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FOLK LORE
Or, Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland within This Century
With an Appendix,
Shewing the Probable Relation of the Modern Festivals of Christmas, May
Day, St. John's Day, and Hallowe'en, to Ancient Sun and Fire Worship
by
JAMES NAPIER, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., &c.,
Author of _Manufacturing Art in Ancient Times_, _Notes and Reminiscences
of Partick_, &c., &c.
Paisley: Alex. Gardner.
1879
CONTENTS.
PREFACE, v.
Introduction, 1
Birth and Childhood, 29
Marriage, 43
Death, 56
Witchcraft, Second Sight, and the Black Art, 67
Charms and Counter Charms, 79
Divining, 105
Superstitions Relating to Animals, 111
Superstitions Concerning Plants, 122
Miscellaneous Superstitions, 132
APPENDIX.
Yule, Beltane, and Hallowe'en Festivals, 145
Yule, 149
Beltane, 161
Midsummer, 170
Hallowe'en, 175
PREFACE
The doctrine taught concerning Satan, his motives and influence in the
beginning of this century, supplied the popular mind with reasons to
account for almost all the evils, public and private, which befell
society; and as the observed ills of life, real or imaginary, greatly
outnumbered the observed good occurrences, the thought of Satan was more
constantly before the people's mind than was the thought of God.
Practically, it might be said, and said with a very near approach to
truth, that Satan, in popular estimation, was the greater of the two;
but theoretically, the superiority of God was allowed, for Satan it was
believed, was permitted by God to do what he did. It was commonly said,
"Never speak evil of the Deil, for he has a long memory." This Satanic
belief gave rise to a great amount of Folk Lore, and affected the whole
social system. Historians who take no account of such beliefs, but
regard them as trivialities, cannot but fail to represent faithfully the
condition and action of the people. Folk Lore has thus an important
historical bearing. Every age has had its own living Folk Lore, and,
beside this, a residuum of waning lore, regarded as superstitious, and
so it is at the present day. When we speak of the Folk Lore of our
grandfathers and great-grandfathers, we believe that we are speaking of
beliefs which have past away, beliefs from which we ourselves are free;
but if we consider the matter carefully we will find that in many
respects our beliefs and practices, although somewhat modernized, are
essentially little different from those of last century. Among the
better educated classes it may be said that much of the superstitions of
former times have passed away, and as education is extended they will
more and more become eradicated; but at present, in our rural districts
especially, the old beliefs still linger in considerable force. Many
think that the superstitions of last century died with the century, but
this is not so; and as these notions are curious and in many respects
important historical factors, I have thought it worth while to jot down
what of this Folk Lore has come under my observation during these last
sixty years.
In this collection I do not profess to include all that may come under
the head of Folk Lore, such, for example, as the reading of dreams and
cups, spaeing fortunes by cards or other methods--that class of
superstitions by which designing persons prey upon weak-minded people.
One principal object which I had in view in forming this collection, was
that it might supply a nucleus for the further development of the
subject. The instances which I have adduced belong to one locality, the
West of Scotland, and chiefly the neighbourhood west of Glasgow, but
different localities have different methods of formulating the same
superstition. By comparison, by separation of the local accretion from
the constant element, an approach to the original source and meaning of
a superstition may be obtained.
I have hope that the Folk Lore Society, just instituted, will consider
such details and variations, and endeavour to trace their history and
origin, and fearlessly give prominence to the still existing
superstitions, and exhibit their degrading influence on society.
FOLK LORE.
CHAPTER I.
_INTRODUCTORY._
The primary object of the following short treatise is to give an account
of some of those superstitions, now either dead or in their decadence,
but which, within the memory of persons now living, had a vigorous
existence, at least in the West of Scotland. A secondary object shall be
to trace out, where I think I can discover ground for so doing, the
origin of any particular superstition, and in passing I may notice the
duration in time and geographical distribution of some superstitions.
But, on the threshold of our inquiry, it may be of advantage to pause
and endeavour to reach a mutual understanding of the precise meaning of
the word Superstition--a word apparently, from the varied dictionary
renderings given of it, difficult to define. However we may disagree in
our definitions of the word, we all agree in regarding a superstitious
tone of mind as weak and foolish, and as no one desires to be regarded
as weak-minded or foolish, we naturally repel from ourselves as best we
can the odious imputation of being superstitious. There are few who seek
to know what superstition in its essence really is; most people are
satisfied to frame an answer to suit their own case, and so it happens
that we have a multiplicity of definitions for the word, many of which
are devoid of scientific solidity, and others have not even the merit of
intelligibility. A recent definition, extremely elastic, was propounded
by a popular preacher in a lecture delivered before the Glasgow Young
Men's Christian Association and reported in the newspapers,--"Superstition
is Scepticism," which may be legitimately paraphrased "Superstition is
not believing what I believe." Although this definition may be very
gratifying to the self pride of most of us, we must nevertheless reject
it, and look for a more definite and instructive signification, and for
this end we may very properly consult the meanings given in several
standard dictionaries and lexicons, for in them we expect to find
precision of statement, although in this instance I believe we shall be
disappointed. Theophrastus, who lived several centuries before the
Christian era, defines "Superstition" according to the translation given
of his definition in the _Encyclopædia Metropolitana_, as "A cowardly
state of mind with respect to the supernatural," and supplies the
following illustration: "The superstitious man is one, who, having taken
care to wash his hands and sprinkle himself in the temple, walks about
during the day with a little laurel in his mouth, and if he meets a
weasel on the road, dares not proceed on his way till some person has
passed, or till he has thrown three stones across the road."
Under "Superstition," in the _Encyclopædia Metropolitana_, the following
definitions are given:--
1st.--Excess of scruple or ceremony in matters of religion: idle
worship: vain reverence: a superfluous, needless, or
ill-governed devotion.
2nd.--Any religious observance contrary to, or not sanctioned by,
Scripture or reason.
3rd.--All belief in supernatural agency, or in the influence of
casual occurrences, or of natural phenomena on the destinies
of man which has no foundation in Scripture, reason, or
experience.
4th.--All attempts to influence the destiny of man by methods which
have no Scriptural or rational connection with their object.
_Walker's Dictionary_:--
"Unnecessary fear or scruple in religion: religion without
morality: false religion: reverence of beings not properly objects
of reverence: over-nicety: exactness: too scrupulous."
_Chambers' Dictionary_:--
"A being excessive (in religion) over a thing as if in wonder or
fear: excessive reverence or fear: excessive exactness in religious
opinions and practice: false worship or religion: the belief in
supernatural agency: belief in what is absurd without evidences:
excessive religious belief."
These dictionary meanings do not, of course, attempt to decide what
should be the one only scientifically correct significance of the term,
but only supply the varying senses in which the word is used in
literature and in common speech, but they suffice to show that it is
used by different persons with different significations, each person
apparently gauging first his own position, and defining superstition as
something which cannot be brought to tell against himself.
After pondering over the various renderings, it occurred to me that the
following definition would embrace the whole in a few words: _Religion
founded on erroneous ideas of God._ But when I set this definition
alongside the case of an otherwise intelligent man carrying in his
trousers' pocket a raw potato as a protection against rheumatism, and
alongside the case of another man carrying in his vest pocket a piece of
brimstone to prevent him taking cramp in the stomach; and when I
consider the case of ladies wearing earrings as a preventive against, or
cure for, sore eyes; and, again, when I remembered a practice, very
frequent a few years ago, of people wearing what were known as galvanic
rings in the belief that these would prevent their suffering from
rheumatism, I could not perceive any direct connection between such
superstitious practices and religion, and the construction of a new
definition was rendered necessary. The following, I think, covers the
whole ground: _Beliefs and practices founded upon erroneous ideas of God
and nature._ With this meaning the term "Superstition" is employed in
the following pages, and if the definition commend itself to the reader,
it will at once become apparent that the only way by which freedom from
superstition can be attained is to search Nature and Revelation for
correct views of God and His methods of working. Notwithstanding our
pretensions to a correct religious knowledge, a pure theology, and
freedom from everything like superstition, it is strange yet true, that,
if we except the formulated reply to the question in the Westminster
Catechism, "What is God," scarcely two persons--perhaps no two
persons--have exactly the same idea of God. We each worship a God of our
own. In one of the late Douglas Jerrold's "Hedgehog Letters" he
introduces two youths passing St Giles' Church at a lonely hour, when
the one addresses the other thus:--"The old book and the parson tell us
that at the beginning God made man in his own image. We have now
reversed this, and make God in our image." A sad truth, although not
new; Saint Paul made a similar remark to the philosophic Athenians; but
the remark applies not to this age or to Saint Paul's age alone--its
applicability extends to every age and every people. As Goethe remarks,
"Man never knows how anthropomorphic he is." Our minds instinctively
seek an explanation of the cause or causes of the different phenomena
constantly occurring around us, but instinct does not supply the
solution. Only by patient watching and consideration can this be arrived
at; but in former ages scientific methods of investigation were either
not known, or not cared for, and so men were satisfied with merely
guessing at the causes of natural phenomena, and these guesses were made
from the standpoint of their own human passionate intelligence.
Alongside the intelligence everywhere observable in the operations of
nature they placed their own passionate humanity, they projected
themselves into the universe and anthropomorphised nature. Thus came men
to regard natural phenomena as manifestations of supernatural agency;
as expressions of the wrath or pleasure of good or evil genii, and
although in our day we have made great advances in our knowledge of
natural phenomena, the majority of men still regard the ways of
providence from a false standpoint, a standpoint erected in the
interests of ecclesiasticism. Churchmanship acts as a distorting medium,
twisting and displacing things out of their natural relations, and
although this influence was stronger in the past than it is now, still
there remains a considerable residuum of the old influence among us yet.
For example, we are not yet rid of the belief that God has set apart
times, places, and duties as specially sacred, that what is not only
sinless but a moral obligation at certain times and places becomes
sinful at other times and places. Ecclesiastical influence thus
familiarises us with the distinctions of secular and sacred, and we hear
frequent mention made of our duties to God and our duties to man, of our
religious duties and our worldly duties, and we frequently hear religion
spoken of as something readily distinguishable from business. But not
only are these things separated by name from one another, they are often
regarded as opposites, having no fellowship together. Hence has arisen
in many minds a slavish fear of performing at certain times and in
certain places the ordinary duties of life, lest by so doing they anger
God. In certain conditions of society such belief, erroneous though it
be, may have served a useful purpose in restraining, and thereby so far
elevating a rude people, just as now we may see many among ourselves
restrained from evil, and influenced to the practice of good, by beliefs
which, to the enlightened among us, are palpable absurdities.
Before reviewing the superstitious beliefs and practices of our
immediate forefathers, we may, I think, profitably occupy a short time
in gaining some general idea of the prominent features of ancient Pagan
religions, for without doubt much of the mythology and superstitious
practice of our forefathers had a Pagan origin. I shall not attempt any
exhaustive treatise on this subject, for the task is beyond me, but a
slight notice of ancient theology may not here be irrelevant. The late
George Smith, the eminent Assyriologist, says:--
"Upwards of 2000 years B.C. the Babylonians had three great gods--_Anu_,
_Bel_, and _Hea_. These three leading deities formed members of twelve
gods, also called great. These were--
1. Anu, King of Angels and Spirits. Lord of the city Eresh.
2. Bel, Lord of the world, Father of the Gods, Creator. Lord of the
city of Nipur.
3. Hea, Maker of fate, Lord of the deep, God of wisdom and knowledge.
Lord of the city of Eridu.
4. Sin, Lord of crowns, Maker of brightness. Lord of the city Urr.
5. Merodash, Just Prince of the Gods, Lord of birth. Lord of the
city Babylon.
6. Vul, the strong God, Lord of canals and atmosphere. Lord of the
city Mura.
7. Shama, Judge of heaven and earth, Director of all. Lord of the
cities of Larsa and Sippara.
8. Ninip, Warrior of the warriors of the Gods, Destroyer of wicked.
Lord of the city Nipur.
9. Nergal, Giant King of war. Lord of the city Cutha.
10. Nusku, Holder of the Golden Sceptre, the lofty God.
11. Belat, Wife of Bel, Mother of the great Gods. Lady of the city
Nipur.
12. Ishtar, Eldest of Heaven and Earth, Raising the face of warriors.
"Below these deities there were a large body of gods, forming the bulk of
the Pantheon; and below these were arranged the Igege or angels of
heaven; and the anunaki or angels of earth; below these again came
curious classes of spirits or genii, some were evil and some good."
The gods of the Greeks were numbered by thousands, and this at a time
when--according to classical scholars--the arts and sciences were at
their highest point of development in that nation. Their religion was of
the grossest nature. Whatever conception they may have had of a first
cause--a most high Creator of heaven and earth--it is evident they did
not believe he took anything to do directly with man or the phenomena of
nature; but that these were under the immediate control of
deputy-deities or of a conclave of divinities, who possessed both divine
and human attributes--having human appetites, passions, and affections.
Some of these were local deities, others provincial, others national,
and others again phenomenal: every human emotion, passion and affection,
every social circumstance, public or private, was under the control or
guardianship of one or more of these divinities, who claimed from men
suitable honour and worship, the omission of which honour and worship
was considered to be not only offensive to the divinities, but as likely
to be followed by punishment. The vengeance of the deities was thought
to be avertable by the performance of certain propitiatory deeds, or by
offering certain sacrifices. The kind of sacrifice required had relation
to the particular department over which the divinity was supposed to be
guardian; and these deeds and sacrifices were in many cases most gross
and offensive to morality. The phenomena of nature, being under the
direction of one or more divinities, every aspect of nature was regarded
as an expression of anger or pleasure on the part of the divinities.
Thunder, lightning, eclipses, comets, drought, floods, storms--anything
strange or terrible, the cause of which was not understood, was ascribed
to the wrath of some divinity; and men hastened to propitiate, as best
they might, the divinities who were supposed to be scourging or
threatening them. These deputy-gods were supposed to occupy the space
between the earth and moon, and, being almost numberless and invisible,
their worshippers held them in the same dread as if they possessed the
attribute of omniscience.
For the purpose of guiding men in their relations towards these gods,
there existed a large body of men whose office it was to understand the
divinities, their natures and attributes, and direct men in their
religious duties. This body of men acted as mediums between the gods and
the people, and not only were they held in high esteem as priests, but
frequently they attained great power in the State. Often this priestly
incorporation had greater influence and control than the civil power;
nor is this to be wondered at, when we remember that they were supposed
to be in direct communication with the holy gods, in whose hands were
the destinies of men.
The sun, the giver and vivifier of all life, was the primary god of
antiquity, being worshipped by Assyrians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, and
Hebrews under the name of Baal or Bell, and by other nations under other
names. The priests of Baal always held a high position in the State. As
the sun was his image or symbol in heaven, so fire was his symbol on
earth, and hence all offerings made to Baal were burned or made to pass
through the fire, or were presented before the sun. Wherever, in the
worship of any nation, we find the fire element, we may at once suspect
that there we have a survival of ancient sun-worship.
The moon was regarded as a female deity, consort of the sun or Baal, and
was worshipped by the Jews under the name of Ashtoreth, or Astarte. Her
worship was of the most sensual description. The worship of sun and moon
formed one system, the priests of the one being also priests of the
other.
Apart from the priestly incorporation of which we have spoken, there was
another class of men who assumed knowledge of supernatural phenomena.
These were known as astrologers or star-gazers, wizards, magicians,
witches, sooth-sayers. By the practice of certain arts and repetition of
certain formula, these pretended to divine and foretell events both of a
public and private nature. They were believed in by the mass of people,
and were consulted on all sorts of matters. By both the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities their practices and pretensions were
sometimes condemned, and themselves forbidden to exercise their peculiar
gifts, but nevertheless the people continued to believe in them and
consult them. Their pretensions were considerable, extending even to
raising and consulting the spirits of the dead.
This leads me to notice the ancient belief concerning the souls of the
departed. By almost all nations, Jews and Gentiles, there was a
prevailing belief that at death the souls of good men were taken
possession of by good spirits and carried to Paradise, but the souls of
wicked men were left to wander in the space between the earth and moon,
or consigned to Hades, or Unseen World. These wandering spirits were in
the habit of haunting the living, especially their relations, so that
the living were surrounded on every side by the spirits of their wicked
ancestors, who were always at hand tempting them to evil. However, there
were means by which these ghosts might be exorcised. A formula for
expelling wicked spirits is given by Ovid in Book V. of the Fasti:--
"In the dread silence of midnight, upon the eighth day of May, the
votary rises from his couch barefooted, and snapping his fingers as a
sure preventative against meeting any ghost during his subsequent
operations, thrice washing his hands in spring water, he places nine
black beans in his mouth, and walks out. These he throws behind him one
by one, carefully guarding against the least glance backwards, and at
each cast he says, 'With these beans I ransom myself and mine.' The
spirits of his ancestors follow him and gather the beans as they fall.
Then, performing another ablution as he enters his house, he clashes
cymbals of brass, or rather some household utensil of that metal,
entreating the spirits to quit his roof. He then repeats nine times
these words, 'Avaunt ye ancestral manes.' After this he looks behind,
and is free for one year."
Some nations in addition to a personal formula for laying the ghosts of
departed relatives, had a national ritual for ghost-laying, a public
feast in honour of departed spirits. Such a feast is still held in
China, and also in Burmah. In 1875 the following placard was posted
throughout the district of Rangoon, proclaiming a feast of forty-nine
days by order of the Emperor of China:--
"There will this year be scarcity of rice and plenty of sickness. Evil
spirits will descend to examine and inquire into the sickness. If people
do not believe this, many will die in September and October. Should any
people call on you at midnight, do not answer; it is not a human being
that calls, but an evil spirit. Do not be wicked, but be good."
But I do not propose to write a treatise on Pagan theology, nor do I
propose to trace in historical detail the progress through which
Christian and Pagan beliefs have in process of time become assimilated,
when I have occasion, I may notice these things. I intend, as I said at
the beginning, to deal with superstition, no matter from what source it
may have arisen, recognising superstition to be as already
defined--beliefs and practices founded upon erroneous ideas of God and
the laws of nature. In many things, I believe, we are yet too
superstitious, and our popular theology, instead of aiding to destroy
these erroneous beliefs, aids them in maintaining their vitality.
Orthodox Christians believe in a general and also in a special
providence; the ancients, on the other hand, believed that all events
were under the control and direction of separate and special divinities,
so that when praying for certain results, they addressed the divinity
having control over that phenomenon or circumstance by which they were
affected, and when their desires were gratified, they expressed their
thankfulness by offerings to that divinity. If their desires were not
granted, they regarded that circumstance as a token of displeasure on
the part of that divinity, and besought the aid of their priests and
sooth-sayers to discover the reason of his anger, and offered sacrifices
and peace offerings. Now, orthodox Christians in the same circumstances
pray to God for special and personal blessings, and when they are
granted, they feel grateful, and sometimes express their gratitude. A
common method of expressing this gratitude is by giving something to the
church. Thus we find in our church records entries like the following:--
From ---- ----, As a thank-offering for the recovery £ S. D.
of a dear child. -------
" ---- ----, Peace-offering for reconciliation with
an old friend. -------
" ---- ----, Offering for the preservation of a
friend going abroad. -------
" ---- ----, Thank-offering for a fortunate transaction
in business. -------
Such offerings are remarked upon favourably by the leaders of the
Church, and regarded as examples worthy of being imitated by all pious
Christians. But should the prayers not be granted, there is no gift. The
non-fulfilment of their desires is regarded perhaps not altogether as an
evidence of God's displeasure, but at least as a token that what was
asked it was not His pleasure to grant. They make little enquiry
concerning the real cause of failure, but take credit to themselves for
humbly submitting to God's will. This unenquiring submission is often,
however, both sinful and superstitious. Every result has its cause, and
it is surely our duty, as far as observation and reason can guide us,
to discover the causes which operate against us. The great majority of
the afflictions and misfortunes which befall us are punishments for the
breakage of some law, the committal of some sin physical or moral, and
this being the case, it behoves us to find out what law has been
transgressed, what the nature of the sin committed. This principle is
acknowledged by our religious teachers, but the laws which have been
broken, have not been wisely sought after. The field of search has been
almost exclusively the moral, or the theological field; whereas the
correct rule is, for physical effects, look for physical causes; for
moral effects, moral causes. This rule has not been followed. A few
cases illustrative of what I mean will clearly demonstrate the
superstitious nature of what is a widely diffused opinion among the
religious societies of this country at the present time.
Forty-six years ago, when cholera first broke out in this country, it
was immediately proclaimed to be a judgment for a national sin; and so
it was, but for a sin against physical laws. I well remember the
indignation which arose and found expression in almost every pulpit in
the country, when the Prime Minister of that day, in reply to a petition
from the Church asking him to proclaim a national fast for the removal
of the plague, told his petitioners to first remove every source of
nuisance by cleansing drains and ditches, and removing stagnant pools,
and otherwise observe the general laws of health, then having done all
that lay in our power, we could ask God to bless our efforts, and He
would hear us. All sorts of absurd causes were seriously advanced to
account for the presence of this alarming malady. One party discovered
the cause in a movement for the disestablishment of religion. Another
considered it was a judgment from God for asking the Reform Bill. The
Radicals proclaimed it to be a trick of the Tories to prevent agitation
for reform, and added that medical men were bribed to poison wells and
streams. The non-religious displayed as great superstition in this
matter as did the religious. Large bills, headed in large type "Cholera
Humbug," were at that time posted on the blank walls of the streets of
Glasgow. The feeling against medical men was then so intense, that some
of them were mobbed, and narrowly escaped with their lives. In Paisley,
considered to be the most intelligent town in Scotland, a doctor, who
was working night and day for the relief of the sufferers, had his house
and shop sacked, and was obliged to fly for shelter, or his life would
have been sacrificed to the fury of the mob.
When we read that epidemics which broke out in the times of our
forefathers, were ascribed to such absurd causes as the introduction of
forks, or because the nation neglected to prosecute with sufficient
vigour alleged cases of compact with the devil, we wonder at and pity
their ignorance, and rejoice that we live in a more enlightened age. But
the fact is, that among the mass of the people there is really no great
difference between the present and the past. There is a close family
likeness in this matter of superstition between now and long ago, and
this state of matters will continue so long as a knowledge of physical
science--that science which treats of the laws by which God is pleased
to overrule and direct material things--is not made a religious duty.
There are physical sins and there are moral sins, and the punishment for
the first is apparently even more direct than for the second, for in
the case of physical sins we are punished without mercy. Through neglect
of these laws, we are continually suffering punishment, shortening and
making miserable our own lives and the lives of those dependent upon us;
and periodically judgments descend on the careless community, in the
form of severe epidemics. Any religion which advocates practices, or
teaches doctrines inconsistent with our physical, intellectual, or moral
well-being, cannot be from God, and _vice versa_; and this is a strong
argument in favour of Christianity _as taught by its Founder_. I wish I
could say the same of the Christianity taught by our ecclesiastics,
either Protestant or Catholic.
The introduction into the heathen world of the fundamental truths that
there is but one God, omnipotent and omniscient, who overrules every
event, that He has revealed Himself through His Son as a God of love and
mercy, and that man's duty to Him is obedience to His laws, was a mighty
step in advance of the gross conceptions of idolatry formerly prevalent
among these nations. But neither heathens nor Christians had for a long
time any clear idea that the overruling of God in Providence was
according to fixed laws. Being ignorant on this point, they ascribed to
unseen supernatural agency, working in a capricious fashion, all
phenomena which appeared to differ from, or disturb the ordinary course
of events. Upon such matters heathen and Christian ideas commingled, and
thus heathen ideas and practices were incorporated with Christian ideas
and practices. Then, when ecclesiastical councils met to determine
truth, and formulate their creeds, these combined heathen and Christian
ideas being accepted by them, became dogmas of the Church, and
henceforth those who differed from the dogmatic creed of the Church, or
advocated views in advance of these confessions, were regarded as
enemies of truth. Naturally, as the Church became powerful she became
more repressive, and opposed all enquiry which appeared to lead to
conclusions different from those already promulgated by her, and
finally, it became a capital offence to teach any other doctrines than
those sanctioned by the Church. The beliefs of the members of these
councils being, as we have already seen, a mixture of heathen and
Christian ideas, the Church thus became a great conservator of
superstition; and to show that this was really so, we may adduce one
example:--Pope Innocent VIII. issued a Bull as follows:--"It has come to
our ears that members of both sexes do not avoid to have intercourse
with the infernal fiends, and that, by this service, they afflict both
man and beast, that they blight the marriage bed, destroy the births of
women and the increase of cattle, they blast the corn on the ground, the
grapes of the vineyard and the fruits of the trees, and the grass and
herbs of the field." The promulgation of this Bull is said to have
produced dreadful consequences, by thousands being burned and otherwise
put to death, for having intercourse with the fiends.
We regret to say such beliefs and such means of repressing free enquiry
were not confined to one branch of the Christian Church. Protestants as
well as Roman Catholics, when they had the power, suppressed many of the
practices of heathenism after a cruel fashion, but at the same time
fostered the superstitions and Pagan beliefs which had originated these
practices, and punished those who protested against these beliefs. The
same method of procedure is in operation at the present day.
Nevertheless, the introduction of Christianity into the heathen world
made a wonderful revolution in their religious practices as well as in
their beliefs. Their idols and the symbols of their divinities were
abolished, along with the sacrifices offered to these. Their great
festivals, at which human sacrifices were offered and abominable
practices committed, were so modified as to be stripped of their
immorality and cruelty, and while being retained--retained because they
could not be utterly abolished--they were Christianized,--that is, a
Christian colouring was given to them,--and they became Church festivals
or holydays,--a subject I will treat more fully of in another chapter.
It is not, as I have already said, my intention to trace the gradual
development of our modern idea of Providence, our ascription of
universal government, of all direction of the phenomena of nature and of
life to the one only omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent God, but
rather to place before the reader the practices and beliefs which
prevailed in this country during the early years of the present century.
And from this survey we shall discover what a mass of old Pagan ideas
still survived and influenced the minds and practice of the people,--how
they yet clung to the notion that many of the phenomena of nature and
life were under the control of supernatural agents, although they did
not regard these agents, as what in olden times they were considered to
be--divinities, but believed them to be a class of beings living upon or
within the earth, and endowed by the devil with supernatural powers.
In the northern sagas, and in the old ballads and saintly legends of
the Middle Ages--supernatural agents who played a prominent part--there
are giants of enormous size and little dwarfs who can make themselves
invisible, and do all sorts of good to their favourites, and harm to
their enemies. We are also introduced there to dragons and other
monsters which have human understandings, and, guided by a wicked
spirit, could do great mischief. Such beings took the place of the
ancient divinities, and in many cases when the hero or saint is in great
straits, in combat with these evil spirits or fiends, Jesus Christ comes
to their assistance. One instance will exemplify this:
"O'er him stood the foul fiends,
And with their clubs of steel,
Struck him o'er the helmit
That in deadly swound he fell.
But God his sorrow saw,
To the fiends his Son he sent;
From the earth they vanished
With howling and lament.
The Christian hero thanked his God,
From the ground he rose with speed,
Joyfully he sheathed his sword,
And mounted on his steed."
_Illustrations of "Northern Antiquities."_
By the beginning of this century these ideas of the _personel_ of
supernatural agencies had become slightly modified in this country at
least, giants and dragons having given way to fairies, brownies, elves,
witches, etc. The Rev. Mr. Kirk, of Aberfeldy, published a work
descriptive of these supernatural beings. He says they are a kind of
astral spirits between angels and humanity, being like men and women in
appearance, and similar in many of their habits; some of them, however,
are double. They marry and have children, for which they keep nurses;
have deaths and burials amongst them, and they can make themselves
visible or invisible at pleasure. They live in subterranean habitations,
and in an invisible condition attend very constantly on men. They are
very fond of human children and pretty women, both of which they will
steal if not protected by some superior influence. Women in childbed
stand in danger of being taken, but if a piece of cold iron be kept in
the bed in which they lie, the spirits won't come near. Children are in
greater danger of being stolen before baptism than after. They
sometimes, to supply their own needs, spirit away the milk from cows,
but more frequently they transfer the milk to the cows of some person
who stands high in their favour. This they do by making themselves
invisible, and silently milking and removing the milk in invisible
vessels. When people offend them they shoot flint-tipped arrows, and by
this means kill either the persons who have offended them or their
cattle. They cause these arrows to strike the most vital part, but the
stroke does not visibly break the skin, only a _blae_ mark is the result
visible on the body after death. These flint arrow-heads are
occasionally found, and the possession of one of these will protect the
possessor against the power of these astral beings, and at the same time
enable him or her to cure disease in cattle and women. These flints were
often sewed into the dresses of children to protect them from the
Evil-eye. There were many other means of protection against the power of
these beings, which we shall have occasion to refer to again. There is
one method, however, which may be mentioned now. If, when a calf is
born, its mouth be smeared with a balsam of dung, before it is allowed
to suck, the fairies cannot milk that cow. Those taken to fairyland lose
the power of calculating the lapse of time, although they are not
unconscious of what is going on around them. Those spirited away to
fairyland may be recovered by their friends or relatives, by performing
certain formula, or--and this was often the method resorted to--by
out-witting the fairies, getting possession of their stolen friends, and
then doing or saying something which fairies cannot bear, upon which
they are forced to depart, leaving the recovered party behind them.
The following information concerning the government, &c., of fairyland,
is taken from Aytoun:--The queen of fairyland was a kind of feudatory
sovereign under Satan, to whom she was obliged to pay _kave_, or tithe
in kind; and, as her own fairy subjects strongly objected to transfer
their allegiance, the quota was usually made up in children who had been
stolen before the rite of baptism had been administered to them. This
belief was at one time universal throughout all Scotland, and was still
prevalent at the beginning of this century. Charms were quite commonly
employed to defend houses from the inroads of the fairies before the
infants were baptised; but even baptism did not always protect the baby
from being stolen. During the period of infancy, the mother required to
be ever watchful; but the risks were especially great before baptism. It
is difficult to define exactly the power which the queen of elfland had,
for besides carrying off Thomas the Rhymer, she was supposed to have
carried off no less a personage than James IV. from the field of
Flodden, and to have detained him in her enchanted country. There was
also a king of elfland. From the accounts extracted from or volunteered
by witches, &c., preserved to us in justiciary and presbyterial records,
he appears to have been a peaceable, luxurious, indolent personage, who
entrusted the whole business of his kingdom, including the recruiting
department, to his wife. We get a glimpse of both their majesties in the
confessions of Isabella Gowdie, in Aulderne, a parish in Nairnshire, who
was indicted for witchcraft in 1662. She said--"I was in Downie Hills,
and got meat there from the queen of the fairies, more than I could eat.
The queen is brawly clothed in white linen, and in white and brown
cloth; and the king is a braw man, well-favoured, and broad-faced. There
were plenty of elf bulls rowting and skoyling up and down, and
affrighted me." Mr. Kirk says "that in fairyland they have also books of
various kinds--history, travels, novels, and plays--but no sermons, no
Bible, nor any book of a religious kind." Every reader of Hogg's
_Queen's Wake_ knows the beautiful legend of the abduction of "Bonny
Kilmeny"; but in Dr. Jamieson's _Illustrations of Northern Antiquities_
we have found amongst these heroic and romantic ballads another legend
more fully descriptive of fairyland. In this legend, a young lady is
carried away to fairyland, and recovered, by her brother:--
"King Arthur's sons o' merry Carlisle
Were playing at the ba',
And there was their sister, burd Ellen,
I' the midst, amang them a'.
Child Rowland kicked it wi' his foot,
And keppit it wi' his knee;
And aye as he played, out o'er them a'.
O'er the kirk he gar'd it flee.
Burd Ellen round about the aisle
To seek the ba' has gane:
But she bade lang, and ay langer,
And she came na back again.
They sought her east, they sought her west,
They sought her up and down,
And wae were the hearts in merry Carlisle,
For she was nae gait found."
Merlin, the warlock, being consulted, told them that burd Ellen was
taken away by the fairies, and that it would be a dangerous task to
recover her if they were not well instructed how to proceed. The
instructions which Merlin gave were, that whoever undertook the quest
for her should, after entering elfland, kill every person he met till he
reached the royal apartments, and taste neither meat nor drink offered
to them, for by doing otherwise they would come under the fairy spell,
and never again get back to earth. Two of her brothers undertook the
journey, but disobeyed the instructions of the warlock, and were
retained in elfland. Child Rowland, her youngest brother, then arming
himself with his father's claymore, _excalibar_--that never struck in
vain--set out on the dangerous quest. Strictly observing the warlock's
instructions, after asking his way to the king of elfland's castle of
every servant he met, he, in accordance with these instructions, when he
had received the desired information, slew the servant. The last fairy
functionary he met was the hen-wife, who told him to go on a little
further till he came to a round green hill surrounded with rings from
the bottom to the top, then go round it _widershins_ (contrary to the
sun) and every time he made the circuit, say--"Open door, open door, and
let me come in," and on the third repetition of this incantation they
would open, and he might then go in. Having received this information,
he fulfilled his instructions, and slew the hen-wife. Then proceeding as
directed, he soon reached the green hill, and made the circuit of it
three times, repeating the words before mentioned. On the third
repetition of the words the door opened, and he went in, the door
closing behind him. "He proceeded through a long passage, where the air
was soft and agreeably warm, like a May evening, as is all the air in
elfland. The light was a sort of twilight or gloaming; but there were
neither windows nor candles, and he knew not whence it came if it was
not from the walls and roof, which were rough and arched like a grotto,
and composed of a clear transparent rock incrusted with _sheep's
silver_, and spar and various bright stones." At last he came to two
lofty folding doors which stood ajar. Passing through these doors, he
entered a large and spacious hall, the richness and brilliance of which
was beyond description. It seemed to extend throughout the whole length
and breadth of the hill. The superb Gothic pillars by which the roof was
supported were so large and lofty, that the pillars of the "Chaury Kirk
or of the Pluscardin Abbey are no more to be compared to them than the
Knock of Alves is to be compared to Balrimes or Ben-a-chi." They were of
gold and silver, and were fretted like the west window of the Chaury
Kirk (Elgin Cathedral), with wreaths of flowers, composed of diamonds
and precious stones of all manner of beautiful colours. The key stones
of the arches, instead of being escutcheoned, were ornamented also with
clusters of diamonds in brilliant devices. From the middle of the roof,
where the arches met, was hung, suspended by a gold chain, an immense
lamp of one hollowed pearl, and perfectly transparent, in the centre of
which was a large carbuncle, which, by the power of magic, turned round
continually, and shed throughout all the hall a clear mild light like
that of the setting sun. But the hall was so large, and these dazzling
objects so far removed, that their blended radiance cast no more than a
pleasing mellow lustre around, and excited no other than agreeable
sensations in the eyes of Child Rowland. The furniture of the hall was
suitable to its architecture; and at the further end, under a splendid
canopy, sitting on a gorgeous sofa of velvet, silk and gold, and
"kembing her yellow hair wi' a silver kemb,"
"Was his sister Burd Ellen.
She stood up him before,
God rue or thee poor luckless fode (man),
What hast thou to do here?
And hear ye this my youngest brother,
Why badena ye at hame?
Had ye a hunder and thousand lives
Ye canna brook are o' them.
And sit thou down; and wae, oh wae!
That ever thou was born,
For came the King o' Elfland in,
Thy leccam (body) is forlorn."
After a long conversation with his sister, the two folding doors were
burst open with tremendous violence, and in came the King of Elfland,
shouting--
"With _fi_, _fe_, _fa_, and _fum_,
I smell the blood of a Christian man,
Be he dead, be he living, with my brand
I'll clash his harns frae his harn pan."
Child Rowland drew his good claymore (_excalibar_) that never struck in
vain. A furious combat ensued, and the king was defeated; but Child
Rowland spared his life on condition that he would free his sister, Burd
Ellen, and his two brothers, who were lying in a trance in a corner of
the hall. The king then produced a small crystal phial containing a
bright red liquor, with which he anointed the lips, nostrils, ears and
finger tips of the two brothers, who thereupon awoke as from a profound
sleep, and all four returned in triumph to "merry Carlisle." The Rev.
Mr. Kirk's descriptions of the subterranean homes of the fairies and of
their social habits are just the counterparts of the fairyland of this
beautiful ballad legend. There can be little doubt that such beliefs are
but survivals in altered form of what were in still more ancient times
religious tenets. What were formerly divinities have given place to the
more lowly fairies, brownies, &c., and from the position of Pagan gods
they have, through the opposing influence of Christianity, been removed
to the other side, and became servants of the devil, actively opposing
the kingdom of Christ. Some have supposed that the fairies may have
originally been considered to be descendants of the Druids, for some
reason consigned to inhabit subterranean caves under green hills in wild
and lonely glens. Others have identified them with the fallen angels.
One thing is certain, that the notion that there exists supernatural
men, women, and animals who inhabit subterranean and submarine regions,
and yet can indulge in intercourse with the human race, is of very great
antiquity, and widely spread, existing in Arabia, Persia, India, Thibet,
among the Tartars, Swedes, Norwegians, British, and also among the
savage tribes of Africa. In the west of Scotland there was a class of
fairies who acted a friendly part towards their human neighbours,
helping the weak or ill-used, and generally busying themselves with acts
of kindness; these were called "brownies." The fairies proper were a
merry race, full of devilment, and malicious, tricky, and troublesome,
and the cause of much annoyance and fear among the people. Besides these
supernatural beings--brownies, fairies, &c.--there existed a belief in
persons who were possessed of supernatural powers--magicians, sorcerers,
&c. About the Reformation period, these persons were considered to be in
the actual service of the devil, who was then thought to be raising a
more determined opposition than ever to the spread of the kingdom of
God, and adopting the insidious means of enlisting men and women into
his service by conferring upon them supernatural powers; so that by this
contract they were bound to do mischief to all good Christian people;
and the more mischief they could do the greater would be the favours
they received from their master. This belief was not confined to the
ignorant, but was equally accepted by the educated and by the Church.
Measures were taken to frustrate the devil, and the faithful were
recommended to make search for those who had compacted with his Satanic
Majesty, and laws were enacted for the punishment of the compacters when
found. The faithful, under the belief that they were fighting the battle
of the Lord, brought numbers of poor wretches to trial, many of whom,
strangely enough, believed themselves guilty of the crime imputed to
them. After trial and conviction, they were put to death. The belief
that the devil could and did invest men and women with supernatural
powers affected all social relations, for everything strange and
unaccountable--and, in a non-scientific age, we can readily conceive how
almost everything would be brought into this category--was ascribed to
this cause, and each suspected his or her neighbour; even the truest
friendship was sometimes broken through this suspicion. The laws against
witchcraft in this country were abrogated last century, but the
abrogation of the law could not be expected to work any sudden change in
the belief of the people; at most, the alteration only paved the way for
the gradual departure of the superstition, and since the abrogation of
the law the belief has been decaying, but still in many parts of the
country it lingers on till the present time, instances of which appear
every now and again in the newspapers of the day.