | -25 |
Bottle-nose oil | 0.879-0.880| 0.827 | | |
Carnauba wax | 0.990-0.999| 0.842 | 84 to 85 | 80 to 81 |
Wool-fat | 0.973 | 0.901 | 39 to 42 | 30 to 30.2 |
Beeswax | 0.958-0.969| 0.822 | 62 to 64 | 60.5 to 62 |
Spermaceti | 0.960 | 0.812 | 43.5 to 49 | 43.4 to 44.2 |
Chinese wax | 0.970 | 0.810 | 80.5 to 81 | 80.5 to 81 |
Tung (Chinese wood oil)| 0.936-0.942| | | below -17 |
Soya-bean oil | 0.924-0.927| | | 8 to 15 |
_______________________|____________|__________|_____________|_______________|
Physical and Chemical Constants of Fixed Oils and Fats.
(FROM LEWKOWITSCH AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.)
Column Headings:
A: Saponification value.
B: Maumene test. (deg.)
C: Iodine value.
D: Hehner value.
E: Reichert value.
____________________________________________________________________________
| | | | | |
| [A] | [B] | [C] | [D] | [E] |
___________________|_____________|___________|____________|_________|______|
| | | | | |
Linseed oil | 190-195 | 104-111 | 175-190 | | |
Hemp-seed oil | 190-193 | 95-96 | 148 | | |
Walnut oil | 195 | 96-101 | 144-147 | | |
Poppy-seed oil | 195 | 86-88 | 134-141 | 95.38 | |
Sunflower oil | 193-194 | 72-75 | 120-129 | 95 | |
Fir-seed oil | 191.3 | 98-99 | 118.9-120 | | |
Maize oil | 188-193 | 56-60.5 | 117-125 | 89-95.7 | 2.5 |
Cotton-seed oil | 191-195 | 68-77 | 104-110 | 96-17 | |
Sesame oil | 189-193 | 64-68 | 105-109 | 95.8 | 0.35 |
Rape-seed oil | 170-178 | 51-60 | 95-105 | 95 | |
Black mustard oil | 174-174.6 | 43-44 | 96-110 | 95.05 | |
Croton oil | 210.3-215 | | 101.7-104 | 89 | 13.5 |
Castor oil | 178-186 | 46-47 | 83.4-85.9 | | 1.4 |
Apricot-kernel oil | 192.2-193.1 | 42.5-46 | 100-107 | | |
Almond oil | 190.5-195.4 | 51-54 | 93-97 | 96.2 | |
Peanut (arachis) | | | | | |
oil | 190-197 | 45-49 | 85-98 | 95.86 | |
Olive oil | 191-196 | 41.5-45.5 | 80.6-84.5 | 95.43 | 0.3 |
Menhaden oil | 189.3-192 | 123-128 | 140-170 | | 1.2 |
Cod-liver oil | 182-187 | 102-103 | 154-180 | 95.3 | |
Seal oil | 190-196 | 92 | 127-140 | 94.2 | 0.22 |
Whale-oil | 188-193 | 91-92 | 110-136 | 93.5 | 2.04 |
Dolphin {Body oil | 197.3 | | 99.5 | 93.07 | 5.6 |
oil {Jaw oil | 200 | | 32.8 | 66.28 |65.92 |
Porpoise {Body oil | 216-218.8 | 50 | 119.4 | |23.45 |
oil {Jaw oil | 253.7 | | 49.6 | 68.41 |65.8 |
Neat's-foot oil | 194.3 | 47-48.5 | 69.3-70.4 | | |
Cotton-seed | | | | | |
stearine. | 194.6-195.1 | 48 | 88.7-92.8 | 96.3 | |
Palm oil | 196.3-202 | | 53-57 | 95.6 | 0.5 |
Cacao butter | 192.2-193.5 | | 32-41 | 94.59 | 1.6 |
Cocoa-nut oil | 250-253 | | 8.5-9.3 | 88.6 | 3.7 |
Myrtle wax | 205.7-211.7 | | 2.9 | | |
Japan wax | 220-222.4 | | 4.2-8.5 | 90.6 | |
Lard | 195.3-196.6 | 27-32 | 57-70 | 96 | |
Bone fat | 190.9 | | 46.3-49.6 | | |
Tallow | 195-198 | | 36-47 | 95.6 | 0.25 |
Butter fat | 221.5-227 | | 26-35 | 87.5 |28.78 |
Oleomargarine | 194-203.7 | | 55.3-60 | 95-96 | 2.6 |
Sperm oil | 132.5-147 | 47-51 | 84 | | 1.3 |
Bottle-nose oil | 126-134 | 41-47 | 77.4-82 | | 1.4 |
Carnauba wax | 80-84 | | 13.5 | | |
Wool-fat | 98.2-102.4 | | 25-28 | | |
Beeswax | 91-96 | | 8.3-11 | | |
Spermaceti | 128 | | | | |
Chinese wax | 63 | | | | |
Tung (Chinese | | | | | |
wood oil) | 193 | | 150-165 | | |
Soya-bean oil | 190.6-192.9 | 59-61 | 121.3-124 | 95.5 | |
___________________|_____________|___________|____________|_________|______|
*Temperature Correction Table for Hehner's Concentrated Bichromate
Solution for Glycerine Analysis
_____________________________________________
| |
A | f |
Temperature | Corrected Volume | Logarithm
| 1 c.c. |
_______________|__________________|__________
| |
11deg. C | 0.9980 ccm | 99913
12deg. " | 0.9985 " | 99935
13deg. " | 0.9990 " | 99956
14deg. " | 0.9995 " | 99978
15deg. " | 1.0000 " | 00000
16deg. " | 1.0005 " | 00022
17deg. " | 1.0010 " | 00043
18deg. " | 1.0015 " | 00065
19deg. " | 1.0020 " | 00087
20deg. " | 1.0025 " | 00108
21deg. " | 1.0030 " | 00130
22deg. " | 1.0035 " | 00152
23deg. " | 1.0040 " | 00173
_______________|__________________|__________
*Table of Important Fatty Acids
______________________________________________________________________________
| | | | |
| | | Boiling Point | |
| | |______________________| |Neutral-
| | Mol. | | | Melt- |ization
Name | Formula | Wt. | Ordinary | 100 mm | ing |value
| | | Pressure | Pressure | Pt. | Mg. KOH
___________|___________________|______|__________|___________|_______|________
| | | | | |
Butyric | C_{4}H_{8}O_{2} | 88 | 162.3 | | |637.5
Caproic | C_{6}H_{12}O_{2} | 116 | 199.7 | | |483.6
Caprylic | C_{8}H_{16}O_{2} | 144 | 236-237 | | 16.5 |389.6
Capric | C_{10}H_{20}O_{2} | 172 | 268-270 | 199.5-200 | 31.3 |326.2
Lauric | C_{12}H_{24}O_{2} | 200 | | 225 | 43.6 |280.5
Myristic | C_{14}H_{28}O_{2} | 228 | | 250.5 | 53.8 |246.1
Palmitic | C_{16}H_{32}O_{2} | 256 | | 268.5 | 62 |219.1
Stearic | C_{18}H_{36}O_{2} | 284 | | 291 | 69.2 |197.5
Arachidic | C_{20}H_{40}O_{2} | 302 | | | 75 |185.8
Behenic | C_{22}H_{44}O_{2} | 330 | | | 77-78 |170.0
Cerotic | C_{27}H_{54}O_{2} | 400 | | | 78 |140.25
Melissic | C_{30}H_{60}O_{2} | 442 | | | 90 |126.5
Oleic | C_{18}H_{34}O_{2} | 282 | | 185.5-286 | 14 |198.9
Erucic | C_{22}H_{42}O_{2} | 338 | | | 33-34 |165.9
Linolic | C_{18}H_{32}O_{2} | 280 | | | |200.4
Linolenic | C_{18}H_{30}O_{2} | 278 | | | |201.5
Ricinoleic | C_{18}H_{34}O_{3} | 298 | | | |181.6
___________|___________________|______|__________|___________|_______|________
*Comparison of Thermometer Scales
n Degree Celsius = 4/5n Degree Reaumur = 32 + 9/5n Degree Fahrenheit
n Degree Reaumur = 5/4n Degree Celsius = 32 + 9/4n Degree Fahrenheit
n Degree Fahrenheit = 5/9 (n - 32) Degree Celsius = 4/9 (n - 32) Deg. R
============================================================================
C. R. F. | C. R. F. | C. R. F. | C. R. F.
--------------------|------------------|------------------|-----------------
-20 -16 -4 | 20 16 68 | 60 48 140 | 100 80 212
-19 -15.2 -2.2 | 21 16.8 69.8 | 61 48.8 141.8 | 101 80.8 213.8
-18 -14.4 -0.4 | 22 17.6 71.6 | 62 49.6 143.6 | 102 81.6 215.6
-17 -13.6 1.4 | 23 18.4 73.4 | 63 50.4 145.4 | 103 82.4 217.4
-16 -12.8 3.2 | 24 19.2 75.2 | 64 51.2 147.2 | 104 83.2 219.2
| | |
-15 -12 5 | 25 20 77 | 65 52 149 | 105 84 221
-14 -11.2 6.8 | 26 20.8 78.8 | 66 52.8 150.8 | 106 84.8 222.8
-13 -10.4 8.6 | 27 21.6 80.6 | 67 53.6 152.6 | 107 85.6 224.6
-12 -9.6 10.4 | 28 22.4 82.4 | 68 54.4 154.4 | 108 86.4 226.4
-11 -8.8 12.2 | 29 23.2 84.2 | 69 55.2 156.2 | 109 87.2 228.2
| | |
-10 -8 14 | 30 24 86 | 70 56 158 | 110 88 230
-9 -7.2 15.8 | 31 24.8 87.8 | 71 56.8 159.8 | 111 88.8 231.8
-8 -6.4 17.6 | 32 25.6 89.6 | 72 57.6 161.6 | 112 89.6 233.6
-7 -5.6 19.4 | 33 26.4 91.4 | 73 58.4 163.4 | 113 90.4 235.4
-6 -4.8 21.2 | 34 27.2 93.2 | 74 59.2 165.2 | 114 91.2 237.2
| | |
-5 -4 23 | 35 28 95 | 75 60 167 | 115 92 239
-4 -3.2 24.8 | 36 28.8 96.8 | 76 60.8 168.8 | 116 92.8 240.8
-3 -2.4 26.6 | 37 29.6 98.6 | 77 61.6 170.6 | 117 93.6 242.6
-2 -1.6 28.4 | 38 30.4 100.4 | 78 62.4 172.4 | 118 94.4 244.4
-1 -0.8 30.2 | 39 31.2 102.2 | 79 63.2 174.2 | 119 95.2 246.2
| | |
0 0 32 | 40 32 104 | 80 64 176 | 120 96 248
1 0.8 33.8 | 41 32.8 105.8 | 81 64.8 177.8 | 121 96.8 249.8
2 1.6 35.6 | 42 33.6 107.6 | 82 65.6 179.6 | 122 97.6 252.6
3 2.4 37.4 | 43 34.4 109.4 | 83 66.4 181.4 | 123 98.4 253.4
4 3.2 39.2 | 44 35.2 111.2 | 84 67.2 183.2 | 124 99.2 255.2
| | |
5 4 41 | 45 36 113 | 85 68 185 | 125 100 257
6 4.8 42.8 | 46 36.8 114.8 | 86 68.8 186.8 | 126 100.8 258.8
7 5.6 44.6 | 47 37.6 116.6 | 87 69.6 188.6 | 127 101.6 260.6
8 6.4 46.4 | 48 38.4 118.4 | 88 70.4 190.4 | 128 102.4 262.4
9 7.2 48.2 | 49 39.2 120.2 | 89 71.2 192.2 | 129 103.2 264.2
| | |
10 8 50 | 50 40 122 | 90 72 194 | 130 104 266
11 8.8 51.8 | 51 40.8 123.8 | 91 72.8 195.8 | 131 104.8 267.8
12 9.6 53.6 | 52 41.6 125.6 | 92 73.6 197.6 | 132 105.6 269.6
13 10.4 55.4 | 53 42.4 127.4 | 93 74.4 199.4 | 133 106.4 271.4
14 11.2 57.2 | 54 43.2 129.2 | 94 75.2 201.2 | 134 107.2 273.2
| | |
15 12 59 | 55 44 131 | 95 76 203 | 135 108 275
16 12.8 60.8 | 56 44.8 132.8 | 96 76.8 204.8 | 136 108.8 276.8
17 13.6 62.6 | 57 45.6 134.6 | 97 77.6 206.6 | 137 109.6 278.6
18 14.4 64.4 | 58 46.4 136.4 | 98 78.4 208.4 | 138 110.4 280.4
19 15.2 66.2 | 59 47.2 138.2 | 99 79.2 210.2 | 139 111.2 282.2
============================================================================
*Quantities of Alkali Required for Saponification of Fats of Average
Molecular Weight 670
(Cocoanut Oil, Palmkernel Oil)
_________________________________________________
| | |
| Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali |
| Solution | Solution |
Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.1 | Sp. Gr. 1.2 |
______|_____________________|___________________|
| | | | |
| NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH |
______|__________|__________|_________|_________|
| | | | |
1000 | 1875.83 | 1902.99 | 844.67 | 930.35 |
2000 | 3751.66 | 3805.97 | 1689.35 | 1860.70 |
3000 | 5627.50 | 5708.96 | 2534.02 | 2791.04 |
4000 | 7508.33 | 7611.94 | 3378.69 | 3721.39 |
5000 | 9379.16 | 9514.93 | 4223.37 | 4651.74 |
6000 | 11254.99 | 11417.91 | 5068.04 | 5582.09 |
7000 | 13130.82 | 13320.90 | 5912.71 | 6512.44 |
8000 | 15006.66 | 15223.88 | 6757.38 | 7442.78 |
9000 | 16882.49 | 17126.87 | 7602.06 | 8373.13 |
10000 | 18758.32 | 19029.85 | 8446.73 | 9303.48 |
______|__________|__________|_________|_________|
______________________________________________
| |
| Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali
| Solution | Solution
Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.3 | Sp. Gr. 1.355
______|___________________|___________________
| | | |
| NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH
______|_________|_________|_________|_________
| | | |
1000 | 510.27 | 622.71 | 409.61 | 517.97
2000 | 1020.54 | 1245.41 | 819.21 | 1035.95
3000 | 1530.81 | 1868.12 | 1228.82 | 1553.92
4000 | 2041.01 | 2490.83 | 1638.43 | 2071.90
5000 | 2551.35 | 3113.54 | 2048.04 | 2589.87
6000 | 3061.61 | 3736.24 | 2457.65 | 3107.84
7000 | 3571.88 | 4358.95 | 2867.26 | 3625.82
8000 | 4082.15 | 4981.66 | 3276.86 | 4143.79
9000 | 4592.42 | 5604.36 | 3886.47 | 4661.77
10000 | 5102.69 | 6227.02 | 4096.08 | 5179.74
______|_________|_________|_________|_________
*Quantities of Alkali Required for Saponification of Fats of Average
Molecular Weight 860
(Tallow, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Etc.)
_________________________________________________
| | |
| Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali |
| Solution | Solution |
Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.1 | Sp. Gr. 1.2 |
______|_____________________|___________________|
| | | | |
| NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH |
______|__________|__________|_________|_________|
| | | | |
1000 | 1461.40 | 1482.56 | 658.05 | 724.81 |
2000 | 2922.81 | 2965.12 | 1316.12 | 1449.61 |
3000 | 4384.21 | 4447.67 | 1974.18 | 2174.42 |
4000 | 5845.62 | 5930.23 | 2632.24 | 2899.22 |
5000 | 7307.02 | 7412.79 | 3290.80 | 3624.03 |
6000 | 8768.42 | 8895.85 | 3948.35 | 4348.84 |
7000 | 10229.83 | 10377.91 | 4606.41 | 5073.64 |
8000 | 11691.23 | 11860.45 | 5264.47 | 5798.45 |
9000 | 13152.64 | 13343.02 | 5922.53 | 6523.25 |
10000 | 14614.04 | 14825.58 | 6580.59 | 7248.06 |
______|__________|__________|_________|_________|
______________________________________________
| |
| Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali
| Solution | Solution
Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.3 | Sp. Gr. 1.355
______|___________________|___________________
| | | |
| NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH
______|_________|_________|_________|_________
| | | |
1000 | 397.54 | 485.13 | 319.11 | 403.54
2000 | 795.07 | 970.27 | 638.23 | 807.08
3000 | 1192.61 | 1455.40 | 957.34 | 1210.61
4000 | 1590.14 | 1940.53 | 1276.45 | 1614.15
5000 | 1987.68 | 2425.67 | 1595.57 | 2017.69
6000 | 2385.21 | 2910.80 | 1914.68 | 2421.23
7000 | 2782.75 | 3395.93 | 2233.79 | 2824.77
8000 | 3180.28 | 3881.06 | 2552.90 | 3228.30
9000 | 3577.82 | 4366.20 | 2872.02 | 3631.84
10000 | 3975.35 | 4851.33 | 3191.13 | 4035.38
______|_________|_________|_________|_________
DENSITY AND STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID (SIDERSKY).
Column Headings:
A: Degrees Twaddell
B: Sp. Gr. at 15deg. C.
C: % of pure acid (H_{2}SO_{4}).
D: Equivalent (in cc.) of a kilo of pure acid.
E: Equivalent (in cc.) of a liter of pure acid.
=========================================
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E]
_________________________________________
1 1.007 1.9 52.620 96.930
3 1.014 2.8 35.710 66.450
4 1.022 3.8 25.650 47.230
6 1.029 4.8 20.410 37.582
8 1.037 5.8 16.670 30.690
9 1.045 6.8 14.085 25.938
10 1.052 7.8 12.198 22.460
12 1.062 8.8 10.755 19.803
13 1.067 9.8 9.524 17.540
15 1.075 10.9 8.547 15.740
17 1.083 11.9 7.752 14.278
18 1.091 13.0 7.042 12.969
20 1.100 14.1 6.452 11.882
22 1.108 15.2 5.953 10.962
23 1.116 16.2 5.526 10.177
25 1.125 17.3 5.405 9.954
27 1.134 18.5 4.76 8.770
29 1.142 19.6 4.465 8.223
30 1.152 20.8 4.184 7.723
32 1.162 22.2 3.876 7.138
34 1.171 23.3 3.663 6.745
36 1.180 24.5 3.541 6.521
38 1.190 25.8 3.258 5.999
40 1.200 27.1 3.077 5.666
42 1.210 28.4 2.907 5.353
44 1.220 29.6 2.770 5.102
46 1.231 31.0 2.618 4.865
48 1.241 32.2 2.500 4.604
50 1.252 33.4 2.392 4.406
53 1.263 34.7 2.283 4.205
55 1.274 36.0 2.179 4.012
57 1.285 37.4 2.079 3.829
60 1.297 38.8 1.988 3.661
62 1.308 40.2 1.905 3.508
64 1.320 41.6 1.821 3.354
66 1.332 43.0 1.745 3.214
69 1.345 44.4 1.665 3.085
71 1.357 45.5 1.621 2.985
74 1.370 46.9 1.558 2.869
77 1.383 48.3 1.497 2.757
80 1.397 49.8 1.436 2.646
82 1.410 51.2 1.386 2.551
85 1.424 52.6 1.335 2.459
88 1.438 54.0 1.287 2.370
91 1.453 55.4 1.237 2.270
94 1.468 56.9 1.195 2.200
97 1.483 58.3 1.156 2.130
100 1.498 59.6 1.116 2.050
103 1.514 61.0 1.080 1.980
106 1.530 62.5 1.045 1.930
108 1.540 64.0 1.010 1.860
113 1.563 65.5 0.975 1.800
116 1.580 67.0 0.950 1.740
120 1.597 68.6 0.917 1.690
123 1.615 70.0 0.888 1.630
127 1.634 71.6 0.855 1.570
130 1.652 73.2 0.845 1.520
134 1.671 74.7 0.800 1.470
138 1.691 76.4 0.774 1.430
142 1.711 78.1 0.749 1.390
146 1.732 79.9 0.722 1.320
151 1.753 81.7 0.705 1.280
155 1.774 84.1 0.672 1.235
160 1.798 86.5 0.639 1.190
164 1.819 89.7 0.609 1.120
168 1.842 100.0 0.544 1.000
*Densities of Potassium Carbonate Solutions at 15 C (Gerlach)
=======================
| |
| Per cent |
Sp. Gr. | of pure |
| K_{2}CO_{3} |
________|_____________|
| |
1.00914 | 1 |
1.01829 | 2 |
1.02743 | 3 |
1.03658 | 4 |
1.04572 | 5 |
1.05513 | 6 |
1.06454 | 7 |
1.07396 | 8 |
1.08337 | 9 |
1.09278 | 10 |
1.10258 | 11 |
1.11238 | 12 |
1.12219 | 13 |
1.13199 | 14 |
1.14179 | 15 |
1.15200 | 16 |
1.16222 | 17 |
1.17243 | 18 |
1.18265 | 19 |
1.19286 | 20 |
1.20344 | 21 |
1.21402 | 22 |
1.22459 | 23 |
1.23517 | 24 |
1.24575 | 25 |
1.25681 | 26 |
1.26787 | 27 |
1.27893 | 28 |
1.28999 | 29 |
1.30105 | 30 |
1.31261 | 31 |
1.32417 | 32 |
1.33573 | 33 |
1.34729 | 34 |
1.35885 | 35 |
1.37082 | 36 |
1.38279 | 37 |
1.39476 | 38 |
1.40673 | 39 |
1.41870 | 40 |
1.43104 | 41 |
1.44338 | 42 |
1.45573 | 43 |
1.46807 | 44 |
1.48041 | 45 |
1.49314 | 46 |
1.50588 | 47 |
1.51861 | 48 |
1.53135 | 49 |
1.54408 | 50 |
1.55728 | 51 |
1.57048 | 52 |
1.57079 | 53.024 |
________|_____________|
*Constants of Certain Fatty Acids and Triglycerides
=========================================================
| | |
| | | Per cent Yield
Triglycerides | Mol. Wt. | Mol. Wt. |__________________
of | of Fatty | of Tri- | |
| of Fatty | glycerides | Fatty | Glycerine
| | | Acid |
______________|__________|____________|_______|___________
| | | |
Stearic Acid | 284 | 890 | 95.73 | 10.34
Oleic Acid | 282 | 884 | 95.70 | 10.41
Margaric Acid | 270 | 848 | 95.52 | 10.85
Palmitic Acid | 256 | 806 | 95.28 | 11.42
Myristic Acid | 228 | 722 | 94.47 | 12.74
Lauric Acid | 200 | 638 | 94.04 | 14.42
Capric Acid | 172 | 594 | 93.14 | 15.48
Caproic Acid | 116 | 386 | 90.16 | 23.83
Butyric Acid | 88 | 302 | 87.41 | 30.46
______________|__________|____________|_______|___________
PERCENTAGES OF SOLID CAUSTIC SODA AND CAUSTIC POTASH IN CAUSTIC LYES
ACCORDING TO BAUME SCALE.
Degrees % %
Baume. NaOH KOH
1 0.61 0.90
2 0.93 1.70
3 2.00 2.60
4 2.71 3.50
5 3.35 4.50
6 4.00 5.60
7 4.556 6.286
8 5.29 7.40
9 5.87 8.20
10 6.55 9.20
11 7.31 10.10
12 8.00 10.90
13 8.68 12.00
14 9.42 12.90
15 10.06 13.80
16 10.97 14.80
17 11.84 15.70
18 12.64 16.50
19 13.55 17.60
20 14.37 18.60
21 15.13 19.50
22 15.91 20.50
23 16.77 21.40
24 17.67 22.50
25 18.58 23.30
26 19.58 24.20
27 20.59 25.10
28 21.42 26.10
29 22.64 27.00
30 23.67 28.00
31 24.81 28.90
32 25.80 29.80
33 26.83 30.70
34 27.80 31.80
35 28.83 32.70
36 29.93 33.70
37 31.22 34.90
38 32.47 35.90
39 33.69 36.90
40 34.96 37.80
41 36.25 38.90
42 37.53 39.90
43 38.80 40.90
44 39.99 42.10
45 41.41 43.40
46 42.83 44.60
47 44.38 45.80
48 46.15 47.10
49 47.58 48.25
50 49.02 49.40
GLYCERINE CONTENT OF MORE COMMON OILS AND FATS USED IN SOAP MAKING.
Kind. Theoretical Average Free % Pure Yield
Yield of Pure Fatty Acid in Glycerine Soap Lye
Glycerine of Commercial in Commercial 80% Crude
Neutral Oil Oil. Oil. Glycerine.
or Fat.
Beef Tallow 10.7 5 10.2 12.75
Bone Grease 10.5 20-50 5.2- 8.4 6.5-10.5
Castor Oil 9.8 0.5-10 8.8- 9.8 11.0-12.45
Cocoanut Oil 13.9 3-5 13.2-13.5 16.5-16.9
Cocoanut Oil Off 15-40 8.3-11.8 10.37-14.75
Corn Oil 10.4 1-10 9.3-10.3 11.62-12.9
Cottonseed Oil 10.6 Trace 10.6 13.25
Hog Grease 10.6 0.5-1 10.5-10.6 13.12-13.25
Horse Grease 10.6 1-3 10.5-10.6 13.12-13.25
Olive Oil 10.3 2-25 7.7-10.2 9.62-12.75
Olive Foots 30-60 4-7 5-8.75
Palm Oil 11.0 10-50 5.5-10 6.87-12.5
Palmkernel Oil 13.3 4-8 12.2-12.8 15.25-16
Peanut Oil 10.4 5-20 8.3-9.9 10.37-12.37
Soya Bean Oil 10.4 2 10.2 12.75
Train Oil 10.0 2-20 8-9.8 10.0-12.25
Vegetable Tallow 10.9 1-3 10.5-10.8 13.12-13.5
*Table of Specific Gravities of Pure Commercial Glycerine with
Corresponding Percentage of Water. Temperature 15 C.
------------------+------------------
Sp. Gr. % Water | Sp. Gr. % Water
1.262 0 | 1.160 38
1.261 1 | 1.157 39
1.258 2 | 1.155 40
1.255 3 | 1.152 41
1.2515 4 | 1.149 42
1.250 5 | 1.1464 43
1.2467 6 | 1.1437 44
1.2450 7 | 1.141 45
1.243 8 | 1.1377 46
1.241 9 | 1.1353 47
1.237 10 | 1.1326 48
1.235 11 | 1.1304 49
1.2324 12 | 1.127 50
1.229 13 | 1.125 51
1.2265 14 | 1.1224 52
1.2245 15 | 1.1204 53
1.2225 16 | 1.117 54
1.2185 17 | 1.114 55
1.2174 18 | 1.112 56
1.2142 19 | 1.109 57
1.211 20 | 1.106 58
1.207 21 | 1.103 59
1.203 22 | 1.1006 60
1.2004 23 | 1.088 65
1.198 24 | 1.075 70
1.195 25 | 1.0623 75
1.1923 26 | 1.049 80
1.189 27 | 1.0365 85
1.188 28 | 1.0243 90
1.1846 29 | 1.0218 91
1.182 30 | 1.0192 92
1.179 31 | 1.0168 93
1.176 32 | 1.0147 94
1.1734 33 | 1.0125 95
1.171 34 | 1.01 96
1.168 35 | 1.0074 97
1.165 36 | 1.0053 98
1.163 37 | 1.0026 99
------------------+------------------
Table of Percentage, Specific Gravity and Beaume Degree of Pure
Glycerine Solutions
=========+===========+===========++=========+===========+===========
Per cent |Sp. Gr. |Degree ||Per cent |Sp. Gr. |Degree
Water |Champion |Beaume ||Water |Champion |Beaume
|and Pellet |(Berthelot)|| |and Pellet |(Berthelot)
=========+===========+===========++=========+===========+===========
0 | 1.2640 | 31.2 || 11.0 | 1.2350 | 28.6
0.5 | 1.2625 | 31.0 || 11.5 | 1.2335 | 28.4
1.0 | 1.2612 | 30.9 || 12.0 | 1.2322 | 28.3
1.5 | 1.2600 | 30.8 || 12.5 | 1.2307 | 28.2
2.0 | 1.2585 | 30.7 || 13.0 | 1.2295 | 28.0
2.5 | 1.2575 | 30.6 || 13.5 | 1.2280 | 27.8
3.0 | 1.2560 | 30.4 || 14.0 | 1.2270 | 27.7
3.5 | 1.2545 | 30.3 || 14.5 | 1.2255 | 27.6
4.0 | 1.2532 | 30.2 || 15.0 | 1.2242 | 27.4
4.5 | 1.2520 | 30.1 || 15.5 | 1.2230 | 27.3
5.0 | 1.2505 | 30.0 || 16.0 | 1.2217 | 27.2
5.5 | 1.2490 | 29.9 || 16.5 | 1.2202 | 27.0
6.0 | 1.2480 | 29.8 || 17.0 | 1.2190 | 26.9
6.5 | 1.2465 | 29.7 || 17.5 | 1.2177 | 26.8
7.0 | 1.2455 | 29.6 || 18.0 | 1.2165 | 26.7
7.5 | 1.2440 | 29.5 || 18.5 | 1.2150 | 26.5
8.0 | 1.2427 | 29.3 || 19.0 | 1.2137 | 26.4
8.5 | 1.2412 | 29.2 || 19.5 | 1.2125 | 26.3
9.0 | 1.2400 | 29.0 || 20.0 | 1.2112 | 26.2
9.5 | 1.2390 | 28.9 || 20.5 | 1.2100 | 26.0
10.0 | 1.2375 | 28.8 || 21.0 | 1.2085 | 25.0
10.5 | 1.2362 | 28.7 || | |
=========+===========+===========++=========+===========+===========
*Table of Specific Gravities of Pure Glycerine Solutions with
Corresponding Beaume Degree and Percent Water
--------+--------+-------+---------+--------+--------
Per cent| Sp. Gr.| Degree| Percent | Sp. Gr.| Degree
Water | | Beaume| Water | | Beaume
--------+--------+-------+---------+--------+--------
| | | | |
0.0 | 1.2640 | 31.2 | 1.0 | 1.2612 | 30.9
0.5 | 1.2625 | 31.0 | 1.5 | 1.2600 | 30.8
2.0 | 1.2585 | 30.7 | 12.0 | 1.2322 | 28.3
2.5 | 1.2575 | 30.6 | 12.5 | 1.2307 | 28.2
3.0 | 1.2560 | 30.4 | 13.0 | 1.2295 | 28.0
3.5 | 1.2545 | 30.3 | 13.5 | 1.2280 | 27.8
4.0 | 1.2532 | 30.2 | 14.0 | 1.2270 | 27.7
4.5 | 1.2520 | 30.1 | 14.5 | 1.2255 | 27.6
5.0 | 1.2505 | 30.0 | 15.0 | 1.2242 | 27.4
5.5 | 1.2490 | 29.9 | 15.5 | 1.2230 | 27.3
6.0 | 1.2480 | 29.8 | 16.0 | 1.2217 | 27.2
6.5 | 1.2465 | 29.7 | 16.5 | 1.2202 | 27.0
7.0 | 1.2455 | 29.6 | 17.0 | 1.2190 | 26.9
7.5 | 1.2440 | 29.5 | 17.5 | 1.2177 | 26.8
8.0 | 1.2427 | 29.3 | 18.0 | 1.2165 | 26.7
8.5 | 1.2412 | 29.2 | 18.5 | 1.2150 | 26.5
9.0 | 1.2400 | 29.0 | 19.0 | 1.2137 | 26.4
9.5 | 1.2390 | 28.9 | 19.5 | 1.2125 | 26.3
10.0 | 1.2375 | 28.8 | 20.0 | 1.2112 | 26.2
10.5 | 1.2362 | 28.7 | 20.5 | 1.2100 | 26.0
11.0 | 1.2350 | 28.6 | 21.0 | 1.2085 | 25.9
11.5 | 1.2335 | 28.4 | | |
--------+--------+-------+---------+--------+--------
INDEX
A
Acetin process for the determination of glycerol, 155.
Acid, Clupanodonic, 20.
Acid, Hydrochloric, 111.
Acid, Lauric, 2.
Acid, Myristic, 2.
Acid, Napthenic, 24.
Acid, Oleic, 15, 19.
Acid, Palmitic, 2.
Acid, Pinic, 22.
Acid, Resin, 144.
Acid, Stearic, 15, 19.
Acid, Sulfuric, 112.
Acid, Sylvic, 22.
Acid saponification, 120.
Air bleaching of palm oil, 12.
Albuminous matter, Removal from tallow, 6.
Alcohol, Denatured, 82.
Alcoholic method for free alkali in soap, 139.
Alkali Blue 6 B, indicator, 129.
Alkali, Total, determination of in soap, 147.
Alkalis, 25.
Alkalis used in soap making,
Testing of, 134.
Amalgamator, 33.
Analysis, Glycerine, International, 150.
Analysis, Soap, 137.
Analysis, Standard methods for fats and oils, 165-196.
Aqueous saponification, 121.
Arachis oil, 79.
Autoclave saponification, 118.
Automobile soaps, 41.
B
Barrels, sampling, 168.
Baume scale, 25.
Bayberry wax, Use in shaving soap, 89.
Bichromate Process for glycerol determination, 160.
Bleaching, Fullers' earth process for tallow, 4.
Bleaching palm oil by bichromate method, 9.
Bleaching palm oil by air, 12.
Bosshard & Huggenberg method for determination of free alkali, 140.
Bunching of soap, 52.
C
Candelite, 96.
Candle tar, 125.
Carbolic soap, 77.
Carbon Dioxide, Formation of in carbonate saponification, 45.
Carbonate, potassium, 29.
Carbonate, saponification, 35, 45.
Carbonate, sodium, 28.
Castile soap, 79.
Castor oil ferment, 121.
Castor oil, Use of in transparent soaps, 83.
Caustic potash, 26.
Caustic potash, Electrolytic, 27.
Caustic soda, 26.
Changes in soap-making, 36.
Chemist, Importance of, 127.
Chipper, Soap, 32.
Chip soap, 54.
Chip soap, Cold made, 55.
Chip soap, Unfilled, 56.
Chrome bleaching of palm oil, 9.
Cloud test for oil, Standard method, 182-183.
Clupanodonic acid, 20.
Cocoanut oil, 6.
Cold cream soap, 78.
Cold made chip soaps, 55.
Cold made toilet soaps, 72.
Cold made transparent soaps, 84.
Cold process, 35, 43.
Colophony, 22.
Coloring soap, 75.
Copra, 7.
Corn oil, 14.
Corrosive sublimate, 78.
Cotton goods. Soaps used for, 103.
Cottonseed oil, 14.
Cream, Shaving, 90.
Crude glycerine, 113.
Crutcher, 32.
Curd soap, 71.
Cutting table, 32.
D
Determination of free fatty acid, 128.
Determination of unsaponifiable matter, 132.
Distillation of fatty acids, 125.
Drying machine, 32.
E
Enzymes, 17.
Eschweger soap, 81.
Examination of fats and oils, 128.
F
Fahrion's method for moisture, 138.
Fats and oils, Examination of, 128.
Fats and oils used in soap manufacture, 3.
Fatty acids, 14.
Fatty acids, Distillation of, 125.
Ferments, Splitting fats with, 121.
Fillers for laundry soaps, 53.
Fillers for soap powders, 58.
Finishing change, 36.
Fish oils, 20.
Floating soap, 62.
Formaldehyde soap, 78.
Frames, 31.
Free alkali in soap, Determination of, 139.
Free fatty acid, Determination of, 128.
Free fatty acids, Extraction from tallow, 6.
Free fatty acid, Standard method of dilu., 174.
Note on method, 188-189.
Full boiled soaps, 35.
Fullers' earth bleaching of tallow, 4.
G
Glycerides, 2.
Glycerine, 2.
Glycerine analysis, 150.
Glycerine change, 36.
Glycerine, Crude, 113.
Glycerine in spent lyes, Recovery of, 106.
Glycerine in soap, Determination of, 149.
Glycerine, Sampling crude, 162.
Glycerine soaps, 83.
Glycerol content, Ways of calculating actual, 159.
Glycerol determination, Acetin process, 155.
Glycerol determination, Bichromate process for, 160.
Graining soap, 30.
Grease, 21.
Grease, Bleaching, 21.
Grinding soap, 34.
H
Hand Paste, 93.
Hard water, 29.
Hardened oils in toilet soap, Use of, 96.
Hydrocarbon oils, 2.
Hydrogenating oils, 19.
Hydrolysis of fats and oils, 17.
Hydrolytic dissociation of soap, 1.
Hydrometers, 25.
I
Indicators, Action, 135-6.
Insoluble impurities in fatty oils, Determination of
(standard method), 172.
Note on method, 187.
Insoluble matter in soap, determination of, 143.
International committee on glycerine analysis, 150.
Iodine manufacturing oil, 191.
Iodine member Wijs method, Standard, 177-181.
Note on method, 191.
Iodine soap, 78.
J
Joslin, ref., 113.
K
"Killing" change, 36.
Koettstorfer number (Standard method), 181-182.
Kontakt reagent, 117.
Krebitz Process, 123.
Krutolin, 96.
L
Leiste & Stiepel method for rosin in soap, 146.
Liebermann, Storch reaction, 144.
Light powders, 60.
Laundry soap, 48.
LeBlanc Process, 28.
Lewkowitsch, ref., 17, 146.
Lime saponification, 118.
Lime, Use in Krebitz Process, 123.
Lime, Use in treatment of glycerine water, 116.
Liquid medicinal soaps, 79.
Liquid soaps, 94.
Lyes, Spent, 37.
M
Magnesia, Use in autoclave saponification, 120.
Manganese sulfate,
Use of as catalyzer in fermentative cleavage of fats, 122.
Marine soaps, 39.
Medicinal soaps, 76.
Medicinal soaps, Less important, 78.
Medicinal soaps, Therapeutic value of, 76.
Melting point of fat or oil, Standard method, 193.
Mercury soaps, 78.
Metallic soaps, 1.
Methyl orange, indicator, 136.
Meyerheim, ref., 21.
Mill soap, 32.
Moisture in soap, Determination of, 138, 130.
Moisture and volatile matter in fats and oils, Standard method for
detm. of, 170.
Note on method, 184-185.
Mottle in soap, 81.
Mug shaving soap, 90.
N
Naphtha, Incorporation in soap, 49.
Naphthenic acids, 24.
Nigre, 36.
Normal acids, Equivalent in alkalis, 136.
O
Oils and fats, 1.
Oils and fats, Chemical constants, 18.
Oils and fats, Distinction, 1.
Oils and fats, Preserving, 18.
Oils and fat, Nature of used in soap manufacture, 2.
Oils and fats, Rancidity of, 16.
Oil hardening, 19.
Oleic acid, 15, 19.
Olein, 2, 19.
Olive oil, 14.
Olive oil foots, 14.
Organoleptic methods, 127.
P
Palmatin, 2.
Palm kernel oil, 8.
Palmitic acid, 2.
Palm oil, 8.
Palm oil, air bleaching, 12.
Palm oil, Chrome bleaching of, 9.
Palm oil soap, 66.
Pearl ash, 29.
Perfuming and coloring toilet soaps, 73.
Peroxide soap, 78.
Petroff reagent, 117.
Pfeilring reagent, 117.
Phenol, 77.
Phenolphthalein, indicator, 38.
Phenolphthalein, Using as indicator, 51.
Phenols, Soaps containing, 77.
Pinic acid, 22.
Plodder, 33.
Potash from wood ash, 27.
Potassium carbonate, 29.
Powders, Light, 60.
Powders, Scouring, 61.
Powders, Shaving, 90.
Powders, Soap, 56.
Precipitation test for treated spent lyes, 110.
Prevention of rancidity, 18.
Pumice or sand soaps, 93.
Purple shade in soap, 75.
R
Rancidity of oils and fats, 16.
Rancidity, Prevention, 18.
Recovery of glycerine from spent lye, 106.
Red oil, 15.
Red oil, Saponified, 15.
Resin acids, Total fatty and, Determination of in soap, 144.
Ribot, ref., 20.
Rosin, 22.
Rosin, Determination of in soap, 144.
Rosin saponification, 23.
Run and glued up soaps, 69.
Run soaps, 39.
S
Sal soda, 29.
Salt, 30.
Salting out, 30.
Salt "pickle," 37.
Sampling crude glycerine, 162.
Sampling for standard method, 166.
Note on, 184.
Sampling oils and fats, 128.
Sampling soap, 137.
Saponification by ferments, 121.
Saponification, Acid, 120.
Saponification, Aqueous, 121.
Saponification, Autoclave, 118.
Saponification, Carbonate, 45.
Saponification defined, 2, 105.
Saponification, Lime, 118.
Saponification number, 181-182.
Saponification, Rosin, 23.
Saponification, Various methods, 105.
Scouring and fulling soaps for wool, 98.
Scouring powders, 61.
Scouring soap, 61.
Semi-boiled laundry soaps, 49.
Semi-boiled process, 44.
Shaving cream, 90.
Shaving powder, 90.
Shaving soaps, 87.
Silica and silicates, Determination of in soap, 148.
Silk dyeing, 102.
Silk industry, Soaps used in, 101.
Slabber, 32.
Smith method for moisture in soap, 138.
Soap analysis, 137.
Soap, Automobile, 41.
Soap, Carbolic, 71.
Soap, Castile, 79.
Soap, Chip, 54.
Soap Chip, cold made, 55.
Soap, Chip, unfilled, 56.
Soap, Cold cream, 78.
Soap, Coloring, 75.
Soap containing phenols, 77.
Soap, Curd, 71.
Soap, Defined, 1.
Soap, Determination insoluble matter, 143.
Soap, Determining glycerine in, 149.
Soap, Eschweger, 81.
Soap, Floating, 62.
Soap, Formaldehyde, 78.
Soap for wool, Scouring and fulling, 98.
Soap, Full boiled, 35.
Soap, Iodine, 78.
Soap kettle, 31.
Soap, Laundry, 48.
Soap, Liquid, 94.
Soap lye crude glycerine, 113.
Soap, Marine, 39.
Soap, Medicinal, 76.
Soap, Medicinal, less important, 78.
Soap, Mercury, 78.
Soap, Metallic, 1.
Soap, Peroxide, 78.
Soap powders, 56.
Soap, Pumice or sand, 93.
Soap, Rosin settled, 50.
Soap, Run and glued up, 69.
Soap, Scouring, 61.
Soap, Semi-boiled laundry, 49.
Soap, Shaving, 87.
Soap, Sulphur, 77.
Soap, Tannin, 78.
Soap, Tar, 77.
Soap, Test for color of, 133.
Soap, Textile, 98.
Soap, Toilet, 65.
Soap, Toilet cheaper, 68.
Soap, Toilet, cold made, 72.
Soap, Toilet perfuming and coloring, 73.
Soap, Transparent, 82.
Soap, Transparent, cold made, 84.
Soap used for cotton goods, 103.
Soap used in the silk industry, 101.
Soap, Witch hazel, 78.
Soap, Wool thrower's, 100.
Soap, Worsted finishing, 101.
Soda ash, 28.
Sodium carbonate, 28.
Sodium perborate, Use of in soap powders, 57.
Soft soaps, 40.
Soluble mineral matter detm. of in fats and oils, 173.
Note on method, 187-188.
Solvay process, 28.
Soya bean oil, 14.
Spent lye, Recovery of glycerine from, 106.
Spent lyes, 37.
Spent lyes, Treatment of for glycerine recovery, 107.
Splitting fats with ferments, 121.
Standard methods of analysis for fats and oils, 165-196.
Starch and gelatine, Determination in soap, 143.
Stearic acid, 15, 19.
Stearin, 2, 19.
Strengthening change, 36.
Strengthening lyes, 38.
Strunz crutcher, 63.
Sugar in soap, Determination of, 150.
Sugar, Use in transparent soap, 83.
Sulfate of alumina, Use of in spent lyes, 108.
Sulphonated oils, 104.
Sulphur soaps, 77.
Sweating of soap, 62.
Sweet water, 119.
Sylvic acid, 22.
T
Talgol, 96.
Tallow, 4.
Tallow, Fullers' earth bleaching of, 4.
Tallow, Improving color by extraction of free fatty acid, 6.
Tannin soap, 78.
Tar soap, 77.
Test for color of soap, 133.
Testing of alkalis used in soap making, 134.
Textile soaps, 98.
Titer, 130.
Tank cars, Sampling, 166.
Tierces, Sampling, 168.
Titer, Standard method, 175.
Titer, Note on, 189.
Tung oil, Note one iodine, number of, 180.
Toilet soap, 65.
Toilet soaps, Cheaper, 68.
Toilet soap, Use of hardened oils in, 96.
Total alkali, Determination of in soap, 147.
Total fatty and resin acids, Determination of in soap, 144.
Train oils, 20.
Transparent soap, 82.
Transparent soap, Cold made, 84.
Troweling soap, 52.
Tsujimoto, ref., 20.
Tubes for transparent soap, 85.
Turkey red oil, 104.
Twaddle scale, 25.
Twitchell method for rosin, 145.
Twitchell process, 113.
Twitchell process, Advantages, 113.
U
Unsaponifiable matter, Determination of in oils and fats, 132.
Unsaponifiable matter, Determination of in soap, 148.
Unsaponifiable matter, determination of by standard method, 176.
V
Vacuum Oven, Standard, 176.
Vegetable oils, 6.
W
Water, 29.
Water, Hard, 29.
Witch hazel soap, 78.
Wool thrower's soap, 100.
Worsted finishing soaps, 101.
Z
Zinc oxide, Use of in autoclave saponification, 120.
Zinc oxide, Use of in soap, 33.
LITERATURE OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
On our shelves is the most complete stock of technical, industrial,
engineering and scientific books in the United States. The technical
literature of every trade is well represented, as is also the literature
relating to the various sciences, both the books useful for reference as
well as those fitted for students' use as textbooks.
A large number of these we publish and for an ever increasing number we
are the sole agents.
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COMPLETE CATALOGS AS WELL AS SPECIAL LISTS SENT FREE ON REQUEST
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
_Publishers and Booksellers_
8 WARREN STREET NEW YORK
The Soap-Maker's Book Shelf
A list of standard books relating to soapmaking and allied industries.
Published and For Sale by
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
_Publishers and Booksellers_
8 WARREN STREET NEW YORK
~Askinson, George W.~ Perfumes and Cosmetics. Their preparation and
manufacture. Fourth Edition, translated from the German, and revised
with additions by W. L. Dudley. 32 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/2. Cloth.
354 pp. New York, 1915. ~$5.00~
~Chalmers, T. W.~ The Production and Treatment of Vegetable Oils.
Including chapters on the refining of oils, the hydrogenation of oils,
the generation of hydrogen, soap making, the recovery and refining of
glycerine, and the splitting of oils. 95 illustrations, 9 folding
plates. 8 x 11-1/2. Cloth. 163 pp. London, 1919. ~$7.50~
~Deite, C.~ Manual of Toilet Soap-Making. Comprising toilet soaps,
medicated soaps, and other specialties. Second Revised Edition. 85
illustrations. 6-1/2 x 10. Cloth. 356 pp. London, 1920. ~$7.50~
~Ellis, Carleton G.~ The Hydrogenation of Oils, Catalyzers and Catalysis
and the Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen. Second Edition, thoroughly
revised and enlarged. 240 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/2. Cloth. 767 pp.
N. Y., 1919. ~$7.50~
~Fischer, M. H.~ Soaps and Proteins, Their Colloid Chemistry in Theory and
Practice. With the collaboration of G. D. McLaughlin and M. O. Hooker.
114 illustrations. 6 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 281 pp. New York, 1921. ~$4.00~
~Holde, D.~ The Examination of Hydrocarbon Oils, and of the Saponifiable
Fats and Waxes. Translated from the Fourth German Edition by Edward
Mueller. 115 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 499 pp. N. Y., 1915.
~Net, $5.00~
~Hurst, G. H~. Soaps. A practical manual of the manufacture of domestic,
toilet and other soaps. Second Edition. 66 illustrations. 6 x 8-3/4.
Cloth. 385 pp. London, 1907. ~$6.00~
~Hurst, George H., and Simmons, W. H.~ Textile Soaps and Oils. A handbook
on the preparation, properties, and analysis of the soaps and oils and
in textile manufacturing, dyeing and printing. Third Edition, revised.
12 illustrations. 5-1/2 x 8-3/4. Cloth. 212 pp. London, 1921. ~$4.00~
~Koller, T. Cosmetics.~ A handbook of the manufacture, employment, and
testing of all cosmetic materials and cosmetic specialties, with
numerous recipes. Translated from the German. Third Edition. 5 x 7-1/2.
Cloth. 264 pp. London, 1920. ~$3.50~
~Koppe, S. W. Glycerine.~ Its introduction, Uses and Examination. For
chemists, perfumers, soapmakers, pharmacists, and explosives
technologists. 7 illustrations. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. Cloth. 260 pp. New York,
1915. ~$3.50~
~Lamborn, L. L.~ Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin. A practical manual
of modern methods of utilization of fats and oils in the manufacture of
soaps and candles, and the recovery of glycerin. 228 illustrations.
6-1/2 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 708 pp. N. Y., 1906. ~$10.00~
~Murray, B. L.~ Standards and Tests for Reagent Chemicals. 6 x 9. Cloth.
400 pp. New York, 1920. ~$3.00~
~Parry, Ernest J.~ The Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial
Perfumes. Vol. I, Monographs on Essential Oils. Fourth Edition, revised
and enlarged. 51 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 10. Cloth. 557 pp. London, 1921.
~$9.00~
Vol. II. Constituents of Essential Oils, Synthetic Perfumes and Isolated
Aromatics, and the Analysis of Essential Oils. Third Edition, revised
and enlarged. Illustrated. 351 pp. London, 1919. ~$7.00~
~Partington, J. R.~ The Alkali Industry. 63 illustrations. 5-1/2 x 8-1/2.
Cloth. 318 pp. London, 1918. ~$3.00~
~Rogers, Allen.~ Industrial Chemistry. A manual for the student and
manufacturer. Third Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. 377
illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-3/4. Flexible fabrikoid. 1255 pp. New York,
1920. ~$7.50~
~Scott, Wilfred W.~ (Editor). Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis. A
manual of analytical methods and general reference for the analytical
chemist and for the advanced student. Second Edition, revised, with
additional tables. 142 illustrations, 3 color plates. 7 x 9-1/4. Cloth.
900 pp. N. Y., 1917. ~$7.50~
~Simmons, W. H.~ Fats, Waxes and Essential Oils. ~In Press.~
~Simmons, William H.~ Soap. Its composition, manufacture and properties.
11 illustrations. 4-3/4 x 7-1/4. Cloth. 133 pp. London, 1916. ~$1.00~
~Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A.~ The Handbook of Soap Manufacture. 27
illustrations. 6 x 9. Cloth. 166 pp. London, 1908. ~$4.00~
~Van Nostrand's Chemical Annual.~ Edited by John C. Olsen. A handbook of
useful data for analytical manufacturing and investigating chemists and
chemical students. Fourth Issue, enlarged. 5 x 7-1/2. Flexible
fabrikoid. 785 pp. New York, 1918. ~$3.00~
~Watt, A.~ Art of Soapmaking. A practical handbook of the manufacture of
hard and soft soaps, toilet soaps, etc. Seventh Edition, revised and
enlarged. 43 illustrations. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. Cloth. 323 pp. London, 1918.
~$4.00~
~Wright, C. R. A.~ Animal and Vegetable Fixed Oils, Fats, Butters, and
Waxes: Their Preparation and Properties, and the Manufacture Therefrom
of Candles, Soaps, and Other Products. Third Edition, revised and
greatly enlarged by C. Ainsworth Mitchell. 185 illustrations, 3 plates.
6 x 9. Cloth. 953 pp. London, 1921. ~$16.50~