[1] John C. Miller, _Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783_, Boston, 1948,
preface.
[2] Louis C. Duncan, _Medical Men in the American Revolution,
1775-1783_, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 1931; William O. Owen, _The
Medical Department of the United States Army during the Period of the
Revolution_, New York, 1920; James E. Gibson, _Dr. Bodo Otto and the
Medical Background of the American Revolution_, Springfield, Ill.,
1937; James Thomas Flexner, _Doctors on Horseback_, New York, 1939.
[3] Lyman F. Kebler, "Andrew Craigie, the First Apothecary General of
the United States," _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical
Association_, 1928, vol. 17, pp. 63-74, 167-178; Frederick Haven
Pratt, "The Craigies," _Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical
Society_ (1941), 1942, vol. 27, pp. 43-86; Edward Kremers and George
Urdang, _A History of Pharmacy_, Philadelphia, 1951 edition, chap. 11;
Edward Kremers, "The Lititz Pharmacopoeia," _The Badger Pharmacist_,
nos. 22-25, June-December 1938; J. W. England, ed., _The First Century
of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy_, Philadelphia, 1922, pp.
84-94; _American Journal of Pharmacy_, 1884, vol. 56, pp. 483-491.
[4] Jonathan Potts Papers, four volumes of miscellaneous manuscripts
at The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (hereinafter
referred to as Potts Papers).
[5] Journals of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts Bay, quoted
in Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 22-23.
[6] Greenleaf Ledger, 1765-1778, at the American Antiquarian Society,
Worcester, Mass. (The Greenleaf pharmacy was established by Elizabeth
Greenleaf in 1726 or 1727. See J. L. Sibley, _Biographical Sketches of
Graduates of Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts_,
Cambridge, 1920, vol. 5, pp. 472-476; Jonathan Greenleaf, _A Genealogy
of the Greenleaf Family_, New York, 1854, pp. 89, 91, 205, 207;
_Boston Post-Boy_ and _Boston Gazette_, November 8, 1762, obituary of
Elizabeth Greenleaf.)
[7] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 23.
[8] J. R. Alden, _The American Revolution_, New York, 1954 p. 23.
[9] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 12-13.
[10] _Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789_, edited by
Worthington C. Ford, Washington, D.C., 1905, vol. 2, p. 250. Nearly
all excerpts from Ford also appear in Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2).
[11] _Ibid._, vol. 3, p. 261. The Samuel Ward diary for September 23
records that "a parcel of medicines for the hospital" was "to be
bought" (E. C. Burnett, _Letters of Members of the Continental
Congress_, Washington, D.C., 1921, vol. 1, p. 205).
[12] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 344.
[13] Burnett, _op. cit._ (footnote 11), vol. 1, p. 292.
[14] _Pennsylvania Ledger_, May 6, 1775. [William Smith in
Philadelphia was selling drugs in 1772 (Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio
52).]
[15] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, December 26, 1775.
[16] _Pennsylvania Packet_, September 11, 1775; _Pennsylvania
Journal_, September 6, 1775; _Pennsylvania Gazette_, October 4, 1775.
[17] The Marshalls sold drugs to Sharp Delaney and William Smith in
April 1776 (Marshall Waste Book, see footnote 20).
[18] E. T. Ellis, "The Story of a Very Old Philadelphia Drug Store,"
_American Journal of Pharmacy_, 1908, vol. 75, p. 57; England, _op.
cit._ (footnote 3), pp. 348-350; Parke, Davis & Co., _A History of
Pharmacy in Pictures_, undated booklet edited by George Bender.
[19] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 442; vol. 4, pp. 188,
197.
[20] Christopher Jr. and Charles Marshall Waste Book, February 21 to
July 6, 1776, at The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
[21] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 442; vol. 4, pp. 188,
197; Burnett, _op. cit._ (footnote 11), vol. 1.
[22] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 18-19.
[23] _American Archives ..._ Peter Force, ed., Washington, ser. 4,
vol. 1-6, 1837-46; ser. 5, vol. 1-3, 1848-53. Ser. 4, vol. 3, p. 306.
[24] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 62-64.
[25] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[26] It is quite possible that the designation "bad" was a
typographical error for "rad[ix]."
[27] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 5, p. 115.
[28] _Connecticut Courant_, February 12, 1776.
[29] _Newport Mercury_, January 15, 1776.
[30] _Massachusetts Gazette_, September 7, 1775.
[31] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 4, p. 159.
[32] _Massachusetts Gazette_, February 22, 1776.
[33] _Boston Gazette_, April 15, 1776.
[34] _Ibid._, April 22, 1776. It is worth noting that Morgan did not
think this important enough to include in his _Vindication_ (see
footnote 35).
[35] John Morgan, _A Vindication of His Public Character in the
Station of Director-General of the Military Hospital, and Physician in
Chief of the American Army; Anno, 1776_, Boston, 1777.
[36] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[37] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 5, p. 488.
[38] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 102, 144; and _Independent
Chronicle_, April 10, 1777.
[39] James Thacher, _American Medical Biography_, Boston, 1828, vol.
1, pp. 270-273.
[40] For biographies of Sylvester Gardiner see _Dictionary of American
Biography_, New York, 1931, vol. 8, pp. 139-140; _Appleton's
Cyclopedia of American Biography_, New York, 1887, vol. 2; H. A. Kelly
and W. L. Burrage, _Dictionary of American Medical Biography_, New
York, 1928, pp. 450-452; James H. Stark, _The Loyalists of
Massachusetts_, Boston, 1910, pp. 313-315.
[41] Greenleaf Ledger (see footnote 6).
[42] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, pp. 282, 284.
[43] _Ibid._, p. 314.
[44] S. E. Morison and H. S. Commager, _The Growth of the American
Republic_, New York, 1950, vol. 1, p. 210.
[45] _New-York Journal_, July 13, 1775.
[46] _Ibid._, May 11, 1775.
[47] _New-York Gazette_, January 1 and January 29, 1776. For a history
of the English patent medicines in America, see G. B. Griffenhagen and
J. H. Young in _The Chemist and Druggist_, 1957, vol. 167, pp.
714-722, and in _U.S. National Museum Bulletin 218_, 1959, pp. 155-183
(Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Paper 10).
[48] George Washington, _The Writings of George Washington_, edited by
John C. Fitzpatrick, Washington, 1931, vol. 4, pp. 464-465.
[49] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 4, 9, 68; _Pennsylvania
Packet_, June 19, 1779; and Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol.
4, pp. 464-465.
[50] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 135; Morgan, _op. cit._
(footnote 35), p. 11.
[51] _New-York Gazette_, May 6 and December 23, 1776.
[52] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 4, p. 1026.
[53] _Ibid._, vol. 6, p. 1431.
[54] Morgan misspelled Delaney as "Delancey" in his letter of June 25
to Adams.
[55] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 128.
[56] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 5, p. 570.
[57] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 6, p. 1069.
[58] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 5, p. 633.
[59] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 12.
[60] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 26, 1779.
[61] Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol. 6, pp. 58-59.
[62] _Connecticut Courant_, January 6, 1777.
[63] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 13, 136, 146. William Smith
was appointed Continental Druggist on August 20; see Ford, _op. cit._
(footnote 10), vol. 4, pp. 292-293.
[64] Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol. 6, pp. 86, 113.
[65] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 3, pp. 116, 837.
[66] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[67] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 129.
[68] _Ibid._, p. xxv. [For details of the manner in which Shippen
moved in on Morgan to replace him eventually as director general, see
Flexner, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 3-53.]
[69] _Ibid._, p. xxxv; Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 55.
[70] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 7, p. 91.
[71] _New-York Gazette_, September 30, December 16, 23, 1776, January
20, 1777.
[72] _Ibid._, December 9, 1776, April 28, June 9, 1777.
[73] Plough Court Pharmacy letterbook dated April 7, 1778, through
December 8, 1779, in possession of Allen and Hanburys, London. See
also Chapman-Huston and Ernest C. Gripps, _Through a City Archway: The
Story of Allen and Hanburys, 1715-1954_, London, 1954.
[74] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 97.
[75] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 39.
[76] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 6, p. 1069.
[77] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, pp. 651-652, 1114.
[78] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 77; Morgan to Potts, July 28, 1776.
[79] _Ibid._, folio 89; Stringer to Potts, August 17, 1776. See also
Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 108-109. Washington mentions
Stringer's visit with Morgan in a letter to Gates dated August 14
(Washington, _op. cit._ footnote 48, vol. 5, pp. 433-435).
[80] _Ibid._; McHenry to Potts, August 3, 1776. [Stringer arrived in
Philadelphia on the evening of August 2.]
[81] _Ibid._; Stringer to Potts, August 17, 1776.
[82] _Ibid._; McHenry to Potts, August 21, 1776.
[83] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, p. 1271. For a similarly
worded letter to Egbert Benson dated August 22, see Gibson, _op. cit._
(footnote 2), p. 112.
[84] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 98; Stringer to Potts, September 7,
1776. Stringer arrived in Albany on September 5 (Potts Papers, vol. 1,
folio 97).
[85] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, p. 1266. Other items
included "Acet. Com. six barrels; Alo. Hepta. 3 lb.; Calomel 2 lb.;
Emp. Diachyl 10 lb.; Cantharid. 2 lb.; Gm. Guiac 1 lb.; Myrrh 1 lb.;
Hord. Com. 100 lb.; Jerc. Precip. Rub. 1/2 lb.; Merc. Cor. Sublim. 1
lb.; Rad. Serpent. Virg. 3 lb.; Sal. Nit. 5 lb.; Spirit Sal. Ammo. 4
lb.; Ung. Diath. 3 lb.; Elix. Asthmat. 5 lb.; and Elix. Vitriol. 10
lb." Also included were six gross of vials and corks and three reams
of wrapping paper.
[86] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folios 102-106, 108-111, 114, 119.
[87] _Ibid._, folio 99. There was a listing for 170 pounds of
"Cathart: Am" (Epsom salts). The 7 pounds of rhubarb was listed as "3
lb. Rad. Rhaei and 4 lb. Pul. Rhaei." Also on hand were 1-1/2 pounds
of "Mithridat" (opium).
[88] _Ibid._, folios 73, 94, 124.
[89] _Ibid._, folio 4; McCrea to Potts, September 2, 1776.
[90] _Ibid._, folio 124; Johnston to Potts, September 19, 1776.
[91] _Ibid._, folio 125; Craigie to Potts, October 3, 1776.
[92] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 2, p. 923. Stringer also wrote
Potts on October 6 to advise him of the stock (Potts Papers, vol. 1,
folio 126).
[93] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 131; Stringer to Potts, October 15,
1776.
[94] _Ibid._, folio 133; Stringer to Potts, October 25, 1776.
[95] _Ibid._, folio 132; Craigie to Potts, October 22, 1776.
[96] _Ibid._, folio 138; Stringer to Potts, November 7, 1776.
[97] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 110.
[98] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 453, vol. 4, pp.
24-25.
[99] Miller, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 103-113.
[100] _Virginia Gazette_, August 24, 1776.
[101] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, July 18, 1776.
[102] G. B. Griffenhagen, "The Day-Dunlap 1771 Pharmaceutical
Catalogue," _American Journal of Pharmacy_, 1955, vol. 127, pp.
296-302.
[103] 103 Miller, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 110-112.
[104] Greenleaf Ledger, _op. cit._ (footnote 6).
[105] Potts Papers, vol. 2, folio 213.
[106] _Ibid._, vol. 3, folio 305.
[107] _Ibid._, folio 331.
[108] _Ibid._, folio 346.
[109] _Ibid._, folio 336.
[110] _Ibid._, folio 369.
[111] _Ibid._, folio 331; Craigie to Potts, September 1, 1777.
[112] Preserved at the Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts.
[113] _Independent Chronicle_, October 30, 1777.
[114] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 5, p. 748, vol. 7, p. 274,
vol. 8, p. 538. (Smith received $2,490 on September 9, 1776, $2,952 on
April 17, 1777, "for sundry medicines," and Caldwell & Co. received
$666 on July 7, 1777, "for sundry medicine delivered William Smith.")
[115] _Ibid._, vol. 7, p. 321. (Christopher and Charles Marshall
received $4,151 on May 2, 1777, "for sundry medicines and chirurgical
instruments supplied by them for the use of different battalions of
continental forces.")
[116] _Pennsylvania Journal_, January 29, 1777.
[117] Potts Papers, vol. 2, folio 150.
[118] _Ibid._, folio 153; Bass to Potts, March 17, 1777.
[119] _Pennsylvania Journal_, June 11, July 9, 23, 1777.
[120] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 11, p. 546.
[121] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, March 18, May 27, 1777.
[122] _Boston Gazette_, February 3, 1777; _Connecticut Courant_, April
7, 1777.
[123] _Pennsylvania Packet_, April 15, 22, 1777. This anonymous
article was written by Dr. Benjamin Rush and reprinted as a pamphlet.
[124] Potts Papers, vol. 2, folios 158, 159.
[125] _Pennsylvania Ledger_, October 10, 1777; _Pennsylvania Evening
Post_, October 14, 18, 1777.
[126] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, November 1, 8, 13, 1777, April 29,
1778. (A large number of advertisements announcing thefts appeared
during the British occupation.)
[127] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, January 10 through April 20, 1778,
and _Pennsylvania Ledger_, April 4, 15, 1778. [Yeldall advertised his
"Anti-Venereal Essence" only once under American occupation, but at
$4.00 per bottle (_Pennsylvania Evening Post_, August 26, 1777).]
[128] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, June 25, 1777.
[129] Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 149.
[130] It was in February 1778 that Dr. Potts assumed his office as
purveyor general for the hospital department of the Continental Army
with the duty of purchasing and distributing all supplies and
medicines (_ibid._, p. 154).
[131] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 24. (This apparently is the list
prepared by Brown, even though it is not signed by him. The item
"Medicines, Vials, Cork &c L20,000" was added with the statement "The
above enumerated articles should be purchased immediately," and both
were in the handwriting of "W. Shippen, D.G." The document is
undated.)
[132] _Ibid._, vol. 4, folio 419; Brown to Potts, March 11, 1778.
[133] _Ibid._, folio 428; Cutting to Potts, March 25, 1778.
[134] _Ibid._, folio 432; Cutting to Potts, March 30, 1778.
[135] _Ibid._, folio 441; Cutting to Potts, April 16, 1778.
[136] _Ibid._, vol. 2, folio 151; Tillotson to Potts, February 22,
1777. [Cutting served as Assistant Apothecary under Craigie at
Cambridge and Roxbury. The feud has not been explored in any of
Craigie's biographies.]
[137] _Ibid._, vol. 4, folio 429; Craigie to Potts, March 27, 1778.
[138] _Ibid._, folio 437; Craigie to Potts, April 4, 1778.
[139] _Ibid._, folio 411; Potts to Gates, February 24, 1778.
[140] _Ibid._, folio 441; Craigie to Potts, May 1, 1778.
[141] _Ibid._, vol. 1, folios 41, 44; undated invoices from Lux &
Bowly that undoubtedly were supplied during the spring or summer of
1778. Also, vol. 4, folio 476; letter from James Caldwell to Potts
advising "I sent forward from Baltimore a case of medicine & five
cases of Bark ... I have three cases more of Bark not yet up from
Williamsburg where it arrived."
[142] _Ibid._, vol. 4, folio 458; Craigie to Potts, May 1, 1778.
Craigie advises: "Enclosed is a small List directed to Mr. Root
[Israel Root or Josiah Root, both apothecaries from Connecticut] which
I think may well be spared from the Northward, and are much wanted
here. I wish therefore they may be ordered. Andrew Atekin our
assistant there might come with them--he would make a good Hospital
Apothecary." Also, vol. 4, folio 431, an undated "Invoice of Medicines
&c. to be forwared for Head Quarters to Compleat ye Regimental
Assortments for the Army of the United States in the Middle Department
for the Campaign 1778."
[143] _Ibid._, folio 419; Brown to Potts, March 11, 1778.
[144] _Ibid._, folio 458; Craigie to Potts, May 1, 1778.
[145] _Ibid._, folio 428; Cutting to Potts, March 25, 1778. Cutting
notes: "as to volatile salts, I expect a fine parcel manufactured at
Carlisle by tomorrow."
[146] _Ibid._, folio 471; Craik to Potts, May 24, 1778. Dr. Craik, a
regimental surgeon, advises: "I wish you could procure some Cathartic
salts. The Regimental surgeons complain greatly for want of them....
You may engage any quantity at the salt works in the Jersies."
[147] Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 166-167.
[148] Potts Papers, vol. 4, folios 462, 467; Craik to Potts, May 2 and
May 15. On May 2, Craik advises that "the medicine chests are much
wanted in the Regiments. Doctr. Cutting had best have them filled up
as soon as possible to prevent complaints." On May 15 Craik commented:
"I am sorry Doctr. Cutting went away before the Regiment Chests were
finished; there is great clamour about them tho Doctr. Layman is as
busy as possible.... I hope Doctr. Craig[ie] will soon have his chests
ready."
[149] Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 167-168.
[150] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 25, undated.
[151] Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 178, and Duncan, _op. cit._
(footnote 2), pp. 115-116, 275.
[152] Miller, _op. cit._ (footnote 1), pp. 425-477.
[153] An interesting account of the medical aspects of Burgoyne's
campaign is recorded by R. M. Gorssline in _Canadian Defense
Quarterly_, 1929, vol. 6, pp. 356-363.
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes:
The marker for footnote 3 is missing, but it appears to belong after
"of the _Lititz Pharmacopoeia_ of 1778."