WATER CIRCULATION
Circulation of water in explosion-engines is one of the essentials of
their perfect operation. Two special cases are encountered. In the one
the jacket of the engine is supplied with running water; in the other,
reservoirs are employed, the circulation being effected simply by the
difference in specific gravity in a thermo-siphon apparatus. Coolers are
also used.
=Running Water.=--A water-jacket fed from a constant source of running
water, such as the water mains of a town, is certainly productive of the
best results, the supply, moreover, being easily regulated; but the
system is not widely used because the water runs away and is entirely
lost. If running water be employed, the outlet of the jacket is so
disposed that the water gushes out immediately on leaving the cylinder,
and that the flow is visible and accessible, in order that the
temperature may be tested by the hand. Apart from the relatively great
cost of water in towns, the use of running water is objectionable on
account of its chemical composition. Though it may be clear and limpid,
it frequently contains lime salts, carbonates, sulphates, and silicates
which are precipitated by reason of the sudden change of temperature to
which the water is subjected as it comes into contact with the walls of
the cylinder. That part of the water-jacket surrounding the head or
explosion-chamber, where the temperature is necessarily the highest,
becomes literally covered with calcareous incrustations, which are the
more harmful because they are bad conductors of heat and because they
reduce and even obstruct the passage exactly at the point where the
water must circulate most freely to do any good. If the circulating
water be pumped into the jacket, it is preferable, wherever possible, to
use cistern water, which is not likely to contain lime salts in
suspension. If river water be used, it should be free from the
objections already mentioned, which are all the more grave if the water
be muddy, as sometimes happens. The water-jacket can be easily freed
from all non-adhering deposits by flushing it periodically through the
medium of a conveniently placed cock. It is always preferable to pass
the water through a reservoir where its impurities can settle, before it
flows to the cylinder. In the case considered, the water usually has an
average temperature of 54 to 60 degrees F., under which condition the
hourly flow should be at least 5-1/2 gallons per horse-power per hour,
the temperature rising at the outlet-pipe of the cylinder to 140 and 158
degrees F., which should not be surpassed. However, in engines working
with high compression, 104 to 122 degrees F. should not be exceeded.
If the water-jacket be fed by a reservoir, it is essential that the
reservoir comply with the following conditions:
In horizontal engines the water-inlet is always located in the base of
the cylinder, while the outlet is located at the top. By providing the
inlet-pipe extending to the cylinder with a cock, the circulation of
water can be regulated to correspond with the work performed by the
engine. Another cock at the end of the outlet-pipe near the reservoir
serves, in conjunction with the first, to arrest the circulating water.
When the weather is very cold or when the cylinder must be repaired,
these two cocks may be closed, and the pipe and water-jacket of the
cylinder drained by means of the drain-cock _V_ (Fig. 59), mounted at
the inlet of the engine's water-jacket. In order that the pressure of
the atmosphere may not prevent the flowing of the water, the highest
part of the pipe is provided with a small tube, _T_, communicating with
the atmosphere.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Thermo-siphon cooling system.]
On account of the importance of preventing losses of the charge in the
pipes the author recommends the utilization of sluice-valves of the type
shown in Fig. 60, instead of the usual cone or plug type.
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Vanne sluice-cock.]
=Water-Tanks.=--The reservoir is mounted in such a way that its base is
flush with the top of the cylinder; it should be as near as possible to
the cylinder in order to obviate the use of long inlet and return pipes.
This fact, however, does not necessarily render it advisable to place
the reservoir in the engine-room; for such a disposition is doubly
disadvantageous in so far as it does not permit a sufficiently rapid
cooling of the circulating water by reason of the high temperature of
the surrounding air, and in so far as it is liable to cause the
formation of vapors which injuriously affect the engine. Consequently,
the reservoir should be placed in as cool a place as possible,
preferably even in the open air; for the water is not likely to freeze,
except when it has been allowed to stand for a considerable time. The
reservoir should be left uncovered so as to facilitate cooling by the
liberation of the vapors formed on the surface of the water.
Circulation being effected solely by the difference in specific gravity
or density between the warmer water emerging from the cylinder and the
cooler water which flows in from the reservoir, the slightest
obstruction will impede the flow. Hence, the cross-section of the pipes
should not be less than that of the inlet and outlet openings of the
cylinder of the engine. Good circulation cannot be attained if the water
must overcome inclines or obstacles in the pipes themselves. Instead of
elbows, long curves of great radius, limited to the smallest possible
number, should be employed. This is particularly true of the return-pipe
extending from the cylinder back to the reservoir. For this pipe a
minimum incline of 10 to 15 per cent. should be allowed, in order that
the water may run up into the reservoir. The height of the water in the
reservoir should be from 2 to 4 inches above the discharge of the
return-pipe. In order to maintain this level it is advisable to use some
automatic device such as a float-valve, in which case the reservoir
should not be allowed to become too full.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Correct arrangement of tanks and piping.]
The size of a reservoir is determined by the engine; it should be large
enough to enable the engine to run smoothly at its maximum load for
several hours consecutively. Under these conditions, the reservoir
should have a capacity of 45 to 55 gallons per horse-power for engines
with "hit-and-miss" admission, and 55 to 65 gallons for engines
controlled by variable admission. It is not advisable to employ
reservoirs having a capacity of more than 330 to 440 gallons, the usual
diameter being about 3 feet.
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Incorrect arrangement of tanks and piping.]
If the power of the engine be such that several reservoirs are
necessary, then the reservoirs should be connected in such a manner that
the top of the first communicates with the bottom of the next and so
on, the first reservoir receiving the water as it comes from the
cylinder (Fig. 61).
Intercommunication of the reservoirs by means of a common top tube (_a_)
is objectionable; and simultaneous intercommunication at top and bottom
(_a_ and _b_) is ineffective, so far as one of the reservoirs is
concerned (Fig. 62).
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Tanks connected by inclined pipes.]
The reservoirs are true thermo-siphons. Consequently the water should be
methodically circulated; in other words, the hottest water, flowing from
the engine into the top of the first reservoir and having, for example,
a temperature of 104 degrees F., is cooled off to 86 degrees F. and
drops to the bottom of the reservoir, thence to be driven, at a
temperature sensibly equal to 86 degrees F., to the second reservoir,
where a further cooling of 18 degrees F. takes place. In passing on to
the following reservoirs the temperature is still further lowered, until
the water finally reaches its minimum temperature, after which it flows
back to the engine-cylinder.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Circulating pump with by-pass.]
In order to effect this cooling, the reservoirs can be connected in
several ways. The most common method, as shown in Fig. 63, consists in
connecting the reservoirs by oblique pipes. This is open to criticism,
however, since leakage occurs, caused by the employment of elbows which
retard the circulation. A less cumbrous and more efficient method of
connection consists in joining the reservoirs by a single pipe at the
top, as shown in Fig. 61; but care must be taken to extend this pipe at
the point of its entrance into the adjoining reservoir by means of a
downwardly projecting extension, or to fit its discharge-end with a box,
closed by a single partition, open at the bottom.
In order to prevent incrustation of the water-jacket surrounding the
cylinder, a pound of soda per 17 cubic feet of the reservoir capacity is
monthly introduced, and the jacket flushed weekly by a cock conveniently
mounted near the cylinder (Fig. 59). The jacket is thus purged of
calcareous sediments, which are prevented by the soda from adhering to
the metal. The flushing-cock mentioned also serves to drain the
water-jacket of the cylinder in case of intense or persistent cold,
which would certainly freeze the water in the jacket, thereby cracking
the cylinder or the exposed pipes.
In order to regulate the circulation of the water in accordance with the
work performed by the engine, a cock should be fitted to the water
supply pipe at a convenient place.
In engines of large size, driven at full load for long periods, cooling
by natural circulation is often inadequate. In such cases, circulation
is quickened by a small rotary or reciprocating pump, driven from the
engine itself and fitted with a by-pass provided with a cock. This
arrangement permits the renewal of the natural thermo-siphon circulation
in case of accident to the pump (Fig. 64).
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Water-cooler in which tree branches are
employed.]
=Coolers.=--The arrangement which is illustrated in Fig. 65, and which
has the merit of simplicity, will be found of service in cooling the
water. It comprises a tank _B_ surmounted by a set of trays _E_, formed
of frames to which iron rods are secured, spaced 1 to 2 feet apart, so
as to form superimposed series separated by 1-1/2 to 2-1/3 feet. On
these trays bundles of tree branches are placed. The cold water at the
bottom of the tank is forced by the pump _P_i into the water-jacket,
from which it emerges hot, and flows through the pipe _T_, which ends in
a sprinkler _G_, formed of communicating tubes and perforated with a
sufficient number of holes to enable the water to fall upon the trays in
many drops. Thus finely divided, the water falls from one tray to
another, retarded as it descends by the bundles of tree branches. It
finally reaches the tank in a very cold condition and is then ready to
be pumped to the engine. Birch branches are to be preferred on account
of their tenuity.
Great care should be taken to cover the tank with a sheet-metal closure
in order to prevent twigs and foreign bodies from entering and from
being drawn into the pump.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Fan-cooler.]
In the following table the dimensions of an operative apparatus of this
kind are given,--an apparatus, moreover, that may be constructed of wood
or of iron:--
Table Headings--
Column A: Horse-power.
Column B: Volume in cubic ft.
Column C: Base.
Column D: Height.
Column E: Height of tray-base.
Column F: Pump--Capacity in gals. per min.
______________________________________________
| | | |
| | Tank. | |
| |____________________| |
| | | | |
A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F.
_____|_____|_____________|______|______|______
| | | | |
30 | 105 | 4.9' x 4.9' | 4.4' | 6.6' | 16.71
40 | 154 | 5.2' x 5.2' | 5.6' | 7.4' | 18.69
50 | 190 | 5.7' x 5.7' | 6.4' | 8.1' | 21.99
75 | 350 | 6.6' x 6.6' | 8.1' | 9.1' | 35.18
100 | 490 | 7.4' x 7.4' | 9.1' | 9.1' | 43.98
_____|_____|_____________|______|______|______
In order that the water may not drop to one side, the base of the
apparatus should be made 10 to 12 inches less in width than the tank.
The size of these apparatus may be considerably reduced by constructing
them in the form of closed chests, into the bottom of which air maybe
injected by means of fans in order to accelerate cooling (Fig. 66).