FOOD.

Gram (_chunnah_).

In the north of India the chief food on which horses are fed is gram, the

seed of one of the pea tribe of plants. It is a crop that ripens in the

beginning of the summer, when it is harvested, and the grain thrashed out

by driving cattle over it in a circle. The dry stalks, that are broken up

into small pieces, are used for feeding cattle on, and are known as "missa

bhoosa," in contradistinction to the stalks of the wheat when submitted to

the same process, and which is known as "suffaid," or white bhoosa. The

price of gram varies very greatly, according to the locality and season,

and is a subject of much speculation and gambling amongst the native

community. I have known it as high as 7 seers (14 lbs. weight), and as low

as a maund (80 lbs. weight), per rupee. It also varies greatly in

quality, depending on the locality in which it is grown and the conditions

under which it has been harvested, and is by native grain-sellers known as

first and second class gram. Good gram, when a small quantity is taken up

and examined in the palm of the hand, should be free from sand, dirt,

small pieces of stick, straws, or other sorts of seeds; in fact, it

should, what is known in the trade, "run clean." Each individual grain

should be round and plump, as if the husk was well filled. It should not

be shrivelled up and wrinkled, and be free from worm or weevil marks,

which can be told by there being a small round hole in it, and the grain,

when cracked, being found hollowed out and eaten away. Generally the

weevil (kirim) will be found in the cavity, but if not, it will be full of

a fine powder. Weevil-eaten gram cannot be mistaken, and denotes that the

grain is old, and has been badly stored. In most samples of gram, unless

quite new, a small proportion of worm-eaten grains will be found, and this

is not of any consequence; but if there are a large number, there will be

a larger proportion of husk (which has no nourishing properties) than

grain, and a larger quantity will have to be given. When a grain of gram

is crushed between the teeth it should impart the taste of a dry pea in

the mouth, and be devoid of all mustiness, which is present if it has got

wet or mouldy, as it is very apt to do. In new gram the husk at the point

is of a slightly greenish shade, that disappears with keeping. It is

generally supposed that new gram is not so good as when it is a few months

old; but myself, I have never seen any ill effects from its use. The only

thing to be careful about is that it is perfectly ripe, for natives have a

great trick of cutting and plucking every grain, fruit, and vegetable

before they have arrived at full maturity. Gram should be crushed or

bruised, not _ground_, so as to break the outer husk and allow the juices

of the stomach to act on the kernel. It should be crushed or bruised only,

as if ground into a fine powder a good deal goes to waste. It is

sufficient if each seed is so crushed that it is split in two. Gram,

wheat, and all other grains in the East are ground by the women of the

family between two stones, one of which revolves on the top of the other

by means of a wooden handle fixed in it. To crush gram the stones require

to be sharper set than if they are to grind any other grain into flour.

Gram can be got ready crushed from the corn-dealer (baniah) at a small

increased charge per maund (80 lbs.), or what I generally do is to pay my

head groom (syce) the regular bazaar rate (nirrick), and get the women of

his family to crush it, they providing their own mill (chuckie). The only

disadvantage of this plan is that it is necessary to weigh the grain a

second time after it has been crushed, otherwise it will be short, as

natives eat it themselves. But I found in the long run the syces would not

steal it; natives are sharp enough to see when any profit can be made, and

it was not to their advantage to give back short weight. Excellent

gram-crushing machines, working with fluted rollers, are sold by several

firms in India, and are adjustable so as to take any grain. They are made

to fit into a box for travelling, which, when in use, forms a stand for

the crusher to work on. They are, however, somewhat expensive, and

although admirable for a large stud of horses, are hardly required for a

private stable. If, however, expense is no object, they are certainly

preferable to the native mill, as they are cleaner, bits of grit not

coming off the stone, and each individual grain being crushed, which even

the best native mills will not do. Crushed grain is much quicker digested

than whole, particularly by old horses whose teeth are not in good order,

and who cannot masticate their food properly. It is a common mistake to

give too much gram or other grain, there being a prevailing idea that the

more that is given the more work the horse will do. There is no greater

error; it is like putting more coal into the furnace of an engine that can

only consume a certain amount; the extra quantity only goes to waste, and

upsets the digestive functions of the stomach. What is required is a

judicious admixture of food given at a proper time; not a large quantity

improperly given of an improper quality. Gram should be given in the

proportion of one part of bran to two of gram; or what is better, one part

each of bran (choker), gram, and parched barley (adarwah), or oats (jai),

by weight. These can be purchased separately from the corn-dealer and

mixed together, and thus cannot be eaten by any of the servants, like pure

gram can be. If the horse is not digesting his food properly, whole grains

will be found in his droppings that have passed through the bowels

unaltered. There will be always a few of these found, especially if the

horse is getting parched barley or oats, as the husks of both these grains

are very indigestible. If the horse begins to get thin, and fall away in

condition as well, it is then time to take some measures to remedy

matters, otherwise no notice need be taken.

Barley (_jow_).

In many parts of Northern India, especially on the Afghan frontier, whole,

uncrushed barley is used. It does not seem to hurt country-breds, but with

old animals that are not used to it, and particularly Australians, the

practice is dangerous. During the Afghan War, on one occasion there being

no other grain available, whole barley was supplied to the horses of the

battery of artillery to which I then belonged. A number of them were

attacked with colic, and several died from the irritation caused by the

pointed awns or ends of the beards to the bowels. No doubt horses, and

particularly young ones, will get used to feeding on most grains if the

change is brought about gradually, but a sudden change from any one to

another is dangerous. At the best, whole barley is not an economical food.

The husk resists the digestive action of the stomach and intestines, and a

quantity is always passed out of the body whole. Barley ought certainly

always to be crushed, or, better still, parched, and turned into

"adarwah." This is done by professional grain parchers in the bazaar; but

sometimes, though rarely, some of the women of the servants' families can

do it. It consists of half filling a wide shallow iron pan with sand, and

placing it over a fire till nearly red hot. A couple of handfuls of the

grain is then thrown into the sand with a peculiar turn of the wrist which

scatters it over the hot surface, about which it is stirred for a few

seconds with an iron spoon or small shovel pierced with holes like a

fish-ladle. The grain is partially baked, swells up and becomes brittle,

the husk cracking, when it is scraped up and lifted out with the ladle,

the sand being riddled through back into the pan. A good parcher will turn

out a "maund" (80 lbs.) in a wonderfully short space of time, the whole

process being gone through with a dexterity only acquired by long

practice. In India barley usually runs very light, there being a great

deal of husk. Boiled barley is a most useful diet for a sick horse. It

requires well boiling for at least half an hour, and the water then

drained off. I have known horses drink this barley-water when they won't

look at anything else.

Bran (_choker_).

In most of the large stations in India there are flour-mills in which

wheat is ground with the latest machinery, and when obtained from them,

bran differs but little from what is seen in England; but in smaller

places wheat is ground by native mills, and then the bran is not so clean.

When native-made bran is run over the hand, it will be seen that there is

a large amount of flour in it, which adheres to the skin like a white

powder, and which makes it much more nourishing than the cleaner prepared

article. The scales also of native-made bran are much more irregular in

size than the European manufactured article. Bran should have a clean,

fresh smell about it, and the newer it is the better; if kept long it is

likely to get mouldy. This is particularly the case during the rainy

season, when the atmosphere being saturated with moisture, a good deal is

absorbed by the bran, and if kept in this state for any time will get

mouldy. On this account, if it is necessary to store bran during the rainy

season, it should be kept in tin boxes. The inside lining of old packing

cases, in which perishable goods are brought out from England, do well for

this purpose, and plenty can be got for a small sum in the bazaar shops;

or, if not, any native tinsmith will make a box out of old kerosine oil

tins for a small sum.

Bran Mash.

It is a good plan, particularly in warm weather, in any country to give

horses a bran mash once a week, and if one particular evening is fixed

upon, syces get into the habit of giving it regularly without special

orders. I generally used to give a standing order to give it on Saturday

night, for, as a rule, the horses are not required on Sunday. Bran has a

slightly relaxing effect, that in warm climates is particularly

beneficial. Bran mash is made by simply putting the necessary quantity of

bran into a bucket, pouring boiling water gradually on to it, at the same

time stirring it round with a stick until the whole is moist and mixed

together. The bran should only be damped sufficiently to make it stick

together, and should not be sloppy and wet. Some horses at first will not

eat bran, but they can be tempted to by mixing a handful of whatever grain

they have been used to with it.

Oats (_jai_).

Oats are now largely grown over the Punjab, Northern India, and in

Tirhoot, and are sold at nearly the same price as barley. In the seaport

towns Australian oats can usually be obtained; and as good oats are grown

in the colonies as any part of the world. They are more expensive than

the native article, and are generally only used for training race-horses

on. The Indian oat, compared with the English, Australian, or South

African, is a poor article, running very light, with a great amount of

husk; but if properly crushed, and mixed with gram and bran in proportions

of one part of each, they are greatly superior to barley. The oat in India

is a winter crop, and is harvested in the spring. Both colonial and Indian

oats are always white. I have never seen the black or tawny variety which

is so common in Ireland. A demand having arisen for them by Europeans, it

is sometimes possible in Northern India to buy them in the bazaar; but

generally it is necessary to make a special arrangement with the grower,

as natives do not use them as a feeding grain for their own animals. They

grow the crop round the wells, and cut it green in the straw as forage for

the well and plough bullocks in the spring, when they are working hard.

Arrangements can generally be made with the cultivator to purchase so much

from him by weight, thrashed and delivered at your own stable, or else to

purchase so many acres of the standing crop as it is growing; but the

former plan is the most satisfactory, as it is astonishing the heavy crop

that will be produced; and, on the contrary, you will be equally

astonished to find with the other plan how light it is. The negotiations

for the supply of oats should be entered into in good time in the

spring--say about the beginning of March--as it is astonishing how slow

such matters progress in the East, and they had better be left in the

hands of your head syce. No doubt you will be cheated out of a small

amount, but you must make up your mind for this before arriving in the

East; but you will have the satisfaction of knowing that if you tried to

carry on negotiations yourself you would be cheated out of more. I have

tried both plans, and found that the syce could drive a better bargain for

both of us than when I attempted to deal direct with the cultivator.

Maize (_makkai_).

Although grown all over India, maize is not much used for feeding horses;

but in South Africa, where it is known as "mealies," it is the staple food

grain for both man and beast. In India it is said to make horses fat and

soft, but no animal in the world does harder work than a South African

post-cart horse. In all probability the reason they do well on maize is

that in the oat-hay forage they get there is a considerable quantity of

grain; and although I have never seen it used, the experiment of feeding

on oats and maize would be worth while trying in India. In South Africa

maize is usually given whole, but in any of the towns it can be obtained

crushed, and it is better to give it in this state. During the Afghan War

maize was plentiful in some parts of the country, and I gave it to some of

the horses that I had charge of. I had it parched on hot sand, in the same

way as barley (adarwah) is parched, making it into American pop-corn. With

certain somewhat thin and debilitated animals it had a marked effect in

getting flesh on them, and all horses eat it greedily. In India maize is a

summer crop, ripening in the autumn, when the ears or cobs are picked off

the stalks. It is stored in the cob, and the individual grains knocked off

as required by rapping them against a stick; but they must be turned over

in the heap occasionally, as rats and mice are likely to cause damage,

particularly the musk rat, that taints everything it comes into contact

with. Horses have frequently been brought to me, said to be off their

feed, and on inquiry I have found this only to be caused by the grain

being tainted by musk rats, and that when a clean feed is offered to them

they devour it ravenously. There are in South Africa and America a number

of varieties of maize, but in India I only know of two sorts, in one of

which the seeds are white and the other yellow, or a deep red colour. I

don't think that there is much difference in them as far as horse food

goes, but each individual grain should be plump, and fill out the husk

well; they should be free from weevils, worms, or the marks of attacks

from rats and mice. The husk should be well filled out, and have a

shining, pearl-like, glistening appearance, and when let fall on a stone

or other hard substance give off a metallic sound. When broken open, the

grain inside should be of a pure white colour, and of a pleasant, mealy

smell, like fresh flour. If it is discoloured, it denotes that it has been

wet and fermented. Maize can be crushed by most grain-crushing machines,

also in the native mill (chuckie) if the stones are properly set; but both

in South Africa and India the natives pound it in a large wooden mortar

made out of the trunk of a tree.

Wheat (_ghehun_).

Although it is not to be recommended as a food, still I have seen wheat

used when no other grain could be obtained, and it was a choice of it or

nothing at all; and in parts of Australia, and, I believe, America, it is

regularly used as a horse food. It is commonly supposed that wheat is

almost a rank poison to horses, and will cause fever in the feet; and no

doubt with stabled animals in England it will do so, especially as the

majority of cases of this nature are from accidents--horses getting loose

and gorging themselves with wheat during the night, or when unobserved.

With animals standing out in the open and working hard, as they do in

India and the colonies, it is not so dangerous. I should not suddenly

change a horse's feed from oats or gram to a full ration of wheat; but

when nothing else can be got, it can be given in a small quantity without

much fear of danger; but as soon as any other grain could be obtained, it

should be used.

Rice (_dhan_).

In Eastern Bengal and Assam horses are fed on unhusked rice and will do

well on it. During the expedition into the Lushai Hills in 1879-80, in

many places nothing else could be got to feed the transport mules on. Gram

is not grown in that part of the country, and what little there is has to

be imported, and is at a prohibitive price. I found that animals did well

enough on an equal mixture of gram and rice, although at first some of

them refused it. In Japan rice is the only grain horses get, and the pack

ponies of that country are hardy beasts, and appear to work well on it. If

the rice can be crushed, it is all the better; and in Bengal and Assam

there is no difficulty in getting this done, as it is the food of the

people, and they grind it for their own use.

Millet (_bajara_).

The various millets, known in South Africa as "Kaffir-corn," are not often

used in India as horse food, but in the Cape it sometimes is. In India the

millet is a summer crop harvested in the autumn. The seeds are small, and

of a dark or greyish colour. It requires to be crushed before use, as the

husk is very hard.

Pulses (_dhal_).

The various species of pulse grains enter largely into the food of the

natives of India. Two, known as "mung" and "mote," or "moat," are

excellent for getting flesh on thin, debilitated animals. They are both

small oblong seeds of an olive green colour, with a very hard husk, and

can be obtained in any bazaar. I prefer the mote to the mung. They both

require to be well boiled to the consistency of a jelly before use, and

then being well mixed in with the food, about a pound in weight of the raw

seed being enough for each feed, so that the horse gets three pounds

daily, a corresponding quantity of the other grain being withdrawn. I have

seen most excellent results in weak animals recovering from a debilitating

illness from its use, but great care must be taken that it is boiled

properly.

Linseed (_ulsie_).

Linseed can be obtained all over India. In fact, a good deal of what is on

the English market comes from the East. Under certain conditions it is

useful in putting on flesh, and as a diet for convalescents; but care must

be exercised in its use, as it contains a great deal of oil, and in cases

of sickness with liver complications, which are common in a hot climate,

especially in English and Australian horses, it is to be avoided. It has

to be boiled to a jelly before use, or, better still, soak it in cold

water for some hours until soft, and then boil it. In the hot weather,

however, I prefer to use either the "mote" or "mung" to linseed.

Linseed Cake (_rhal_ or _khal_).

Linseed cake can be obtained in nearly every large town, and is the

residue left after the oil is expressed; but as this process is

imperfectly performed, a good deal of oil is left--much more than in the

steam-pressed English cake. It is sold by the "seer" (2 lbs. weight), but

in irregular lumps, not moulded into cakes as in Europe. Care must be

taken in buying it, as it is very likely to be musty, and adulterated with

mustard or rape seed. Both these can be easily detected by the taste or

smell, leaving a pungent odour and a sharp burning taste behind. The best

plan is to crush a small quantity of the cake and drop it into some

boiling water, when the sharp smell and taste characteristic of the

mustard and rape oil will be given off. A small quantity of linseed cake

in the food will fatten horses tremendously, but makes them soft in

condition. It is one of the articles used by native dealers to fatten

horses for sale, and at this they are most expert. When crushed it can be

mixed with the food, or boiled to make linseed tea for sick horses; and

for this latter purpose I prefer it to linseed, as there is less oil in

it, the smell of which sometimes nauseates an animal and causes him to

refuse it.

Black Gram (_cooltee_).

In the Madras Presidency and Southern India black gram is used, the Bengal

white gram not being grown there. This has to be boiled before use.

Military horses are fed on it, but it is said that it makes them soft. I

have, however, no personal experience of black gram.

Preparation of Food.

In India it is the custom to damp the food before it is given. It should

not be saturated so as to turn it into a sloppy paste, but just damped

sufficiently to make the particles stick together. Grooms (syces)

generally deal out each feed into a bucket dry from the corn-bin, and then

damp it; but a better plan is to weigh out the whole of the amount

required for all the horses, and put it into a wide-mouthed earthen bowl

called a "naund," that can be purchased for a few pence, or a box, such as

an old wine case, and damp the whole amount together, then portioning it

out for each animal. The reason of this is that, if the grain is damped in

the buckets, they are at once taken away, and, the probabilities are,

never cleaned; but if they have to be brought forward for each feed to be

put into them, and the owner takes the trouble now and again to inspect

them, "syces," who are creatures of habit, get into the way of cleaning

them before they bring them forward. The box, or naund, in which the grain

is damped being stationary, can be looked at any time. It is necessary to

be very careful about this, as the particles of food left very quickly

ferment in a hot climate, and get sour, and quickly taint all the rest. As

a rule, about ten minutes is long enough to damp grain; and this should be

done as soon before feeding as possible, otherwise, if left long standing,

it will get sour. If a horse refuses his feed, it should be at once thrown

away, and on no account be kept till the next meal, by which time it is

pretty certain to have fermented.

Horses refusing Food.

Some horses are delicate feeders naturally, and take a long time in

eating, or refuse their food altogether. In the case of a delicate or slow

feeder, the food should be given in small quantities and often, rather

than in the usual somewhat rather large feeds three times a day; and the

horse should be fed by himself. This is easily done in India, as nearly

all stables are loose boxes; but if the animal is picketed out with others

that are likely to teaze him, he should be taken away and fed out of a

bucket in the "compound" (garden or enclosure round the house). "Syces,"

like all natives of India, have no idea of the value of time; and if he

has his "hooka" (pipe), and a friend to talk to about the price of

food-stuffs, rates of wages, and other such-like interesting bazaar

topics, he is perfectly content to sit holding the bucket before the horse

all day long, if necessary. If the animal refuses his food altogether,

then it should be taken away, for if left standing in front of him he

breathes on it, and if it remains any considerable time it becomes sour

and fermented, and he gets disgusted with it; whereas, if taken away and

nothing more given till next feeding-time, the appetite often returns, and

the food is consumed with a relish; especially in the warm weather, if he

is first led out and exercised, or picketed out under a tree. On no

account should the feed that has been refused be kept over till the next

feeding-time; a fresh one should be prepared, as in a hot climate wet

grain ferments and turns sour in a very short space of time.

Times of Feeding.

The stomach of the horse is very small in proportion to the size of his

body, and he requires to be fed often, and in small quantities. In

England hunters are fed four, or even five, times a day. In India it is

the usual custom to feed three times, and perhaps it is often enough. In

all military stations a gun is fired at noon, and the midday feed is given

at that hour; but the morning and evening one varies with the season of

the year. I usually give only half a feed in the evening about five

o'clock, and the remainder the last thing at night, about eight or nine,

according to the season of the year; but, unless carefully watched,

"syces" will not do this, as it is the custom only to feed three times

daily, and "dastour" (custom) is a thing it is impossible to make a native

break through.

Bolting Food.

Some horses have a trick of bolting their food without masticating it

properly, especially if another is being fed in their company. It is a

good plan to feed such horses apart from any others, which can easily be

done in an Indian stable, as they are all loose boxes, or, if picketed out

in the open, by moving him a short distance away from the others. A small

quantity of chaff, grass, straw, or what is known as "bhoosa," which is

wheat straw that is crushed and broken into small pieces in the process

of treading out the grain by bullocks, mixed in with the feed, will

usually make them masticate it properly.

Spilling Food on Ground.

Horses have also a trick sometimes of throwing their food out of the

bucket or manger, and spilling a quantity on the ground. Not only is a

large amount wasted, but when the animal has finished what is left, and

tries at his leisure to gather up what is on the ground, he eats a large

amount of earth and dirt with it, which is injurious. The best way I know

to prevent this is to feed the horse on a cloth on the ground; any bit of

old sacking about four feet square will answer for the purpose.

Grass.

In India hay is not often seen, and horses are fed on grass; even

race-horses are trained on it. This may at first sound strange, but Indian

grass is very different to English meadow grass, and chiefly consists of

the roots and runners, the actual blade of grass not being more than about

an inch long. The best grass is what is known as "dhoob." It is a short

grass, with long roots and suckers, which is dug up out of the ground with

a short iron hoe or trowel, called a "kurpa," which is used with a

scraping motion of the hand, the process being called "cheeling." A

considerable quantity of earth is taken up with it, which ought to be

knocked off against the hoe; but as the grass is sold by weight, and the

usual quantity a private "grass-cutter" is supposed to bring in daily is

20 seers (40 lbs. weight), it is not to his advantage to clean it. If

horses eat dirty grass for any length of time, the sand and dirt, besides

damaging the teeth, is likely to accumulate in the intestines and give

rise to what is known as sand colic. When the "grass-cutter" brings in his

bundle of grass that he has collected, which he generally does at midday,

it should be spread out and cleaned; sticks and thorns should be picked

out, as they are likely to lodge in the horse's throat and choke him, and

it should be well beaten with a stick to get rid of the sand and dirt. A

good plan is to fasten a net between the wooden framework of a "charpoy,"

or native bedstead, lay the grass on it, and beat it there with a stick,

and it is surprising what a quantity of rubbish will fall through. An old

lawn tennis net, if the meshes are not too big, answers well for this

purpose. Grass-cutters are fond of wetting the grass to make it weigh. If

it is brought in fresh, and damped with clean water beyond the actual

loss in weight, I do not know that it does much harm; but it is

exceedingly likely that the water has been obtained from some stagnant

dirty puddle, and the bundle has been left standing for some time so that

fermentation has set in, giving it an unpleasant smell. It is therefore

best to have the bundles at once opened out and spread in the sun to dry

as soon as they are brought in, and not allow the "grass-cutters" to take

them away to their own houses. In parts of the foot hills of the Himalayas

("hurriarie," or "hurrialie") grass is obtained. It is not found in the

plains, or in the very high mountains where it is cold. It is a long

grass, running to about three feet high, and is cut with a curved sickle.

When young and green it is a capital fodder grass; but when the seed is

shed, and it gets dry, it is unfit for any other purpose than bedding, as

the stalks get very hard and brittle, and so dry that there is little or

no nourishment in it. It should not then be allowed into the stable for

any other purpose than bedding; but being much easier to collect than

"dhoob" grass, the "grass-cutters" will bring it as long as they are

allowed to, even when it resembles nothing more than a bundle of sticks. I

have frequently heard owners of horses in the hills complain of their

animals getting thin and out of condition, the cause of which on inquiry

was simply due to the bad dry hurrialie grass that was brought for them to

eat.

Churrie.

This is the dried stalk of one of the shorgum tribe of plants, which is

also known as the Chinese sugar-cane. It is a summer crop cut in the

autumn. It grows to five or six feet high, and is cut and stored by the

natives as a fodder for the cattle. It would to the new-comer appear to be

a most unsuitable article of food, but is full of saccharine matter,

tasting quite sweet when chewed in the mouth, so much so that in parts a

rough sugar is extracted from it, but to look at is like a bundle of dried

reeds. Animals of all sorts are very fond of it, and I have frequently fed

my horses on it for days together in out-of-the-way places where no grass

was to be obtained. It is not used as a regular horse fodder, but it does

well for it on a pinch.

Bhoosa.

In the East all grain is threshed out by the primitive process of putting

it in a circle and driving bullocks round on it, and in this process the

grain is trodden out of the ear, the straw being split and broken up by

the animals' feet into small fragments from one-eighth to two or three

inches in length, which is called "bhoosa." This is the staple food of the

working cattle, and is also used for horses. It is a most important item

of the crop, and in the rural economy of an Indian village almost as much

is thought of it as the grain itself. Wheat and barley straw makes what is

called "white bhoosa," and gram and the various pulses "missa bhoosa."

Both these can be used as horse food; in fact, on the Afghan frontier they

get nothing else, and many natives feed their animals entirely on it,

never giving them grass; but although they will eat it, and for a time

keep condition, it is not to be recommended. If it has to be used, and it

is possible to obtain any grass, they should be mixed together. A small

quantity of "bhoosa" mixed in the feed will make a greedy feeder masticate

it. "White bhoosa" looks like badly chopped straw-chaff. "Missa bhoosa" is

of a dark colour, the particles not being straight-like sticks, but bent

about, and frequently there are a quantity of the leaves of the plant

mixed with it. Care should be taken that both sorts are not mouldy, which

is very apt to be the case, as the native farmers store it in large

quantities during the winter, and when the new crop comes on, if there is

any of last year's left, it is what they try and sell. Being stacked in

the open, it is exceedingly likely to get damaged by the rain. "Bhoosa"

should have a clean, fresh smell like sweet straw, not be discoloured or

have any patches of mould about it, and be free from impurities such as

sticks, thorns, or pieces of mud or stones.

Bamboo Leaves (_bans_).

In Eastern Bengal, Assam, and parts of Burma, the green leaves and young

shoots of the bamboo are used for forage. During the Chin-Lushai

Expedition in 1889-90, the animals with the force got nothing else for

nearly eight months. I had three ponies of my own that were worked

moderately hard the whole time, and they remained in good condition. The

transport mules, which were worked very hard indeed in a very trying

climate, did not fall away nearly as much as I expected. The young shoots

and leaves are cut with a sort of a billhook, called a "dah," and care

must be taken that only the young green leaves and soft tender shoots are

given, the old leaves and the edges of the dry stumps of the bamboo

cutting like a razor. I have seen some bad wounds on the lips, tongue, and

angles of the mouth from this cause. It is best to make the "syces" and

"grass-cutters" pluck the leaves off the branches altogether, and not

leave them about the stable, for fear of wounding the horses. This they

will readily do, as they use the _débris_ for fuel. I have seen some bad

cuts and injuries in both men and animals from the edges of the split

bamboo, which are very sharp--so much so that the savage tribes on the

eastern frontier use a properly split piece of bamboo for a knife in

skinning animals; and the sap of the green bamboo appears to have a

peculiarly irritating or poisonous action, a wound caused by it festering

and suppurating in both man and beast, whereas one inflicted with a dry

bamboo will heal up healthy. Horses require a larger amount of bamboo

leaves than grass. If an animal is getting 20 lbs. of green "dhoob" grass

daily, he will require 30 lbs. of bamboo leaves to keep him in condition.

Although at first horses may refuse them, they take to them kindly after a

little while.

Oat Hay Forage.

In the South African colonies grass hay is almost unknown. The oat is cut

when about half ripe, dried, and given in the straw, in which condition it

is known as forage, and is excellent feeding. It is usually sold in

bundles, wholesale at so much per hundred, and retail at hotels and

livery stables at so many bundles for a shilling. Some years ago, when I

was travelling in the Dutch part of South Africa, in the more

out-of-the-way parts of which there are no hotels, it was the custom to

ask the owner of the farmhouse where you arrived permission to

"off-saddle" if you were riding, or "out-span" if driving, for the night

or a couple of hours, as the case might be. This was a roundabout way of

asking if he could put you and your animals up for the night. When leaving

in the morning, it would have been a great breach of good manners to ask

for your bill, but you inquired what you were indebted to his head-boy for

the forage your horses had consumed--a polite way of asking for your

account; the number of bundles per shilling varying according to the time

you remained, and the accommodation you had received; but, notwithstanding

this fiction, I did not, as a rule, find the total any less than in a

regular hotel where you get your bill.

Hay.

Hay, as is known in Europe and Australia, is never seen in India. In some

parts, what is called hay can be obtained; but, compared to English meadow

hay, it is at the best but poor stuff. No doubt hay of a very tolerable

quality can be made in India; in fact, I have done so, but usually the

grass is cut after the plant has flowered, the seed ripened and shed, when

it is what is known as "the sap being down," and then it is dry and with

little nourishment in it. It is generally also allowed to lie out too long

after it has been cut in a hot, powerful sun, which utterly bakes it up.

The grass should be cut when the seed is green and the sap well up in it,

and should not be allowed to remain too long drying. I have generally

found that from eight to ten hours of the Indian sun was enough, so that

grass cut in the morning should be stacked at night; it will then not be

utterly dried up, and in the stack will undergo the process of

fermentation that gives the characteristic smell to English hay. There is

a certain amount of difficulty in doing this. The grass flowers and seeds

at the end of the hot weather, about September, when the monsoon rains are

on, and these sometimes last for days together. It is, therefore,

sometimes difficult to get a fine day to cut and save the hay in before

the seed is shed; and before the dry weather again sets in the sap has

gone down, and there is but little nutriment left in the grass. It is not

a bad plan to sprinkle some salt over each layer of hay as the stack is

made up; horses eat this cured hay with great relish. In making up the

stack, a bundle or two of straw, put on end from the bottom upwards,

should be built into the centre of it as it is being raised up, to act as

a chimney or ventilator to carry off the heat while the stack is

fermenting. If this is not done, there is danger of its catching fire; and

even if it should not heat to such a degree, part is likely to get

discoloured--what is termed "mow-burned." This chimney can be made with

bundles of sticks, boards, or even stones; but sick horses will often eat

the straw from the centre of a haystack when they won't look at anything

else, and it sometimes comes in useful, and in any event, is not wasted.

The stack should be built on a foundation of brambles, stones, or a mud

platform--the latter being the best--to raise it and protect it from

damage by the rains, which at times come in a regular flood, and also to

keep out rats, mice, and other vermin. When the stack gets down to the

bottom, care should be exercised in handling it, as it is a great refuge

for snakes, and I have seen one fatal accident from snake bite from this

cause. It, then, is a good plan to make the men remove the hay in small

quantities at a time with a hay-fork, which is easily made by fastening a

couple of short sticks converging from each other on to a long bamboo;

but natives are such fatalists that, no matter how much warned of the

danger they are incurring, they will not take the commonest precautions as

to their safety if it gives them a little extra trouble. A somewhat larger

quantity of dry grass is required than green "dhoob" by weight, the

proportion being about 15 to 20 lbs. respectively.

Green Food (_khawid_, or _khasil_).

In the spring of the year in India it is common to give horses green

wheat, oats, or barley. This is cut in the straw from the time it is about

a foot high until the grain begins to ripen, a period that lasts about a

month or six weeks in the Punjab--from the middle of February till the end

of March. This green food is called by the natives "khawid," or "khasil."

It has an excellent effect on the system, and is what is used by the

native dealers to get their horses into condition for sale. Too large a

quantity should not be given at first, as it is likely to cause

diarrhoea; about 4 lbs. daily being sufficient at first, but it may be

increased up to double this amount if it agrees with the animal. Care

should be taken that the green food is only given when young and the straw

tender, for when it gets ripe, and the straw woody and hard, it is very

indigestible, and a common cause of intestinal obstruction and colic. In

some parts green barley is given in the same manner, and when it is young

it is as good as wheat or oats; but when it begins to ripen it should be

stopped, as the awns or beards begin to get hard, and not only are they

likely to choke the horse, but to cause dangerous intestinal obstruction.

Oats can be given much longer than barley or wheat; in fact, as I have

said, ripe oats are cut in the straw, and used as hay in many parts of the

world. The green crop must be purchased standing from a cultivator, and

this is best arranged through your head "syce." It is sold by measurement,

a patch in the field being marked out; or else the grass-cutters go and

cut as much as is required daily, the whole amount used being afterwards

measured up and paid for at the fixed bazaar rate, or, as it is termed,

the "nirrick."

Green Gram.

Natives are very fond of giving horses green gram, but it is a most

dangerous custom. It is most indigestible, the stalk when green being full

of a strong tough fibre. The sap and leaves have a peculiar irritating or

almost corrosive property, and in the spring of the year many fatal cases

of intestinal disease are caused by it.

Carrots (_gajar_).

Carrots are plentiful all over Northern India. They come on in the spring,

and are an excellent green food. They can be bought very cheaply, and if

kept in a cool, dry place, can be stored for a considerable time; but they

require to be turned almost daily, or they will get rotten. When used they

should either be washed to remove the earth, or, as in the East this is

quite dry, knocked with a stick to remove it. They should be given whole,

or else cut into long slices, not across into lumps. This latter practice

is dangerous, as horses are thus inclined to bolt them whole, and the

short round lump is likely to stick in the throat and cause choking.

Lucerne.

Lucerne grows well all over Northern India, and although not cultivated by

the natives for their own use, they know perfectly well what it is, and

call it by the English name. In most of the towns where there are any

Europeans collected together, it is usual to grow it in the Government or

station garden, from where it can be purchased retail. Some native corps,

who remain some time in the one place, also grow it for the benefit of the

regiment, and sometimes it is possible to obtain some from them; but as a

rule they only have enough for their own use. Round the large military

cantonments in some places, the neighbouring farmers, finding that there

is a demand for it, have taken to growing it for sale, and it can be

bought in the bazaar; but as the supply is not certain, it is better to

enter into a contract with one of the growers to supply the quantity by

weight daily required. In making this bargain it is best to use the agency

of the head "syce," as if it falls short, or is not forthcoming, he can be

made responsible; and natives being erratic creatures, it is quite

possible that some morning you may be told that there is no more, or that

the grower has sold his crop to some one else, perhaps at even a smaller

price than you are giving. Whenever there is a well in the compound, and I

have been long enough in one place, I have always grown as much as I could

for myself. It is easily done, and there is no more useful crop in

connection with an Indian stable. In the dry, hot weather the difference

in the condition of horses that are getting a fairly liberal supply of

green food, and those that are only getting the burned-up grass that is

then procurable, is most marked. The only difficulty about growing lucerne

is that at first a large supply of water is necessary until the roots

strike. If you have a garden, then, of course, you have to keep a pair of

bullocks to raise water from the well for irrigation purposes; but if you

do not run to this luxury, then a pair of bullocks can be hired for two or

three days in the week. The landlord of the house has to keep the well and

the Persian wheel, by which the water is raised, in order, and find the

first pair of ropes for it. The tenant has to find the earthen pots, or

"chatties," that are fastened on to it, by which the water is raised up.

These "chatties" are cheap things enough, but they are easily broken. I

always found that the best plan was to provide the first lot myself, and

then give a small sum monthly to the gardener to keep them going; and it

saved money in the end, as I found that not nearly so many were smashed

under this system as when I paid for what were required. If a gardener is

regularly employed, it is, of course, part of his business to look after

the lucerne bed; but for an ordinary stable of, say, four or five animals,

an acre of lucerne will be ample, and a man exclusively for this is not

necessary. A gardener can be got for about Rs. 10 a month, but a man can

be got to come two or three times a week and look after it for half this.

I found, however, that if I gave it to one of the syces, that the women

and children of his family would attend to it, as, when once started, it

only requires weeding, and that the work was better done than by a

professional gardener, unless one was regularly employed. The best seed is

the acclimatized English, or the Cabul brought down from Afghanistan. The

English seed can be obtained from any seedsman, or the Government

Horticultural Gardens at Lahore or Saharunpore, at about a rupee a pound,

and this is enough to sow about an acre with, which should be done at the

end of the cold weather. If only a small quantity is grown, it is best to

sow it on ridges, as it then, no doubt, can be kept free from weeds, and

the cost of weeding, on an acre or two, is but trifling; but it is an

error to suppose that lucerne cannot be sown broadcast. At the cattle farm

at Hissar, in the Punjab, several hundred acres were grown in this way, as

the cost of making ridges on such a large quantity of land would have been

prohibitive. Of course, this lucerne was not so clean as if it had been

grown on ridges, but the cattle picked it out from the weeds when it was

put before them. Fresh seed will have to be sown about every three years,

and the crop may be cut about five or six times during the season. About 4

lbs. is enough for a horse, but it is best to begin with half this

quantity and gradually increase it, as if too large an amount is given at

once it is likely to cause colic.

Guinea Grass.

Some years ago this was a very favourite grass forage to grow for horses,

but lately lucerne has supplanted it, and, I think, rightly. The advantage

of guinea grass is that it lasts through the hottest months of the year,

which lucerne does not, but it requires a great deal of water. It grows in

separate tufts, and they should be planted some distance apart, or

otherwise they will crowd each other out.

Sugar Cane (_gunna_).

Sugar cane is not often used as an actual food, but horses are very fond

of it, and on my visits to the stable I usually had some pieces carried

after me in a basket when it was in season. It ripens at the end of the

summer, and lasts into the winter. It is sold in long sticks, and should

be chopped up into pieces; but the servants will steal it, as they eat it

themselves as a sweetmeat.

Turnips (_shalgham_).

The ordinary white turnip grows all over the Punjab in the winter, and

when carrots are not to be procured, I have used them in their place,

preparing them in the same manner. Horses soon learn to eat and relish

them.

Salt (_nimmuk_).

Salt is required by all animals in a certain quantity in their food to

keep them in health. There are three different varieties sold in the

native shops. Rock salt ("putter ke nimmuk"); ordinary salt, which is

merely the rock salt crushed and powdered; and black salt ("kali nimmuk").

On the coast sea salt can also be obtained, but it is not to be found far

inland. The common custom in India is to give powdered salt in the food,

the usual daily allowance being about an ounce. I prefer to leave a lump

of rock salt in the manger for the horse to lick when he likes. Some

owners have a lump of it hung by a string to the wall, but I do not think

this is advisable, as I have known more than one horse turn a wind-sucker

from getting into the habit of licking and playing with it.

Tonics.

It is a common supposition, deeply rooted in the minds of horsemen, that,

when a horse loses condition, he at once requires a tonic; and an immense

number of these and "condition powders" are advertised. There is no better

paying speculation in the world than the sale of these articles, as the

majority of them consist of a few cheap and simple ingredients, that are

retailed to the public at a hundred per cent. their original cost; and the

best that can be said about these nostrums is that some of them are

innocent and do no harm, while they serve to amuse the owner. The action

of a tonic is to stimulate the appetite, and if the horse is feeding well

they are certainly useless, if not actually harmful. If the horse feeds,

and continues to fall off in condition, the chances are that there is

something wrong in the stable management, which should be carefully

inquired into. If this only occurs once with one animal, the inference is

that medical advice is required, but if several are in the same state, or

it is a matter of constant occurrence, then in most cases a change of

"syce" is required, and it will be usually found better and cheaper than

having recourse to any of these various advertised "cure-alls."

Horses not Feeding.

Horses refuse their food from a variety of causes. It is usually the first

symptom noticed in the majority of attacks of illness, and I cannot too

strongly urge that in such cases the sooner professional advice is

obtained the better, there being nothing in which the old proverb, "a

stitch in time saves nine," more applies to. On the other hand, horse

owners are inclined to get very anxious without cause about horses not

feeding, and to imagine that because he refuses to feed, or does not

finish it up with a good appetite, that the animal is in a dangerous

state. Horses are much like ourselves, and we all know that we sometimes

do not feel inclined to do justice to a "square" meal, and that if we dine

off a plate of soup we feel ready for a good breakfast in the morning. If

the horse refuses his feed, or only plays about with it, have it at once

removed; at the next only give him a little hay or grass, and the

probabilities are that at the next he will eat up his grain with a hearty

appetite. If he does not, then the sooner professional advice is called in

the better, as you may be certain that something is wrong.

Damaged Food.

Damaged, mouldy, or sour food, the horse, of course, will not eat unless

he is very hungry, and then only sufficient to stay his appetite. Damaged

grain there is no excuse for, and can only be given through carelessness

or indifference on the part of the owner or his servants. Sour food, or

food that has fermented, is, with the best intentions, likely to be placed

before the animal, as it is surprising how soon fermentation will set up

in damp grain in a hot climate. The food should not be damped more than

twenty minutes or half an hour at the most before it is given, and a dirty

bucket will easily contaminate it. In the hot weather in India,

particularly during the rains, when both man and beast are down below par,

very little will put both off their feed. If the food, however, is at all

sour it ought to be at once detected, as the smell is unmistakable.

Irregular Teeth.

In old horses the back teeth get irregular and worn in such a fashion that

the food cannot be masticated and crushed, and is not then properly

digested. The upper jaw of the horse is wider than the lower one, so that

the upper teeth overlap the lower ones at the outside, and the lower ones

the upper at the inside. By continually wearing, the upper back teeth get

worn down more on the inside than the outside, and the lower ones more on

the outside than the inside, or, in other words, the grinding surface of

the teeth, instead of being horizontal, is at an angle or slope. The horse

masticates his food with a sideways motion of the jaws, crushing the food

between the back teeth like mill-stones, so that if the grinding surfaces

of the teeth are not level, but sloped at an angle, they become locked,

and prevent sufficient sideways play of the jaws. If this is suspected,

the back teeth can be easily inspected by turning the horse with his tail

to the sun, grasping the tongue with the left hand and opening the mouth,

while the light is reflected into it by a small looking-glass held in the

right. They can also be felt by putting one's hand on the outside of the

cheek, where the outer edge of the upper teeth can be easily felt, and

pushing the finger inwards and upwards, so as to get on the grinding

surface when the horse opens his mouth, and the angle they are at can be

at once detected through the cheek. This is, of course, only a rough

method of examination, but it gives one a fair idea of the state the

molars are in. If a tooth is broken or deficient, the corresponding one

in the other jaw from not being worn down will become over-grown and fill

up the vacant space, even growing so long as to damage the gum or bone in

the jaw above or below it, as the case may be, and preventing the horse

feeding. If it is one of the front molars, it is possible that the growth

may be detected from outside, but the probabilities are that a more

careful examination will be necessary, and, at all events, professional

skill required to set matters right. Horses also suffer from decayed

teeth; and, in fact, the whole matter of equine dentistry is much more

important than is usually supposed, many animals remaining poor and thin

simply because their teeth are not properly attended to.

Young Horses Cutting Teeth.

Young horses sometimes have great trouble when cutting their teeth, and if

they go off their feed they should be attended to; but this requires

professional skill.

Quidding.

When young horses begin to what is called "quid" their food, it is almost

a certain indication that there is something wrong with the mouth.

"Quidding" is gathering up a mouthful of hay or grass, rolling it about

in the mouth, and half masticating it till it gets into a lump or ball,

and then spitting it out without swallowing it. Sometimes a dozen or more

of these "quids" will be found in the manger or on the stable floor.

Indigestion (_bud hazmie_).

Indigestion, or dyspepsia, which horses suffer from more commonly than the

public imagine, will put them off their feed; but this is a matter for

professional advice and treatment, and it is exceedingly dangerous for the

owner to go trying domestic remedies. I have had many fatal cases of bowel

diseases brought to me that have arisen solely from this cause.

Lampas.

This is a disorder that is firmly fixed in every groom's mind, both

European and native, and is supposed to consist of a swelling or

inflammation of the palate, or "barbs," just behind the upper incisor

teeth. I do not deny for a moment the existence of such a thing, but what

I do maintain is that in 75 per cent. of the cases brought to one, it

exists only in the imagination of the attendant. The popular remedy some

years ago was to cauterize the part with a hot iron, and I have no

hesitation in saying that any one doing this should be indicted for

cruelty to animals. Lately, the popular treatment has been more merciful

in having the part scarified with a lancet, but even this is useless.

Where lampas does exist, there is more or less enlargement and swelling of

the membrane of the entire alimentary canal, but the "barbs" of the mouth

being the only part visible, it is popularly supposed to be a local

affection. Under these conditions, it will be readily understood how

utterly useless lancing or scarifying one small part of the affected canal

will be. A small dose of aperient medicine, or even putting the horse on a

laxative diet of bran mash for a few days, will do all that is required,

without having recourse to heroic measures.

Nose-bags (_tobra_).

Nose-bags are sadly neglected by "syces," and unless looked after by the

owner, they never dream of cleaning them, so that, particularly with

leather ones, they get into a very filthy condition, and frequently horses

refuse to eat out of such dirty things. Both mangers and nose-bags should

frequently be washed and scrubbed out with soap, or sand and water.

Nose-bags are, at the best, a necessary evil, and if they have to be used

at all, canvas ones are better than leather, being more easily cleaned. I

only allowed nose-bags to be used when on the march, or out in camp; when

in the stable the horses were fed out of an ordinary bucket, or else a

manger, and even then they were not fastened on the head, but held on the

ground.

Mangers (_kurlie_).

In the stable a manger should be used. In an Indian stable one is easily

made out of a shallow, wide-mouthed earthen vessel ("gumalo"), built up

with mud, about three feet high, in the corner. The "syces" can do this

themselves, and the gumalo only costs a few pence in the bazaar. I always

had two built in opposite corners, one for food and the other for water.

If for any reason the manger cannot be built, or there is not one in the

stable, then the horse should be fed out of a tin or zinc bucket, or else

off a feeding-sheet. An old gunney-bag, spread out opened at the seams,

answers admirably. The "syce" should hold the bucket or sheet while he is

feeding, or the horse is very likely to knock the first over, or tear the

sheet, by pawing at it with his fore feet.

Worms (_kirim_).

Parasites, or worms, in the intestines cause horses to lose condition very

quickly. The most common are long white ones, like ordinary earthworms,

about five to eight inches long; and small, very thin thread-like ones,

about three inches long. They cause the horse to become very unthrifty and

thin, the coat being dull, without the natural gloss that is seen in

health, or as it is termed, "hide-bound." The horse is also apt to back up

against any projection, or into a corner, and rub his tail against the

wall, breaking off the hair, and giving it an unsightly appearance. If

worms are suspected, the "syce" should be instructed to look for them in

the horse's droppings in the morning, where the long ones are most likely

to be found; also to examine under his dock, where the small ones will

leave a yellowish incrustation under the root of the tail. An enema of

common salt and water, made by dissolving about a table-spoonful of salt

in a quart of luke-warm water, generally suffices to get rid of the small

ones. The large ones, however, require medical treatment, which should be

left in professional hands. If there are any worms passed, the litter,

droppings, etc., should be carefully burned, and the floor of the stable

scraped and the _débris_ burned, and a new floor laid down.

Rubbing the Tail.

Although commonly due to parasites in the intestines, "particularly the

small thread-worms," with some horses it is a trick; neglect also, and the

irritation caused by dirt, will often cause it. In India it is more often

seen in coarse-bred horses, such as many Australians are, than in

country-breds and Arabs. If it is from dirt, washing the tail well with

soap and water will stop it; if it is a trick, keeping the tail in a

tail-case, which is merely a piece of leather, with buckles and straps to

fasten it on with; or an ordinary roller bandage put round from the tip to

the root will generally stop it.

Scouring (_dast_).

Scouring, or diarrhoea, is usually seen in nervous horses when they get

excited, and, as a rule, disappears when they get quiet again. It is more

commonly seen in light-coloured, or what the horseman calls "washey,"

chestnuts and blacks, than any other colour. Some horses will always scour

after a draught of cold water, and with such the chill should be taken off

either by adding a little warm water, or standing the bucket out in the

sun for a couple of hours before it is used. If the scouring persists,

after returning to the stable, let the next feed consist of dry bran, not

"bran mash," and this generally stops it. If a horse that is not in the

habit of doing so suddenly begins scouring, it is a mistake to try and

stop it too suddenly, as frequently it is an effort of nature to throw off

something deleterious to the system. If, however, the diarrhoea should

continue persistent, then professional advice should be obtained.