[1] Livy, x. 47, 7, _Ep._ 11; Val. Max., I. viii. 2; Strabo, xii. p. 567;
Ovid, _F._, i. 291; _M._, xv. 622; Oros, iii. 22; Lactant., _Inst._,
II. vii. 13; Arnob., vii. 44; Augustin, _C. D._, iii. 17; Aurel.
Vict., _De V. Ill._, 25; Dion., v. 13; Pliny, _N. H._, 29, 16.
[2] Schrader, _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, p. 162.
[3] _Religionsgeschichte_, ii. 203.
[4] Meyer, _Indogermanische Mythen_, ii. p. 612.
[5] Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_^2, iii. p. 2.
[6] Mommsen, _History of Rome_, i. 173.
[7] _Ibid._; _cf._ Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Ianus_.
[8] Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube_, ii. 136.
[9] Wuttke, _Deutscher Volksaberglaube_^2, § 57.
[10] _Ibid._, § 177, 388.
[11] _Ibid._, § 395; _cf._ Pliny, _N. H._, 28, 86.
[12] Marquardt, iii. 6.
[13] De la Saussaye, ii. 203.
[14] Marquardt, p. 7.
[15] De la Saussaye, i. 53.
[16] Marquardt, p. 6.
[17] _Folk-Lore_, vol. ii. p. 235.
[18] Marquardt, p. 25.
[19] "Chez les Chinois _Ti_ est bien et uniquement la terre ... qui n'a
aucun personalité, aucun aspect anthropologique."—De Rialle,
_Mythologie Comparée_, i. 235. As in Rome, so in China, though the
sky advanced to the rank of a spirit, the earth remained a fetich.
[20] Preller, _R. M._, i. 1 and 2, points out that Italian mythology is
"quite different" from the Greek; that it is only in "a certain
sense" that there can be said to be a Roman mythology; that it is a
very different thing from Greek, Hindoo, Persian, Teutonic, and
Scandinavian mythology; that the Romans had not advanced far in
personifying and individualising their gods, and consequently could
not develop much mythology. Finally, Italian religion was "far less
widely removed" from the primitive Aryan belief than Greek religion
and mythology were.
[21] Livy, ii. 21; Dion., vi. i.
[22] Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, i. 482 _ff._
[23] According to Schwegler, _Röm. Gesch._, i. 354-383, Εὔανδρος is simply
Greek for _Faunus_ = _Favinus_, "the benevolent" or "good" god. _Cf._
Fauna = Bona Dea.
[24] "Rapi ... similatur virgo ex gremio matris ... cum ad virum trahitur,
quod videlicet ea res feliciter Romulo cessit."—Festus, s.v. _rapi_.
[25] _E.g._, among the Esthonians, Finns, Wotjaks, Mordwins, Vedic
Hindoos, and Bohemians.
[26] For the use of the sword, axe, or dagger to keep off evil spirits
from a wedding, see Schroeder, _Hochzeitsbräuche der Ester_, 99-102.
[27] For the sacredness of the head especially, see the _Golden Bough_, i.
187-193.
[28] The myth, as given by Plutarch, is to be found also in Livy, i. 9;
Serv. ad Æn., vi. 55; and in Varro, quoted by Festus, p. 351. The
word occurs in Martial, i. 35. 6 and 7; iii. 93. 25; xii. 42. 4, 95.
5 (Friedländer says nothing), and Catullus, lxi. 134 (Robinson Ellis
has nothing to say).
[29] Hartley, _Science of Fairy Tales_, pp. 279-281, for examples. The
tale of Servius is also told by Ovid, _F._, vi. 577.
[30] It is interesting to note that two hundred years ago Boxhorn, in
commenting on this passage of Plutarch, laid down a fundamental
proposition of the science of folk-lore:—"Mortales cum inquirerent in
caussas rerum, nec invenirent, pro libitu suo verisimiles sunt
commenti. Sic ut fabulæ proponerentur tanquam caussæ rerum, cum res
ipsæ essent causeæ fabularum." See his edition of the _Roman
Questions_, printed in vol. v. of the _Thesaurus_ of Grævius (Lugd.,
Batavor, 1696).
[31] _Ethnology in Folk-Lore_, pp. 120 _ff._ Mr. Gomme, however, argues
that the fear of dead kindred was borrowed by the Aryans from the
non-Aryan inhabitants of Europe. But why may not the pro-ethnic
Aryans, as well as other savages, have had, at one stage of their
development, a fear of dead kindred?
[32] My authorities for the customs quoted in the next few pages are
(unless special references are given) Wuttke, _Deutsche
Volksaberglaube_, §§ 725-756; Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und
Brauch_, ii. pp. 170-173; and De Rialle, _Mythologie Comparée_, i. p.
125.
[33] Weinhold, _Altnord. Leben_, 476.
[34] The Lares are thus represented on a coin of the gens Cæsia. See
Cohen, _Méd. Cons._, pl. viii, _Cæsia_.
[35] Ovid, _F._, v. 129-147.
[36] De la Saussaye, _Religionsgeschichte_, i. 281.
[37] Wuttke, § 755.
[38] Waldron's _Isle of Man_, p. 103.
[39] _Encyc. Britan._, art. "Sacrifice."
[40] Frazer, _G. B._, i. 239.
[41] _Daoine Shie_ or _Sluagh Maith_.
[42] Frazer, i. 122.
[43] De Rialle, i. 190.
[44] See _The Secret Commonwealth_ by Mr. Robert Kirk, Minister of
Aberfoyle, 1691.
[45] See Saupe's edition of the _Indiculus_, p. 9.
[46] Servius on Georg., i. 302, and Prudent, _c. Symm._, ii. 444.
[47] Frazer, ii. 332.
[48] Preller, _R. M._^3, ii. 198.
[49] Cic. _de Div._, i. 18, 36; Plut. _Ti. Gracch._, i. A similar story is
related of D. Laelius, _Jul. Op. seq._ 58.
[50] _H. N._, xxix. 72.
[51] _C. I. L._, i. 603.
[52] We have no direct evidence of this, but we may infer it from the
analogous case of Dius Fidius:—"Qui per Dium Fidium iurare vult,
prodire solet in compluvium."—Non. Marc., p. 494, quoting Varro. The
temples of Dius Fidius had a hole specially made in the roof
("perforatum tectum," Varro, _L. L._ v. 66), under which one might
swear. Probably the temples of Hercules were similarly provided;
certainly those of Terminus were ("exiguum templi tecta foramen
habent."—Ov. _F._ ii. 672).
[53] Reifferscheid, in the _Annali dell' Instituto_ for 1867, p. 352
_ff._, identifies Hercules with the _genius Jovis_. But, in the first
place, this seems to me the wrong inference from his own facts, which
all have exclusively to do with the _genii virorum_. Next, the
_genius Jovis_ is not known before B.C. 58. Schwegler, before
Reifferscheid, noticed that in Gellius, xi. 6. 1, "der römische
Hercules erscheint als identisch mit dem genius der Männer."—_R. G._,
i. 367 _n._
[54] Roscher's arguments to show that Juno is the moon are not
satisfactory. He assumes without proof that Juno was always Lucina
(whereas Lucina was an independent spirit worshipped in woods,
_Lexikon_, pp. 583 and 602), that Lucina was the moon (whereas she is
the spirit that brings children to light, and is not = Luna), that
the Italians connected the moon with child-birth (which, as Birt
says, lacks proof), that the name _Juno_ indicates a light-giving
deity (whereas, though from the root *Div, it does not imply the
giving of light any more than _deus_ does, which is applied to the
_di manes_, the _di indigetes_, _dea bona_, _dea dia_, &c.). The
arguments drawn by Roscher from works of art are untrustworthy,
because borrowing is specially probable in their case. Finally, the
hypothesis of a Græco-Italian period, on which Roscher relies to
prove that Juno = Hera = the moon, is now discredited.
[55] In B.C. 361 an Aius Locutius was produced (Liv. v. 32. 6, 50. 6, 52.
11); in 211 a Rediculus Tutanus (Festus s.v.); in or after 269 a
spirit of silver coin, Argentinus (August., _C. D._ iv. 21 and 28);
but no spirit was forthcoming for gold coin, which was first struck
in B.C. 217. See further Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. _Indigitamenta_.
[56] So called "quod marem effuso semine liberat."—Augustin, _C. D._ vii.
2.
[57] Finally, with regard to _Matuta_, the very remarkable fact recorded
in _Romane Questions_, 17, that people prayed to her not for any
blessings to their own children, but for their nephews only
(brothers' or sisters' children), immediately suggests that we have
here an indication that the Nair type of family was once known in
Italy. But the indication, being isolated, has perhaps not much
value.
[58] She occurs in the following series:—Fluvionia, Mena, Vitumnus,
Sentinus, Alemona, Nova, Decima, Partula, Carmenta, Lucina, for which
see S. August., _C. D._ vii. 3; Tertull., _De An._ 37, and _Ad Nat._
ii. 11.
[59] Liv. v. 47; Dion. Hal. i. 32; Serv. on Æn. viii. 337; W. Becker,
_Handb. d. röm. Altert._, i. 137.
[60] Derived probably from Varro, _R. R._ II. xi. 5.
[61] Livy, i. 45. 3; Dionys., iv. 25; Aur. Vict., _De Vir. Ill._, vii. 9.
[62] As Preller does, _R. M._^3, i. 313.
[63] _e.g._, _C. I. L._ vi. 656, 658, &c.
[64] _C. I. L._, vii. 451.
[65] Grimm, _D. M._^4, iii. 104; _cf._ Gummere, _Germanic Origins_, 383.
"Special influence over cattle is ascribed to wood-spirits" (_Golden
Bough_, i. 105).
[66] Gummere, p. 387; _cf._ Bugge, _Studien_, p. 393 _ff._
[67] _Golden Bough_, i. 187 _ff._
[68] _Ibid._, 188. The date of the rite was 13th August; _cf._ Auson., _De
Fer. Rom._, 6; Martial, 12, 67, 2. The asylum for runaway slaves
afforded by the temple finds a folk-lore explanation in a
folk-etymology. "Ædem Dianæ dedicaverit in Aventino, cuius tutelæ
sint cervi, a quo celeritate fugitivos vocent cervos" (Festus, p.
343^a, 7, s.v. _Servorum dies_). Birt (Roscher's _Lexikon_, i. 1008)
seems to take this explanation seriously; but the temple on the
Aventine was precisely the temple in which the goddess of _cervi_ was
not worshipped. Possibly the right of asylum was conferred on the
temple as part of the political changes brought about by the
formation of the Latin confederacy, for this temple was the religious
centre of the Latin alliance, "Commune Latinorum Dianæ templum"
(Varro, _L. L._ v. 43). Hence, then, the folk-story that Servius
Tullius, "natus servus" (Festus, _l.c._), built the temple and gave
it the right of asylum.
[69] For the full list see Marquardt, 328-331.
[70] _Golden Bough_, i. 37 _ff._
[71] _Ibid._, i. 39.
[72] _Golden Bough_, ch. ii.
[73] _Röm. Mythol._^3, i. 201.
[74] Kæmpfer, _History of Japan_, quoted by Mr. Frazer, i. 110.
[75] Kæmpfer, _History of Japan_, quoted by Mr. Fraser, i. 110.
[76] With _Q. R._, 111, _cf._ _Golden Bough_, i. 207; with _Q. R._, 112,
_cf._ _G. B._, i. 183; and generally see i. 117.
[77] _G. B._, i. 130.
[78] For instances see Hartland, _Science of Fairy Tales_, pp. 272-274.
[79] Momms., _R. H._, i. 25.
[80] _Ibid._, i. 60.
[81] _G. B._, i. 170. I may point out that in some parts of Europe these
taboos still survive. For six weeks after delivery, the young mother
is forbidden to enter a strange house, or go shopping, or draw water
from a well, or walk over a sowed field (Grimm, _D. M._^4, iii. pp.
435, 464, Nos. 35, 844, 845). The Esthonians also regard a new-born
child as tabooed, and indirect contact with it as dangerous (_Ibid._,
p. 488, No. 28). For the death-dealing qualities of women, _cf._
Burchard von Worms, _Samlung der Decrete_, Coln, 1548, p. 201_a_
(quoted by Grimm, iii. 410). Amongst the Eskimo, as amongst the
Germans, the young mother is forbidden to leave the house for six
weeks (Reclus, _Primitive Folk_, 36); she is also tabooed by the
Badagas of the Neilgherrie Hills (_Ibid._, 192).
[82] Hartland, _S. of F. T._, p. 93 _ff._ for instances.
[83] "Make of it an image in his likeness (_i.e._, of Namtar, the plague);
apply (the image) to the living flesh of his body (_i.e._, of the
sick man). May the malevolent Namtar who possesses him pass into the
image" (Lenormant, _Chaldæan Magic_, p. 51). The Buddhists of Ceylon
cure disease in exactly the same way (J. Roberts, _Oriental
Illustrations of Scripture_, p. 171).
[84] _Cf._ C. F. Gordon Cumming, _Two Happy Years in Ceylon_, i. p. 278,
"The astrologer is called in to preside at baby's 'rice feast,' when
some grains of rice are first placed in its month. He selects for the
little one a name which is compounded from the name of the ruling
planet of that moment. This name he tells only to the father, who
whispers it low in baby's ear—no one else must know it, and, like the
Chinese 'infantile name,' this 'rice name' is never used lest
sorcerers should hear it and be able to work malignant spells."
[85] For instances see _Folk Lore_, iii. 137. The Romans themselves
fettered the image of Saturnus (Macrob., i. 8. 5; Stat. Silv., i. 6.
4; Arnob., iv. 24; Minuc. Fel., c. 22. 5).
[86] _Chemnitzer Rockenphilosophie_, 16 and 325 (Grimm, _D. M._^4, iii.
435 and 445).
[87] The classical references are: Festus, p. 143 and 385; Dionys., i. 38;
Ov., _F._, i. 56, iii. 791, v. 62 _ff._; Varro, _L. L._, vii. 44;
Paul. Diac., p. 15; Lact, I. i. 21. 6; Macrob., i. 5. 10, and 11. 47;
Prudent. _C. Symmach._, ii. 295; Cicero _pro Roscio Am._, 35. 100;
Catull., xvii. 8. 23; Non. Marc., p. 358b.; Liv. i. 21, iv. 12. The
modern literature: first and foremost and final, Mannhardt, _Wald-
und Feldkulte_, p. 265 _ff._, whose explanation is adopted in
Roscher's _Lexikon_; further, Preller, _Röm. M._^3, ii. 135 _ff._;
Marquardt, 190 _ff._; Grimm, _D. M._, 733, _n._ 4. The meaning of the
word _Argei_ has received no satisfactory explanation yet. The number
of the images is accounted for by the fact that each of the
twenty-four quarters of ancient Rome required rain for its crops.
[88] See _Rhein. Museum_, 1867, p. 129.
[89] Macrob., i. 10, 11 _ff._; Gell., _N. A._, vii. (vi.) 7; Plut.,
_Rom._, 4. 5; Lactant., i. 20. 5.
[90] "Exuuntur etiam vestibus populo flagitante meretrices, quæ tunc
(_i.e._, at the Floralia) mimarum funguntur officio" (Lact. _l.c._).
_Cf._ Val. Max., 2. 10. 8; Senec., _Ep._, 97. 7; Mart., 1 _præf._;
Ov., _F._, iv. 946, v. 183; Tertull., _De Spect._, 17; Min. Felix,
25. 8; Augustin, _C. D._, ii. 27.
[91] The Arval Brothers wore a harvest-crown, _vittis spiceis coronati_,
_C. I. L._, vi. 2104^a 16. They preserved a sheaf of corn (corn-baby,
mother, &c.) from the previous year's harvest; this is the _fruges
aridas_ of _C. I. L._, _l.c._ 6. They consecrated the old corn, the
green corn of the new year, and a loaf, _fruges aridas et virides
contigerunt et panes laureatos_, l.c.; and they sacramentally "ate
the god," _fruges libatas_.
[92] Mommsen, _Die echte und die falsche Acca Larentia_, 3 A. 3.
[93] Jordan, _Krit. Beitr._, 75, compares Italian _atta_, "mother" and
Greek ἀκκώ?
[94] "E nos Lases iuvate" = Age nos, Lares, iuvate.
[95] The classical references on this subject of beans are: Diog. Laert.,
viii. 24 and 34 (quoting Aristotle, ἤτοι ὅτι αἰδοίοις εἰσὶν ὅμοιοι),
Gellius, N. A., iv. 11; Cic., _de Div._, i. 30, ii. 58; Pliny _N.
H._, xviii. 12; Didymus in Geopon., ii. 58; Sext. Emp., _Pyrrh.
Hyp._, iii. 224; Iambl., _Vit. Pyth._, 109 and _Protrept. extr.
Symb._, 37; Anon. (e. Photio), _Vit. Pyth._, 7; Pseudo-Orig., Philos.
ii.; Apollon. Dysc., _Mirab. Hist._, c. 46; Eudocia, p. 368; Suidas,
_s. v._ Συμβ. Πυθαγ..; Eustath., _N._, p. 948.
[96] For its meaning as a symbol, see Westropp, _Primitive Symbolism_, p.
28.
[97] _R. Q._, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 29, 30, 31, 65, 86, 87, 105, 108.
[98] The custom is also testified to by Serv. on Virg., _Ecl._, viii. 29;
Isid., _Orig._, ix. 8; Plaut., _Cas._, IV. iv. 1; Catull., lxi. 159;
Lucan, _Phars._, ii. 358.
[99] _Ueber die römische Ehe_, p. 360.
[100] Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Hochzeitsbuch_, p. 57.
[101] _Ibid._, 84.
[102] _Ibid._, 251.
[103] Weinhold, _Die deutschen Frauen_^2, i. 410.
[104] Haas in Weber's _Ind. Stud._, v. 324, 359, 373.
[105] V. Schroeder, _Hochzeitsbräuche der Esten_, pp. 88 _ff._
[106] Plutarch, _R. Q._, 31. _Cf._ Festus, "In pelle lanata nova nupta
considere solet."
[107] Serv. ad Æn., iv. 374.
[108] Διὸς κῴδιον, Suidas, s.v.
[109] De Witte, _Descr. des Antiq. de l'Hôtel Lambert_, p. 68, pl. 22
(reproduced in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dict._, s.v., and in Duruy,
_Hist. des Grecs_, i. 786). The right interpretation of this scene
was first given by Lenormant, _Contemporary Review_, 1880, p. 137.
[110] The Roman, at this crisis of his personal history, placed himself
under the protection of a series of Di Indigetes, _e.g._, Subigus,
Prema, Pertunda (S. August., _C. D._, vi. 9).
[111] The Latin phrase is "Aqua et igni accipi." The custom is testified to
by _Dion. Hal._, ii. 30; Varro, _L. L._, v. 61; Serv. ad _Æn._, iv.
167; Ov., _F._, iv. 787; Fest. s.v. Scæv., _Dig._, 24. 1. 66; Stat.,
_Silv._ I. ii. 3; Val. Fl., _Argon._, viii. 244.
[112] Weinhold, i. 375 and 408.
[113] Schrœder, 128 _ff._
[114] Reinsb.-Düringsfeld, 84.
[115] "Aqua aspergebatur nova nupta," s.v. Facem in nuptiis.
[116] Reinsb.-Düringsfeld, 59.
[117] Haas, 358.
[118] Reinsb.-Düringsfeld, 73.
[119] _Ibid._, 92.
[120] _Ibid._, 63.
[121] _Ibid._, 59.
[122] Cat., lxi, 81-86, 110, 119; Claud., _Fescenn._, 106; _De Rapt.
Pros._, ii. 335.
[123] Haas, 327.
[124] Schrœder, 87.
[125] F. B. Jevons, _Kin and Custom_, in the "Journal of Philology," xvi.
pp. 87 _ff._
[126] Moore, _Indian Appeals_, ii. 75.
[127] For which see _R. Q._ 6.
[128] In Chambers's _Encyclopædia_, s.v. "Family."
[129] In Chambers's _Encylopædia_, s.v. "Names."
[130] This custom also crops out in fairy tales. See Mr. J. Jacob's _Indian
Fairy Tales_, p. 28.
[131] Or, nuptiall.
[132] Daughters husband.
[133] Wives father.
[134] This may seeme to have some reference to the former question.
[135] Κρόνος.
[136] Χρόνος.
[137] Or Matuta.
[138] By _Prolepsis_, meaning the place where afterwards Rome stood.
[139] Or Phaulius.
[140] That is to say, _Kalends_, _Nones_, & _Ides_.
[141] ἔπέτειον οἰνον, or, a certeine quantitie of wine yeerely, as some
interpret it.
[142] χρηστοὺς.
[143] μηδένα χρηστὸν
[144] ἀριστερὸς, sinistra.
[145] I suspect this place to be corrupt in the originall.
[146] Or about a dog by the Hippocoontides.
[147] Or, feele paine: alluding haply _Ad rupturam Hymenis_.
[148] Or take delight and pleasure.
[149] σάρον.