THE TELEGRAPH
The modern world is almost losing its capacity for astonishment. The
rapid advances of applied science, more particularly in the manipulation
of that force to which we have given the name of electricity, but the
origin and essence of which are unknown and wrapped in the deepest
mystery, almost took away the breaths of a previous generation, but they
leave us comparatively unmoved. We feel, perhaps, that we are only on
the eve of still more astounding discoveries.
Applied telegraphy dates practically from the year 1835, when Messrs
Cooke and Wheatstone collaborated and presented to the world their
five-needle telegraph system, requiring five-line wires, and since then
rapid strides have been made, chiefly in connection with telegraphic
apparatus. The five-needle system soon gave place to the double needle,
an exceedingly useful instrument with two-line wires, and to the single
needle with one wire. Then followed at successive intervals the
Wheatstone A B C, Bright's Bell, Morse's Printer and Sounder (the most
generally adopted handworked system of to-day), the Wheatstone
Automatic, the Hughes Recorder, the Baudot, and other and more recent
systems of direct printing telegraphy, such as the Creed and the Murray
Multiplex. Finally wireless telegraphy was introduced, and its uses and
capacities are in process of development. At first the use of the
telegraph was almost entirely confined to railways, and it was not until
1846 that a private company was formed to undertake the business of
transmitting telegrams. Various other companies followed in succeeding
years, but considerable dissatisfaction was felt at the inequalities of
service and rates which prevailed. Small towns were neglected, and as
the telegraph lines followed the railways, many places were not served
at all. It was becoming more and more evident that a uniform system
under one administration was a public need.
In the year 1868 an Act was passed empowering her Majesty's
Postmaster-General to acquire, work, and maintain electric telegraphs,
and two years later the business and interests of the several telegraph
companies were taken over by the State. There can be no question that
this measure, which entailed a considerable monetary outlay at the
commencement, has been of immense value to the general public. The
purchase of the telegraphs by the State was a huge undertaking, but in
many respects it was mismanaged by Parliament as well as by officials.
For instance, the story of the cable to Scilly is a concrete example of
how the public were fleeced. All inland telegraphs in existence on a
given day were to be taken over on the terms and conditions laid down in
the Act of Parliament. Three joint-stock companies were immediately
formed—the Guernsey and Jersey, the Shetland, and Scilly Islands
Companies; and they went to work “hammer and tongs” to get their cables
laid before they could be stopped by the provisions of the Bill which
was then being carried through Parliament. It was touch and go with
these bastard companies, and the effort made to lay the Scilly cable is
very amusing reading. Owing to bad pilotage every inch of the cable was
expended before the operators got within five miles of the islands. Now
unless the cable could be laid and certified as being in working order
within a given number of days they would not be allowed to land at all.
The electrician in charge cut the cable a few fathoms from the ship and
steamed into Scilly towing the “fag end” behind. “It was a gala day with
the Scillonians.” It was the dawn of a new era to them. They kept high
festival, and the shore end was landed and hauled up over the cliffs by
willing hands. And then, wonderful to relate, with the two ends of the
cable lying several miles apart at the bottom of the Channel, the clever
electrician produced messages printed in plain characters on the Morse
slip, and on the faith of these signals the contractors issued their
certificate. The inventive genius of the electrician had saved the
situation. The Scilly cable was “in being,” and would have to be
reckoned with when the time came for purchase.
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[Illustration: THE WOODPECKER AND THE TELEGRAPH POST.]
Several instances occurred some time ago of injury to
telegraph poles in the neighbourhood of Shipston on Stour,
caused by large holes being driven into and almost through
them. The offender was discovered to be simply a woodpecker.
The bird is thought to have imagined that the humming of the
wires indicated insects.
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The united cost of the transfer had been seriously under-estimated, and
the telegraph service has always been more or less burdened by the
expenditure incurred at the outset. The transfer, however, has been a
great boon to the nation, and has enabled the postal and telegraph
system of Great Britain and Ireland to become the largest and most
complete organisation for the transmission of messages in the world. The
immense increase in business would, however, have been impossible but
for the advances made since the transfer in telegraphic apparatus, and
in wire values, such as the introduction of the duplex, quadruplex, and
multiplex systems, which allow of a single wire being electrically split
up for the simultaneous transmission of a number of currents.
Previous to 1870 the number of telegraph offices in the United Kingdom
was approximately 3000, as against 13,520 at the present day. The total
number of messages dealt with in the time of the companies amounted to
between six and seven millions annually. At the present time upwards of
eighty-six million telegrams are dealt with annually.
The charges were high compared with the present time, as much as 7s. 6d.
being required for a twenty-word telegram to Liverpool in the fifties,
and later the average cost of a telegram to the public was 2s. 2d. per
message.
On the transfer of the telegraph to the State a uniform rate of 1s. was
introduced, and on the 1st October 1886 a further reduction to a minimum
charge of 6d. for twelve words was made. The average cost to the public
now is about 7¾d. per message. But the reduction to 6d., great as the
gain to the public has been, is not profitable to the Department, and
the revenue has suffered considerably. The transfer was also responsible
for a considerable reduction in the rates for the Press, 1s. being
charged for every 100 words transmitted between 6 P.M. and 9 A.M., and
1s. for every 75 words between 9 A.M. and 6 P.M., with 2d. for 100 or 75
words for each additional address.
In the days before the transfer, clerks in charge of telegraphic
stations were forbidden to forward telegrams for the Press unless they
were prepaid at the ordinary message rates, or unless they had received
written instructions from the Secretary of the Company to allow certain
messages to go at a different rate, or without prepayment. There was
uncertainty and inequality of treatment everywhere, and the Press has
perhaps gained more by the transfer than even the public. Foreign rates
were also very high compared with those in existence to-day.
In the time of the companies a free delivery of a telegram extended only
to a distance of half a mile. For distances beyond and within a mile a
porterage fee of 6d. was charged, with 6d. for every additional mile,
with increased rates for express delivery.
At the present time telegrams are delivered free within three miles of
the office nearest the address, which is called the Terminal Office, and
when that office is a Head Post Office, no charge is made for delivery
within the town postal area, even if that extends for more than three
miles. No charge is therefore made for delivery within the whole of the
London postal area, which extends as far as Southgate, Woodford, Lee,
South Norwood, Wimbledon, Hanwell, and Wheatstone.
Before the transfer, important towns such as Bournemouth, Dundee,
Exeter, Inverness, Limerick, Scarborough, or Wolverhampton did not work
directly to London, and as a consequence communication had to be gained
by a number of re-transmissions and transferences over the various
companies' lines. Serious delay often ensued. Now, however, the Central
Telegraph Office in London, which is more particularly a transmitting
centre, has direct communication with every town of importance in the
United Kingdom, and with every telegraph office in the metropolis. The
direct communication between provincial towns has also greatly
increased. Even now, when there are breakdowns, the transmitting of
messages sometimes exhibits curious results in re-transmission. Mr.
Baines remembers messages being sent during a breakdown from London to
Carlisle through Sligo thus: London to Dublin _via_ Haverfordwest and
Waterford, Dublin to Sligo, Sligo to Belfast, Belfast to Glasgow, and
Glasgow to Carlisle. There is also a legend in the Central Telegraph
Office that the wires to the North being stopped on one occasion, an
urgent message from London to Newcastle was forwarded by way of Hamburg.
Another story is of a special correspondent who, being unable to gain
admittance into a newspaper office in Fleet Street, went to the Central
Telegraph Office, and telegraphed to the Irish end of the special
telegraph wire worked from the newspaper office to Ireland, requesting
the Irish clerk to tell the Fleet Street clerk to come down and open the
door.
Direct communication has also been considerably extended to continental
towns. In 1889 the Post Office took over the working of the Submarine
Company's cables, and direct communication is now established with a
large number of foreign towns. At the present time there are some sixty
wires with an aggregate of ninety-five available channels to the
Continent. Five additional wires (six channels) are worked from
Liverpool to towns in Belgium, France, and Germany, two wires are leased
to the Anglo-American Telegraph Company for working to Belgium and
Holland, and two to the Indo-European Telegraph Company for transmission
of their traffic to South Russia, India, and countries beyond, _via_
Germany. The remainder are worked from the cable room of the Central
Telegraph Office in London to Austria, Hungary, Belgium, France,
Germany, Holland, Italy and Switzerland.
The Hughes simplex and duplex apparatus is chiefly used for cable
working. Some of the Hughes duplex circuits not infrequently deal with
150 telegrams hourly, and even this number has been exceeded. A Baudot
circuit working four “arms” has at times of pressure disposed of from
250 to 300 telegrams in an hour. The annual daily traffic in telegrams
to and from the Continent about the year 1870 was between 4000 and 5000:
at the present time it is from 24,000 to 26,000 telegrams. In addition
to this, some 3500 telegrams are daily handed over to the cable
companies, with whose offices in London there are connecting pneumatic
tubes.
Now to deal successfully with the vast amount of telegraph traffic which
passes throughout the United Kingdom and to and from the Continent it is
of course essential that there should be one large depôt to act as the
chief transmitting centre. This is naturally London, the capital of the
British Isles. The first Central Telegraph Station was established about
the year 1850 by the Electric Telegraph Company in Founder's Court,
Lothbury. In 1860 larger premises were built in Telegraph Street, just
off Moorgate Street, E.C., and at the time of the transfer, and up to
January 1874, this building remained the Central Office. The rapid
extension of business soon made a move necessary, and the staff and
wires were transferred in 1874 to the new building in St. Martin's le
Grand. It was thought that the spacious third floor in that building
would be more than sufficient for that purpose for many years, but at
the present time almost every portion of the big building is devoted to
telegraphs.
The large central hall facing the main entrance to the building is set
apart for the circulation of telegrams received from the various branch
offices connected with the Central Office by pneumatic tube, and in the
reverse directions for delivery from these offices. A large staff of
telegraphists is engaged upon this work. The pneumatic tubes used for
forwarding and receiving telegrams to and from certain branch offices in
the city, western central, and western district offices, and so
obviating telegraphic transmissions, are led into this hall. These tubes
are laid at the depth of about two feet underground. They extend as far
distant as Billingsgate on the eastern side, House of Commons and West
Strand on the south-western side, and the western district office on the
western side, and allow of the rapid collection and distribution of
telegrams over a very busy area. The tubes make the various offices arms
practically of the Central Station so far as telegrams are concerned.
The message forms are enclosed in gutta-percha carriers covered with
felt, and having attached to their forward ends a number of felt discs
which exactly fit the internal circumference of the tubes and prevent
any escape of air around them. An elastic band at the mouth of the
carrier prevents the messages from escaping. The outgoing carriers
containing the messages are propelled through the tubes from the Central
Office by forcing compressed air into the tubes behind them at a
pressure of about 10 lbs. to the square inch, the incoming carriers
being drawn through by vacuum, so that the normal atmosphere exerts
behind them a pressure of about 7 lbs. to the square inch.
All the tubes are worked on the block system, and by an electrical
contrivance the traffic is regulated. In long-distance tubes delay would
arise if it were only possible for one carrier to be in the tube at one
time, and to meet this intermediate automatic signallers are inserted at
various distances in the tube, so that as soon as a carrier passes one
section, it automatically notifies the sending section, enabling a
second carrier to be inserted. Thus several carriers equidistant from
each other may be passing through the one tube at the same time. The
power by which these tubes are worked is derived from large compound
pneumatic pumping engines fitted in the basement, but eventually the
power station which has recently been established at Blackfriars will
supply the power required. There are at present thirty-seven pneumatic
tubes connecting the various branch offices with the Central Office, in
addition to seven which connect the offices of the various cable
companies with the cable room.
Adjoining the central hall are the phonogram and the tube switch rooms.
The former is set apart for telephone telegram business, and by its
means telephone subscribers may speak direct into the head telegraph
office. In this way they can dictate telegrams by telephone for
subsequent transmission by telegraph. Telegrams are also sent in the
opposite direction to certain subscribers who desire to receive their
telegrams by telephone instead of by hand delivery from the nearest
delivery office. The telephone circuits connecting the Post Office
Savings Bank at West Kensington with St. Martin's le Grand, and used in
connection with Savings Bank withdrawal telegrams, are also situated in
this room.
In the tube switch room are placed circuits which enable telegrams
received by pneumatic tube from the various branch offices to be
signalled to officers in the Metropolitan District through the medium of
the inter-communication switch which I shall mention later on. It also
allows for the reception of telegrams originating at offices of the
Metropolitan District intended for delivery from those offices connected
to the Central Telegraph Office by tube.
The counter and delivery rooms are also on this floor.
The first floor, with the exception of one large room used as the
telegraph school of instruction, is mainly occupied with the offices of
the engineer-in-chief and his staff and the chief medical officer and
his staff.
The second floor provides for the telegraph administrative offices, the
cable room, and for wires working to provincial offices.
The third floor is devoted to the large central gallery and its wings,
and here are placed the greater number of the provincial circuits. In
addition the wires set apart for news working and for special events, to
grand stands at race-courses, &c., are located here.
The Metropolitan and Home District circuits are on the fourth floor.
Now in order to combine the various floors so as to form practically one
immense gallery, it is of course necessary that there should be a rapid
means of communication between them. This is provided for by an
extensive system of pneumatic house tubes, which makes it possible for
telegrams to be circulated from point to point in the various galleries.
For instance, it is assumed that a telegram is handed in at the
Fenchurch Street branch office for transmission to Birmingham. This
would in the first instance reach the tube hall on the ground floor by
pneumatic tube. It would then be placed on the sorting table and taken
to the tube connected with the central circulation table in the
provincial gallery on the third floor. On arrival there it would be
further sorted and taken to the section in which the Birmingham circuits
are placed, and take its turn with other messages awaiting transmission
to that town.
The area of each floor is so great that it is essential that the various
circulation tables at particular points thereon should be directly
connected by tube, thus allowing of the rapid transit of the traffic and
preventing the confusion which would attend carriage by hand from point
to point. In all sixty-eight house pneumatic tubes are worked throughout
the day. In addition, continuous aerial cord carriers worked by electric
motors are used for the conveyance of telegrams.
For the purposes of circulation, and for staffing and effective
supervision, the three floors or galleries are divided into sections or
divisions. For instance, the provincial galleries are composed of seven
divisions, named respectively A to G, and the various circuits are
grouped as geographically as possible in these divisions. The A Division
embraces such south-easterly and south-westerly towns as Dover,
Folkestone, Brighton, Bournemouth, Basingstoke, and Ventnor, and so on.
In addition to these divisions there are the News Division, the Special
Section, and the Intelligence Section. The former contains the news
circuits over which press work is disseminated throughout the Kingdom.
The apparatus in use for this class of traffic is the Wheatstone
Automatic, which in the course of years has been so improved that
whereas in 1870 it was only capable of transmitting some 80 or 100 words
per minute, it is now possible, given good wire conditions, to attain a
speed of 400 words per minute, although for working purposes it is not
usual to exceed an average speed of from 200 to 250. This system is
specially adapted for the transmission of general news, one batch of
which, on specially prepared slips, is often forwarded to many different
towns. A large proportion of this particular traffic is classified,
being news of general interest, and is handed to the Department by the
different news agencies, such as the Press Association, the Central
News, the Exchange Telegraph Company, &c., for dissemination to the
various subscribers in different towns.
Air pressure is largely employed in perforating with the requisite Morse
characters the slips by which the Wheatstone transmitters are fed, and
by this means a number of duplicate slips can be prepared at one
operation. Stick punching is also employed, but more recently other
systems have been introduced, such as the Creed and the Gell. These have
keyboards similar to that of a typewriter with increased signs, &c.; but
whereas, in using the ordinary hand perforator, each dot and dash of the
Morse characters require to be separately made by the operator, the
improved systems provide the required perforated Morse signals complete
for every letter of the alphabet on the slip or ribbon, as each letter
of the keyboard is depressed. The power employed is obtained by means of
electric motors.
In the Special Section are placed spare sets of apparatus, and when race
meetings, important political meetings, and other events of a special
nature, such as a football final, university boat race, &c., are being
held, the wires connecting the various towns and places of venue are
temporarily joined to these spare sets, and the work is thus specialised
and dealt with in this particular section. By this means it is promptly
and effectively handled.
Adjoining the Special Section is the Intelligence Section, and here all
the classified news work is dealt with.
It should perhaps be mentioned, that at many of the important race
meetings, and special events, what is called the YQ system is adopted at
the grand stand office, or telegraph office, in the town where the event
is taking place. For instance, at the Ascot races a YQ wire would be
fitted to several important towns, and those towns would be
simultaneously served with the news supply, thus obviating
re-transmission to London. A “special event” staff is withdrawn from
London and other of the more important provincial offices and drafted to
the place where the race or meeting is taking place. During such times
as they are withdrawn from headquarters the various officers receive
special _per diem_ allowances.
Mention has already been made of the increased wire values obtained by
the introduction of the duplex and quadruplex systems. Duplex and
quadruplex allow of two and four messages respectively being signalled
at the same time over one wire, one message in each direction in the
case of duplex and two each way in that of quadruplex. The “Baudot”
system, which in addition to being made use of for continental working
has been recently introduced for inland working between London and
Birmingham, allows of six telegrams being signalled simultaneously over
one wire. This system, like the Hughes, which is also now used for
inland working to Liverpool, Manchester, and Glasgow, ensures direct
printing and does away with the transcription of Morse characters. There
is little doubt that the use of the “Baudot” system will be extended
between London and the more important towns and to continental working.
The Wheatstone Automatic system has recently been arranged for
continuous working, and is now in operation between London and a number
of large towns.
Another system, the Creed, an adaptation of the Wheatstone transmitter
and typewriter, has been introduced. This is also a direct printing
apparatus, and does away with the hand transcription of Morse signals.
Long-distance telegraphy has been considerably improved by means of
repeaters placed at convenient intervals along the line, and these
automatically retransmit the signals.
Up to the year 1903 all the circuits in the Metropolitan District worked
directly into the Central Telegraph Office, and it was essential for a
telegram handed in, say, at Shepherd's Bush for delivery at Leytonstone
to be signalled to the Central Office, transcribed there, circulated to
the Leytonstone circuit, and transmitted from there. This necessitated a
number of handlings at the Central Office. On the 5th January 1903,
however, a system of through switching was inaugurated, and
re-transmission obviated, so that now all that has to be done is for the
office of origin to be switched through at the Central Office to the
delivery office, and the telegram from one office to the other is
signalled direct. The system of inter-communication has been very
successful, and has not only greatly facilitated the transmission of
this class of traffic, but has effected considerably economy in staff,
stationery, &c. Direct switching of Metropolitan offices on to working
sets in the provincial galleries has also been established. This enables
telegrams to be received therein for onward transmission to provincial
offices and _vice versâ_, so doing away with the greater portion of the
local tubing and circulation which was necessary when all Metropolitan
telegrams were received at the Central Telegraph Office on one floor
only.
Recently two concentrator switches have been established in the “H” and
“I” Divisions on the fourth floor, and the wires connecting a large
number of offices within a limited distance of London have been led
thereto. The arrangement is as follows. Assuming Hatfield has a telegram
with destination Leeds, the Central Office is called. This call is
indicated on the concentrator by a glow light, and the board operator
plugs the sending office through to one of the adjacent working sets of
apparatus, where the telegram is received, circulated to the Leeds
circuit, and transmitted. This system, by obviating separate apparatus
and staff for each circuit, has resulted in considerable economy.
On the closing of a large number of the less important wires at night,
and on Sundays, it is essential for reasons of economy that the circuits
then open should not extend over so large an area as at busy times. They
are therefore grouped together in small sections, the provincial offices
on the third, and the Metropolitan on the fourth floor.
The current by which the whole of the circuits are worked at the Central
Telegraph Office is generated at the Blackfriars Power Station, and
conveyed by mains to the basement of the building, where the
accumulators are charged, and the current distributed from these to the
circuits.
I have been obliged to give a large number of somewhat technical
details, and it would be almost impossible to describe the work of the
Central Telegraph Office in any other way. But enough has been said in
this chapter to bring out clearly the fact that in working the
telegraphs the servants of the General Post Office keep in touch with
the advance of science, and are not slow to avail themselves of every
discovery which will benefit and add to the efficiency of the Service.