MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY
A Complete Guide
IN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING
BIRDS AND MAMMALS
BY C. J. MAYNARD
_ILLUSTRATED_
BOSTON
S. E. CASSINO AND COMPANY
1883
_Copyright,
BY S. E. CASSINO & CO.
1883._
ELECTROTYPED.
BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY,
NO. 4 PEARL STREET.
INTRODUCTION.
Twenty-five or thirty years ago amateur collectors of birds were
rare; in fact, excepting in the immediate vicinity of large cities,
individuals who spent their leisure time in gathering birds for the
sole purpose of study, were so seldom met with that, when one did
occur, his occupation was so unusual as to excite the comments of his
neighbors, and he became famous for miles around as highly eccentric.
Such a man was regarded as harmless, but as just a little "cracked,"
and the lower classes gazed at him with open-mouthed wonder as he
pursued his avocations; while the more educated of his fellows regarded
him with a kind of placid contempt. I am speaking now of the days
when the ornithology of America was, so to speak, in obscurity; for
the brilliant meteor-light of the Wilsonian and Audubonian period
had passed, and the great public quickly forgot that the birds and
their ways had ever been first in the minds of any one. To be sure,
men like Cassin, Lawrence, Baird, and Bryant were constantly writing
of birds, but they did it in a quiet, scientific way, which did not
reach the general public. Possibly the political troubles in which our
country was involved had something to do with the great ornithological
depression which fell upon the popular mind. Strange as it may appear,
however, for a period of thirty years after the completion of Audubon's
great work, not a general popular work of any kind was written on birds
in America. Then appeared Samuels' "Birds of New England," published
in 1867, a work which apparently did much toward turning the popular
tide in favor of ornithological study, for from that time we can
perceive a general awakening. Not only did the newspapers and magazines
teem with articles on birds, but in the five succeeding years we find
three important works on American ornithology announced as about to
appear: Baird, Brewer, and Ridgeway's "History of American Birds,"
of which three volumes have appeared, published in 1874; Maynard's
"Birds of Florida," issued in parts, but afterwards merged into the
"Birds of Eastern North America," completed in 1882, and Coues' "Key,"
published in 1872. Other works quickly followed, for now the popular
ornithological tide was setting strongly towards the flood, and it
has ever since been rushing on and gathering recruits as it goes,
until the tidal wave of popular favor for ornithological pursuits has
reached from shore to shore across our great continent; and where there
were once only a few solitary devotees to this grand science, we can
number thousands, and still they come; so that high-water mark is not
yet reached, while to all appearances this tidal-wave will agitate the
coming generation more strongly than it does the present.
Of all the vast numbers interested in the study of bird life, there are
few who do not gather specimens. Years ago, in the beginning of the
study, when the solitary naturalist had no one to sympathize with him
in his pursuits, birds' skins were usually made in what we would now
consider a shocking manner. Within the last fifteen years, however,
since ornithologists have become more numerous, and the opportunities
of comparison of workmanship in preserving specimens has been
facilitated, great improvements are seen. Slovenly prepared collections
are now far from desirable; in fact, even rare specimens lose much of
their value when poorly made up. When there are enough experienced
collectors in one locality to compare notes as to the various
improvements each has made in skin-making and mounting birds, one
aids the other; but there is always a multitude of beginners who live
in isolated localities and who do not number experienced collectors
among their friends, and who consequently require the aid of written
instructions. Hence the need of books to teach them.
This little work, then, is intended to meet the wants of amateur
ornithological collectors, wherever it may find them, for it is written
by one who has at least had the advantage of a very wide experience in
collecting skins, making and mounting. He has also had the advantage
of comparing his methods with those of many excellent amateurs and
professional collectors throughout the country; and if he has not
conferred any benefits on them, he has at least gained much useful
information, and the results of all this are now laid before the reader.
The art of taxidermy is very ancient, and doubtless had its origin
among the very early races of man, who not only removed the skins of
birds and mammals for clothing, but also for ornaments. Birds and
mammals were also frequently regarded as objects of worship, and
consequently preserved after death, as among the ancient Egyptians,
who embalmed entire birds and mammals that were considered sacred.
From the rude methods of preserving skins, doubtless, arose the idea
of mounting, or placing the skins in lifelike attitudes. The first
objects selected for this purpose were, of course, birds and mammals
of singular forms or brilliant colors, as objects of curiosity. Later
specimens would have been preserved for ornamental purposes, but it
is probable that it was not until the seventeenth century that either
birds or mammals were collected with any idea of their scientific value.
Specimens either mounted or in skins must have been rudely preserved
at first, but, like all other branches of art and science, when people
began to understand the value of well-made specimens when compared with
those poorly done, workmen who became skilled in their art appeared and
turned out good work. The art of making good skins, however, never was
understood in this country, at least until within the last fifteen or
twenty years, and even now it is rare to find good workmen who can make
skins well and rapidly.
As is natural, many methods have been practiced to insure lifelike
attitudes in birds and other objects of natural history. A good
opportunity of studying the various schools of mounting may be seen
among the specimens of a large museum, where material is gathered from
various localities throughout the world. I have seen birds filled with
many varieties of material, from cotton to plaster, and have even seen
cases where the skin is drawn over a block of wood carved to imitate
the body removed.
As a rule, I prefer the soft body filling, where all the wires are
fastened together in the centre of the inside of the skin, and cotton,
or some similar elastic material, filled in around it. This method
is, however, very difficult to learn, and, unless one has had a large
experience in handling birds, will not give satisfactory results. I
have therefore recommended the hard body method, as given in the text,
as being the best, as it is more easily learned and always gives the
best results in the hands of amateurs.
In skin-making, although I have given two methods, making in the form
and wrapping, I prefer the latter, as being by far the best, although
it is not as easy to learn.
Mounting mammals and reptiles and making their skins also varies as
given by different individuals, but I have given the method by which I
have found, by experience, amateurs succeed the best.
Some may consider the information given in the following pages, too
meagre for practical purposes, but I have purposely avoided giving
lengthy instructions, considering a few well-worded sentences much
better, as expressing much more clearly the ideas I wish to convey. In
short, the reader has the condensed results of my extended experience,
and if he will follow with care and patience the instructions herein
given, I am sure that he will obtain satisfactory results from his
labor.
I have endeavored to inculcate the idea in the following pages that he
who wishes to be a successful taxidermist cannot accomplish his end
without the utmost care; he must exercise patience and perseverance
to the extreme; difficulties will arise, but he must overcome them by
severe application to the study of his art, and, as years pass by,
experience will teach him much that he never knew before. I have been
assured many times, by men who are now skilful workmen, that their
first ideas of preserving specimens were divined from my "Naturalist's
Guide." Thus I trust the present little work may aid others who are
entering the fairy land of science, to prepare lasting mementoes
gathered by the way.
C. J. MAYNARD.
BOSTON, MASS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
INTRODUCTION
PART I.--BIRDS.
CHAPTER I.--COLLECTING 1
Section I. Trapping, etc. Section II. Shooting. Section
III. Procuring Birds. Section IV. Care of Specimens.
CHAPTER II.--SKINNING BIRDS 33
Section I. Ordinary Method. Section II. Exceptions to the
usual Method of Skinning. Section III. Ascertaining the
Sex of Birds. Section IV. Preserving Skins. Section V.
Other Methods of Preserving Skins.
CHAPTER III.--MAKING SKINS 49
Section I. Cleaning Feathers. Section II. Making Skins
of Small Birds. Section III. Making Skins of Long-necked
Birds. Section IV: Making Skins of Herons, Ibises, etc.
Section V. Hawks, Owls, Eagles, Vultures, etc. Section
VI. Labelling Specimens. Section VII. Care of Skins,
Cabinets, etc. Section VIII. Measuring Specimens.
Section IX. Making Over Old Skins.
CHAPTER IV.--MOUNTING BIRDS 64
Section I. Instruments. Section II. Mounting from Fresh
Specimens. Section III. Crested Birds. Section IV.
Mounting with Wings Spread. Section V. Mounting Birds
for Screens, etc. Section VI. Mounting Dried Skins.
Section VII. Prices for Mounting Birds. Section VIII.
Panel Work.--Game Pieces, etc.
CHAPTER V.--MAKING STANDS 81
Section I. Plain Stands. Section II. Ornamental Stands.
PART II.--MAMMALS, REPTILES, ETC.
CHAPTER VI.--COLLECTING MAMMALS 84
CHAPTER VII.--MAKING SKINS OF MAMMALS 86
Section I. Skinning Small Mammals. Section II. Skinning
Large Mammals. Section III. Making Skins of Mammals.
Section IV. Measuring Mammals.
CHAPTER VIII.--MOUNTING MAMMALS 90
Section I. Small Mammals. Section II. Large Mammals.
Section III. Mounting Dried Skins of Mammals. Section
IV. Mounting Mammals without any bones.
CHAPTER IX.--MOUNTING REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES 97
Section I. Mounting Lizards, Alligators, etc. Section
II. Mounting Turtles. Section III. Mounting Fishes.
LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
FIG. 1.--PAGE 2.
Sieve trap: B, common coal sieve, set with one edge raised by stick
A, to which is attached the string C, one end of which is held by the
bird-catcher at a distance. When the bird, attracted by the bait, goes
under the sieve, the stick is jerked out and the sieve falls.
FIG. 2.--PAGE 3.
Ever-ready bird-trap: D, body of trap made of netting F and A, hoops
supporting netting. A, ring to which are attached the wires C, which
point backwards. The bait is placed within the body of the trap and
scattered through the ring B. Then the bird enters at the entrance A,
goes through the ring B, so on past the wires C, which are arranged in
a circle to prevent his egress. The bird is removed through an orifice
in the back, drawn together with a string at F.
FIG. 3.--PAGE 33.
Skinning-knife: The handle of this knife should be round, and the blade
does not close.
FIG. 4.--PAGE 37.
Skull of bird (side view): Dotted line from A to B shows cut to be made
in removing back of skull to give access to brain.
FIG. 5.--PAGE 37.
Skull of bird, under side: Dotted lines A, A, A, show cuts to be made
in removing a triangular piece of bone and muscle, to which the whole
or a portion of the brain will adhere.
FIG. 6.--PAGE 42.
Dissection of a song sparrow, showing male organs of reproduction: 1
and 2, lungs; 3, 3, testicles. The four organs below these are the
kidneys.
FIG. 7.--PAGE 43.
Dissection of a song sparrow, showing female organs of reproduction: 4,
lungs; 1, 1, small yellow glands, present in both sexes; 2, ovaries; 3,
oviduct. These last four figures are merely diagrams, only sufficiently
accurate in outline to convey an idea of the position of the parts
indicated.
FIG. 8.--PAGE 50.
Tweezers for making skins, mounting, etc.: Several sizes are used, but
as a rule the points should be longer than those given in the cut.
FIG. 9.--PAGE 51.
Drying forms fastened to a board, D, skin in the form. I now use these
forms detached. See text. Also, see page 54 for a better method of
making skins which I now practise.
FIG. 10.--PAGE 54.
Form of a skin of an oriole: I now use the long label given on page 58.
A skin should not be made too full; a dead bird laid on its back will
convey an idea of the thickness of the body of a skin.
FIG. 11.--PAGE 64.
Straight-nosed pliers: Used for bending wires in mounting.
FIG. 12.--PAGE 64.
Cutting-pliers: Used for cutting wires in mounting.
FIG. 13.--PAGE 66.
Body of a bird: E, neck-wire, which should be as long as the neck and
tongue in order to reach into the upper mandible. This wire should be
wrapped in cotton. B, wire before clinching; G, C, wire clinched; F,
tail wire bent in the form of a T at H, a leg wire going through tarsus
along dotted line to D.
FIG. 14.--PAGE 67.
Roughly-drawn skeleton of a pinnated grouse, only sufficiently accurate
to indicate the different bones: A, skull; B, B, B, vertebræ; furcula
of neck and back, or wishing-bone; D, forearm; F, carpus, showing
hollow in bone through which the wire is to be passed in wiring the
wing; G, end of furcula; H, tip of keel; I, indentations in posterior
border of stemma; J, femur; K, tarsus; L, heel; M, pelvis; N, cocyx; O,
crest of keel; P, side of keel; X, wire used in mounting skeleton; A,
B, ribs.
FIG. 15.--PAGE 69.
Outline figure of grouse showing external parts: A, back; B, rump; C,
upper tail coverts; D, under tail coverts; E, ventral region; F, tibra;
G, tarsus; H, breast; I, side; J, throat; N, chin; L, abdomen; M, feet.
FIG. 16.--PAGE 73.
Outline drawing of a mounted bird: A, A, dotted line to indicate the
relative position of the head and body, with the perch on which the
bird stands; B, B, winding cotton to keep the feathers in position; C,
C, indicating proper position of wings; D, tail feathers "plated." I
do not now recommend this method. E, E, tail bearing wire; F, upright
of gland; H, horizontal bar of stand; I, feet of bird on stand; S,
leg-wire wrapped around bar after emerging from foot.
FIG. 17.--PAGE 92.
Lower portion of bolt used in mounting large mammals: A, movable nut on
screw C; B, immovable flat washer.
MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY.
PART I.--BIRDS.
CHAPTER I.
COLLECTING.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
SECTION I.: TRAPPING, ETC.--Several devices for securing birds for
specimens may be successfully practised, one of the simplest of which
is the box-trap, so familiar to every schoolboy. If this be baited with
an ear of corn and placed in woods frequented by jays, when the ground
is covered with snow, and a few kernels of corn scattered about, as an
attraction, these usually wary birds will not fail to enter the trap.
I have captured numbers in this way, in fact, the first bird which I
ever skinned and mounted, was a blue jay, caught in a box-trap. I was
only a small boy then, so I do not now remember what first suggested
mounting the bird, but the inherent desire to preserve the specimen
must have been fully as strong then as in later years, or I never could
have brought myself to the point of killing a bird in cold blood. In
fact, putting the bird to death is the worst of trapping; and with
me, unless I do it at once, during the first excitement of finding the
bird entrapped, the deed is likely never to be done at all. Sparrows,
snow-buntings, and in fact nearly all birds of this class may be
caught in box-traps in winter. For these small birds, scatter chaff
over the snow so thickly as to conceal it, then use a spindle upon
which canary-seed has been glued, for bait, scattering some of the
seed outside. Other traps, however, may be used more successfully for
fringilline birds. For example, the clap-net trap, where two wings,
covered with a net, close over the birds, which are attracted by seeds
strewn in chaff, scattered in the snow. This trap, which is similar
to those used by wild-pigeon catchers, is sprung by means of a long
cord, the end of which is in the hands of a person who is concealed in
a neighboring thicket or artificial bower. A very simple trap, but
excellent for catching sparrows, may be made by tilting a common coal
sieve on one edge, keeping it up by means of a stick which has a cord
attached to the middle (see Fig. 1). The birds will readily go under
the sieve, in search of food, when the trapper, who is concealed at a
short distance, jerks out the stick by means of the cord; the sieve
falls and the birds are captured. This trap requires constant watching,
which, in cold days, is not very pleasant; thus a much better trap may
be found in one of my own inventions, which is called the "Ever-ready
Bird Trap." It is made of strong netting stretched over wire, and is
placed on the ground or on a board in a tree. A decoy bird, of the
same species as those to be captured, is procured if possible, and
placed in the back of the trap at Fig. 2, and then the birds enter the
front of the trap, B; pass through the way of wires, C, which pointing
backward after the manner of the well-known rat-trap, prevent their
egress. This trap is constantly set, and several birds are captured at
one time. Orioles, bobolinks, rose-breasted grosbeaks, goldfinches,
snow-buntings, all other sparrows and finches, in fact, all birds which
will come to a decoy or bait, may be taken in this trap.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
I have frequently taken jays in small snares similar to those used
in capturing rabbits. Quail and ruffed grouse were also taken in
this manner before the present time, but it is now illegal to trap
game-birds in nearly all the States.
The steel trap of the smallest size is exceedingly useful in capturing
hawks, owls, and even eagles, as well as many other large birds. One
way is to set it in the nest of the bird, first taking care to remove
the eggs, substituting for them those of a hen. Almost all large birds
may be taken in this manner, and it is an excellent way to identify
the eggs in case of some rare hawks or herons. The topmost portion of
some dead stub, which is a favorite roost of a hawk or eagle, is a
good place to set a trap; and small hawks and owls may be captured
by putting the trap on the top of a stake, some eight or ten feet
high, in a meadow, especially if there are no fences near. Hawks and
owls haunt meadows in search of mice, and invariably light upon a
solitary stake, if they can find one, in order to eat their prey or to
rest, and thus are very apt to put their "foot into it," in a manner
decidedly agreeable to the collector, if not so pleasing to themselves.
Steel-traps may also be set on boards nailed to trees, in the woods
or on hill-tops, but they should in this case be baited with a small
mammal or bird. I have succeeded in capturing marsh hawks by tying a
living mouse to a steel-trap, and placing it in a meadow which was
frequented by these birds. Other hawks and also eagles may be captured
by using decoys; the best thing for this purpose being, strangely
enough, a live great horned owl. The owl is fastened to a stout stake
in an open field or meadow during the migration of hawks, in the spring
or fall, and surrounded by baited traps. The hawks passing over are
attracted by the novel spectacle of an owl in such a peculiar position
and come swooping down for a nearer view, when they perceive the bait,
and in trying to eat it are caught. A hawk or eagle may be used in this
way as a decoy, but the great horned owl is by far the best.
In using steel traps, care should be taken to wrap the jaws with cloth,
so as to prevent injury to the legs of the bird captured. Vultures may
be taken in steel traps by simply baiting them with any kind of flesh.
Many species of birds may be successfully captured by one or another of
the methods given. In fact, we are in constant receipt of trapped birds
during the proper seasons, and thus many hawks and owls which would
have been difficult to procure are taken in numbers by our collectors.
Bird-lime, although scarcely advisable when the birds are intended to
be preserved, may be used to advantage in capturing birds for the cage.
A small quantity of it is spread on a twig or small stick, one end of
which is lightly stuck in a notch on some upright branch or stem, in
such a position that the bird must alight on it in order to reach the
bait. The stick should be poised so lightly that the slightest touch of
the bird's feet will cause it to drop, when the bird, giving a downward
stroke with its wings to save itself from falling, will strike the
outer quills against the stick, and thus both feet and wings become
fastened to it by the adhering lime. In case of a rare specimen, the
lime may be removed from the plumage by the aid of alcohol, or the
bird will remove it in time, if permitted to live. Good bird-lime is
difficult to procure; that made from linseed-oil and tar, boiled down,
is the best; but this process must be carried on in the open air, as
the mixture is exceedingly inflammable. The sticky mass thus obtained
must be worked with the hands under water, until it assumes the proper
consistency. In spreading lime on the sticks, the fingers should be
wet to prevent the lime sticking to them. Another way in which I have
taken such unsuspicious birds as pine grosbeaks, cross-bills and
red-polls, is by placing a noose of fine wire on the end of a pole, and
by approaching a tree cautiously, in which the birds were feeding, have
managed to slip it over their heads, when they are drawn fluttering
downward, and the noose removed, before any permanent injury is done.
I have even taken pine grosbeaks in an open field in this manner, and
have ascended a tree and captured them with only the noose attached to
a stout piece of wire, in my hand.
SECTION II.: SHOOTING.--Although, as shown, many valuable species
may be secured by trapping, snaring, etc., yet the collector relies
mainly on his gun. This much being decided, it at once occurs to the
beginner, What kind of a weapon shall I get? Of course, muzzle-loaders
are now out of the question; and among the multitudes of breech-loaders
in the market, one has only to consult his taste or the length of
his purse. Therefore it is simply useless for me to recommend any
particular make of gun. Good single-barrel breech-loaders can be bought
for from nine dollars to twenty dollars, while double-barrels cost from
fifteen dollars upward. For ordinary collecting, a twelve-gauge is
perhaps better than any other, as such birds as ducks, hawks and crows
can be readily killed with it. For warblers, wrens, and other small
birds, however, a much smaller gauge gun is almost indispensable, as a
large gun sends the shot with such force that it not only penetrates
the body of the bird, but also goes out on the opposite side; thus each
shot makes two holes, when one is all that is necessary to kill. This
fact should then always be kept in mind, and as a rule load lightly,
with just enough powder to cause the shot to penetrate well into the
bird without going through it. In a twelve-gauge gun, two drachms of
powder behind an ounce of shot is sufficient to kill a bird like a jay
or golden-winged woodpecker, at a distance of thirty or forty yards;
then if more penetration is necessary, more powder may be used with
the same quantity of shot, but this will cause the shot to scatter
more. A good collecting gun, one which will kill small birds with
a very small amount of ammunition and little noise, has long been
a desideratum. I have tried many kinds, but nothing has proved so
satisfactory as a small repeating gun of my own invention, and which
is manufactured by us. This gun consists of two brass tubes, a smaller
one within a larger, with an air space between, thus greatly deadening
the sound; and both are securely fastened to a finely nickel-plated
five-shot revolver. We make two sizes, a twenty-two gauge, the report
of which is very slight, and a thirty-two gauge, which makes a little
louder noise. The former will kill warblers at fifteen yards, and the
latter at twenty yards, while birds like jays, thrushes, and robins,
may be brought down with the thirty-two gauge at a distance of ten
yards. This gun served me well in Florida last winter, and I killed
at least two-thirds of the birds that I collected there with it. The
light report of such a gun does not frighten the birds, while the
fact that one nearly always has a second shot ready in the revolving
cylinder, is a great help, in case of a wounded bird, or in the sudden
appearance of a second specimen, as so often happens, after the first
has fallen. The price of this gun varies from four dollars and fifty
cents to five dollars and seventy-five cents, according to quality and
size. Blow-guns, air-guns, catapults, etc., are useful only in cases
when a shot-gun cannot be used, as they cannot be depended upon. A
collector, in order to procure birds with a certainty, requires a good
shot-gun. The ammunition used in the small collecting gun is copper
shells, primed, of three lengths for each size. For shot, I use dust
numbers ten and eight, but for a larger gun, coarser shot is sometimes
necessary; collectors, however,--especially beginners,--are apt to use
too large shot. On the contrary, I do not like to shoot too fine shot
at large birds; thus a hawk killed with a heavy charge of dust-shot
at twenty yards would have the feathers cut up very badly, whereas
a warbler shot at the same distance would be likely to make a good
specimen, as it would only receive a few pellets of shot, whereas a
large number would strike the hawk. As a rule, then, use dust-shot for
birds up to the size of a cedar-bird, then number ten to the size of
a jay, after which number eight will kill better and cleaner, and I
should use this size as long as it will bring down the birds; and it
is surprising to see how large species may be killed with it. I have
taken brown pelicans, wild geese, and large hawks with number eight,
and I once secured a frigate-bird with it, all at good distances. For
very large birds like cranes, white pelicans, or eagles I have used a
rifle very successfully. A thirty-two gauge Allen is my favorite gun,
and I have killed birds at all distances from twenty to three hundred
and twenty-five yards with it. Of course, nearly all successful rifle
shots must be made at sitting birds, as I have met with but few who
could bring them down when flying. Another good method of securing
large shy birds which go in flocks, is to load with buckshot, putting
a stiff charge of powder, say three to five drachms, behind it, then
fire into the flock from a distance, elevating the gun at an angle of
some forty-five degrees above the birds. I have killed both species of
pelicans at two hundred yards distant in this way.
SECTION III.: PROCURING BIRDS.--Birds are to be found nearly
everywhere, in fact, there is scarcely a square acre of land on the
face of the earth which is not inhabited, at one season or another,
by some species, and many are found on the beaches, and on the ocean
itself. Following are some of the localities in which our American
species are to be found; and, presumably, foreign birds of the same
families will occur in similar places.
TURDIDÆ: THRUSHES.--Of these, the robin is the most common and is found
everywhere. Next among the true thrushes are the olive-backed, hermit,
and allied species. These occur usually in woodlands, and are rather
shy, keeping at a distance. The wood thrush inhabits deeply-wooded
glens. The mocking thrushes prefer thickets in the neighborhood of
dwellings,--for example, the cat-bird. The brown thrush also inhabits
thickets, but are not, as a rule, fond of the society of man, while the
smaller thrushes, of which the golden-crowned is an example, prefer the
woodlands; and the two water thrushes are found in swampy localities.
SAXICOLIDÆ: STONE-CHATS.--The blue-birds are often sociable, building
in orchards and farmyards, while the western species appear to prefer
mountain cliffs as breeding-places. The rare stone-chat is, I think,
found in open sections where it occurs at all.
CINCLIDÆ: OUZEL.--The solitary species of ouzel found with us inhabits
the mountain streams of the far west.
SYLVIDÆ: TRUE WARBLERS.--Are pre-eminently birds of the woodlands, but
occasionally the kinglets, notably the golden-crowned, will wander into
orchards during mild days in winter.
CHAMÆIDÆ: WRENTITS.--The only species found in the United States
inhabits the sage-brush in the far southwest.
PARIDÆ: TITMICE.--Are also found in the woods or thickets, but some
species wander into the orchards during winter.
SITTIDÆ: NUTHATCHES.--Are birds of the woodlands as a rule, but the
white and red-bellied nuthatches wander considerably in autumn, while
the brown-headed seldom if ever leave the piny woods of the south.
TROGLODYTIDÆ: WRENS.--The creeper-wrens are found among the cacti of
the far southwest, while the rock-wrens occur among thickets in a
similar region. The true wrens are found in thickets, often in the
neighborhood of dwellings, in which they frequently build, while the
two marsh wrens occur on both salt and fresh water marshes throughout
the country.
ALAUDIDÆ: TRUE LARKS.--These birds occur on the far prairies, on the
coast of Labrador, and in winter along the barren seashores of the
northern and middle section.
MOTACILIDÆ: WAGTAILS.--Are also birds of the open country, and the
titlark is found in fields during the migrations, especially along the
coast from Maine to Florida.
SYLVICOLIDÆ: AMERICAN WARBLERS.--These gems of the woodland and of
wayside thickets abound throughout the length and breadth of our
country. During the migrations they are generally distributed, it not
being uncommon, then, to find even the Blackburnian warbler, which,
during the nesting season, is pre-eminently a bird of the deep woods,
feeding in the open fields, while I have taken the Cape May warbler,
which occurs in summer in the thick evergreens of the north, feeding
among the oranges and bananas in the gardens of Key West. Warblers
then should be looked after nearly everywhere, among willows by the
brookside, on the barren hill-tops which scarcely support a scant
growth of pine or cedars, and on the blooming trees of orchards.
Some species are exceedingly shy, so as to require a heavy charge
of dust-shot to reach them, while others are so tame as to peer
inquisitively into the very face of a collector as he makes his way
through their chosen retreats.
TANAGRIDÆ: TANAGERS.--These strikingly colored birds are usually found
in the woods, occasionally however visiting the open sections. They are
rather shy and retiring in habits, and their presence must be usually
detected by their song.
HIRUNDINIDÆ: SWALLOWS.--Are birds of the open country, and are more
common in the vicinity of settlements than elsewhere. The violet-green
swallow, however, occurs among the cliffs of the Rocky Mountains.
AMPELIDÆ: WAXWINGS.--Are, as a rule, found in the open country in
the vicinity of settlements; and even the Bohemian waxwings occur
abundantly in some of the cities of Utah in winter, feeding upon the
fruit of the ornamental trees.
VIREONIDÆ: VIREOS.--These widely-distributed birds are usually fond of
the woodlands, but the white-eye prefers thickets in swampy places,
while the warbling is seldom found far from settlements; indeed, more
often inhabits trees which grow in the streets of villages than other
sections.
LANIIDÆ: SHRIKES.--Are found in open sections, often in fields, and
on the uninhabited Indian hunting-grounds of Florida. I found the
loggerheads along the borders of the open prairies.
FRINGILLIDÆ: FINCHES, SPARROWS, AND GROSBEAKS.--These are, as a rule,
found mainly in the more open country. The cross-bills, however,
enter thick woods, especially evergreens. The grosbeaks, notably the
rose-breast, prefer the woodlands. The blue sparrows, like the indigo
bird, are found in open fields grown up to bushes. The snow-buntings
occur in open fields and along barren sections of seaboard, while
the sharp-tailed and sea-side finches inhabit the marshes. The grass
sparrows, notably the yellow-winged, Henslow's, and Leconte's, prefer
grassy plains. Last winter I procured all three species of this genus
(_Coturniculus_) on a plantation in Western Florida, securing them all
in three successive shots, a feat which has, I am certain, never before
been accomplished. Many of these grass-haunting birds have to be shot
as they rise from the herbage to fly away, but I found, by persistingly
following a specimen from point to point, that after a time it would
settle in a bush, when I could secure it with my repeating collecting
gun.
ICTERIDÆ: ORIOLES, BLACKBIRDS, ETC.--Orioles prefer, as a rule,
orchards and ornamental trees about dwellings, but they sometimes occur
in the more open woodlands. The marsh blackbirds, like the red-wings
and yellow-headed, prefer wet meadows. The rusty and brewer's are found
in swamps. The crow blackbirds and boat-tailed occur in fields and
along the borders of streams.
CORVIDÆ: CROWS, JAYS, ETC.--These usually occur in the woodlands or
thickets. Crows frequent the seashore in numbers in winter, and may be
secured by exposing meat which is poisoned by strychnine, as they will
frequently eat it during the inclement season. Canada and blue jays
occur in woods, while the Florida and California jays inhabit thickets.
TYRANNIDÆ: FLYCATCHERS.--Are widely distributed species. The
king-birds are found in the more open sections, and the same is true
of the crested flycatchers. The bridge pewee inhabits the vicinity
of dwellings, while the wood pewee occurs in the woods. The least
flycatcher prefers orchards, but the greater portions of the genus
_Empidonax_ are found in woodlands or thickets.
CAPRIMULGIDÆ: GOATSUCKERS.--The whip-poor-wills and chuck-wills-widow
occur in the thick wood, emerging occasionally at night, but seldom
straying from their retreats. A good way to secure these birds is to
note as accurately as possible the point where one begins to sing;
then, on the following evening, conceal yourself near the spot, when
the bird will be seen to emerge from its retreat and alight on some
particular rock, post, or branch, on which it invariably perches, and
utters its song. Then if the bird be too far away to secure at the
time, it may readily be taken another evening by the collector posting
himself nearer. These birds may also be started from their concealment
during daylight, and thus be shot. The night-hawks inhabit the more
open sections, but perch on trees during the day. They may readily be
secured while flying over the fields.
CYPSELIDÆ: SWIFTS.--The white-throated swift occurs among the clefts
of the Rocky Mountains, and is exceedingly difficult to procure. The
well-known chimney swift inhabits chimneys almost everywhere, but, as
it never alights outside of these retreats, must be shot on the wing.
TROCHILIDÆ: HUMMINGBIRDS.--Inhabit as a rule the open country. I have
secured numbers of our ruby-throats on cherry-trees when they were
in blossom, and later, on beds of flowers; and I presume the western
species may be found in similar situations. I shoot them with light
charges of dust-shot, fired from my collecting gun.
ALCIDINIDÆ: KINGFISHERS.--These noisy birds are found plentifully in
the vicinity of streams. They are shy and require a heavy charge of
number eight to bring them down.
CUCULIDÆ: CUCKOOS.--The roadrunner of California, Texas, and
intermediate locality, occurs in the sage bush, but our species
of cuckoos, even the mangrove, inhabit thickets from which they
occasionally emerge. They are usually betrayed by their notes. They are
easily killed, their skin being very thin and tender.
PICIDÆ: WOODPECKERS.--Occur, as a rule, in the woodlands, but the
smaller species and the golden-winged inhabit orchards. They are all
tough birds to kill. They are a generally distributed family, but
some species are confined to certain localities, for example, the
great ivory-billed is not found outside of Florida, and even there,
is confined to a limited area, and very rare. Strickland's woodpecker
has as yet only been found in the United States in a single range of
mountains in Arizona.
PSITTACIDÆ: PARROTS.--Our Carolina paroquet is now exceedingly rare out
of Florida, and then occurs in the neighborhood of cypress swamps, but
occasionally visits the plantations.
STRIGIDÆ: OWLS.--The burrowing owl occurs in the western plains and
in a limited area of Florida. The snowy owl inhabits sand-hills of
the coast in winter, and the short-eared occurs in the marshes, but
all other species are birds of the deep woods, occasionally emerging,
however, especially at night. The great horned and barred may be
decoyed within shooting distance in the spring by imitating their
cries, and the latter-named species will also eagerly fly toward the
collector when he produces a squeaking sound similar to that made by a
mouse. The small owls may be often found in holes of trees.
FALCONIDÆ: HAWKS, EAGLES, ETC.--Marsh hawks occur in fields, meadows,
and marshes. Everglade kites are found on the widespread savannahs of
Florida, while the swallow-tailed Mississippi and white-shouldered are
found on the prairies of the south and west. The buzzard hawks usually
occur in the woods, but during the migrations pass over the fields,
flying high. The fish-hawk is abundant on the seacoast, but also visits
the ponds and lakes of the interior. The duck-hawk is fond of clefts,
and migrates along the seacoast. The sharp-shinned sparrow and pigeon
are often found in solitary trees in fields, where they hunt for
mice, but they also occur in open woods. The bald eagle occurs on the
seashore or on large bodies of water, but the golden eagle prefers the
mountainous regions.
CATHARTIDÆ: VULTURES.--Occur everywhere throughout the south. The great
California vulture is now very rare.
COLUMBIDÆ: PIGEONS.--Are usually found in fields, but the wild pigeon
is often taken in the woods. The ground doves are found in fields which
are bordered with thickets, to which they retreat when alarmed. Two or
three species are found on the Florida Keys, and about as many more in
Texas.
MELEAGRIDÆ: TURKEYS.--Wild turkeys occur in the wilderness of the south
and west. They inhabit open woods as a rule, often roosting at night in
swamps.
TETRAONIDÆ: GROUSE, QUAIL, ETC.--The Canada, ruffled, and allied
species of grouse occur in the woodlands. The prairie sharp-tail and
sage-hen are found on the plains of the west, while the ptarmigans
inhabit the bleak regions of the north. The common quail is widely
distributed throughout the more open country, from Massachusetts to
Texas, and the plumed California and allied species occur in the
southwest, frequenting the thickets of the prairies, or along the
mountain-sides.
CHARADRIDÆ: PLOVERS.--These are, as a rule, maritime birds, especially
during the southward migrations, but many of the species breed in the
interior, and the kildeer and mountain plovers are always more common
on bodies of fresh water. None of the species are, however, found far
from water, but they all alight in dry fields in search of food.
HÆMATOPODIDÆ: OYSTER-CATCHERS AND TURNSTONES.--All these birds inhabit
the seacoast. They occur in oyster-beds or among rocks.
RECURVIROSTRIDÆ: AVOCETS AND STILTS.--Both these species are birds of
the interior, being found in the south and west in the vicinity of
water.
PHALAROPODIDÆ: PHALAROPES.--These singular birds are found off the
coast, often far out at sea during winter, but, oddly enough, breed
in the interior, nesting throughout the northwest and north. They
are, however, occasionally found on the coast during the northward
migration, especially during storms.
SCOLOPACIDÆ: SNIPES, WOODCOCK, ETC.--Woodcock and snipes are usually
found in freshwater swamps, especially in spring. The true sandpipers,
like peep, grass-birds, etc., haunt the pools in marshes or accompany
the sanderlings on the beaches. The godwits are found on the marshes,
as are also red-breasted snipe, but the curlews inhabit hill-tops,
especially during the autumnal migration. I have, however, found the
long-billed curlew on the beaches of Florida. Willets and yellow-legs
occur on the marshes or on the borders of streams.
TANTALIDÆ: IBISES AND SPOONBILLS.--Occur along the borders of streams
and other bodies of fresh water, or on mud-flats in the far south.
ARDEIDÆ: HERONS.--These are widely distributed birds. The true herons
occur along the margins of bodies of water, both on the coast and in
the interior, while the bitterns generally haunt only the fresh water.
GRUIDÆ: CRANES.--Are found on the prairies of the west and south,
frequenting the vicinity of water.
ARAMIDÆ: COURLAN.--The well-known crying-bird is found only in Florida,
inhabiting swamps along the rivers and lakes of the interior.
RALLIDÆ: RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS.--The true rails inhabit very
wet marshes, both salt and fresh, concealing themselves in the grass.
Gallinules and coots are found on the borders of fresh water.
PHOENICOPTERIDÆ: FLAMINGOES.--The flamingo occurs only with us, on
the extensive mud-flats in extreme Southern Florida, where they are
exceedingly difficult to procure, being very shy.
ANATIDÆ: GEESE, DUCKS, ETC.--These are all inhabitants of the water,
being seldom found far from it. Some species, like the teal, prefer
secluded pools in the interior, while the wood-duck and others frequent
woodland streams; and the eiders and marine ducks are abundant in the
waters of the ocean.
SULIDÆ: GANNETS.--Excepting while breeding, these birds keep well out
to sea, and are thus quite difficult to procure. All of the marine
species are liable to be driven inland during severe storms, and the
collector should not fail to take advantage of such circumstances.
PELECANIDÆ: PELICANS.--The brown pelican is a resident of the extreme
southern coast, and may be found on sand-bars or perched on trees in
the immediate vicinity of water. The white pelican is found in similar
localities in winter, but migrates northward during the summer,
breeding in the interior, from Utah to the Arctic regions.
GRACULIDÆ: CORMORANTS.--Occur on sand-bars in the south, or on rocky
cliffs in the north, and on the Pacific coast. During migrations they
keep well out to sea. They have the habit, in common with the gannets
and pelicans, of alighting on barren sand-spits which rise out of the
water.
PLOTIDÆ: DARTERS.--The snake-bird of the south occurs on bodies of
fresh water, and may be seen perched on trees or flying high in air.
They are exceedingly difficult to kill, being, as a rule, shy, and very
tenacious of life.
TACHYPETIDÆ: FRIGATE BIRDS.--The frigate bird is found with us only on
the Gulf of Mexico and among the Florida Keys. They are usually seen
upon wing, but I have observed thousands perched on the mangroves on
the Keys. They roost on the trees on lonely islets at night, at which
time they appear so stupid that they may be approached quite readily.
PHÆTONIDÆ: TROPIC BIRDS.--These fine birds occur only in tropical
waters unless they are accidentally blown out of their latitude by
storms. They breed on the rocky cliffs of the Bahamas and Bermudas.
LARIDÆ: GULLS, TERNS, ETC.--The Skua gulls keep well out to sea, as a
rule, but occasionally enter harbors and bays in pursuit of gulls and
terns, which they rob of their prey. Gulls and terns of the various
species rest on sand-bars or fly along the shore.
PROCELLARIDÆ: PETRELS.--Excepting while breeding, these birds keep well
out to sea and are thus quite difficult to procure. They haunt the
waters which are frequented by fishermen, however, and may be procured
by visiting these localities on some fishing-smack.
COLYMBIDÆ: LOONS.--Are found in both fresh and salt waters, but are
somewhat difficult to procure on account of their habit of diving.
PODICIPIDÆ: GREBES.--These birds have similar habits to those of
the loons, but are found in smaller bodies of water, notably the
Pied-billed, one or more specimens of which occur in almost every
little pool throughout the country, especially during the southward
migration.
ALCIDÆ: AUKS, PUFFINS, ETC.--These birds are found off the coast during
migration, but breed on the rocky shores of both coasts.
Although the foregoing list gives the locality in which a given species
may be found, as a rule, it is always well to bear in mind that
birds have wings, and by the use of them may stray into unaccustomed
localities far distant from their usual habitance. For example, a
burrowing owl was shot on the marshes of Newburyport, and a petrel,
which has hitherto been known to science through a single specimen
which was taken many years ago in the southern hemisphere, was picked
up, in an exhausted condition, in a ploughed field of the interior
of New York. The young collector then should ever be on the alert,
keeping well in mind the fact that the art which he is pursuing is
not lightly learned. I have frequently heard the inexperienced remark
that he could easily kill a hundred birds in a day; and although this
might be true on certain occasions,--for I have seen over this number
killed by one person in two discharges of a gun,--yet, as a rule, a
good collector will seldom bring in over fifty birds during his best
days. A man must not only be experienced, but will be obliged to work
hard in order to average twenty-five birds in a day. Although there are
some "born" collectors who will procure birds, even if they be provided
with no more formidable weapon than a boy's catapult, yet the peculiar
attributes which make up a good collector are mainly to be acquired.
A quick eye to detect a flutter of a wing or the flit of a tail among
waving foliage; an ear ready to catch the slighest chirp heard amid the
rustling leaves, and so skilled as to intrepret the simple gradations
of sound which distinguish the different species; a constant wide-awake
alertness, so that nothing escapes the observation, and which gives
such nice control over the muscles that the gun comes to the shoulder
with a promptitude that combines thought with action; and an unwearying
patience and pluck which totally disregard minor obstacles, are some
of the characteristics which must be possessed by the individual
who wishes to bring together a good collection of birds by his own
exertions. If one does not possess these traits, why, then study to
acquire them; for securing birds is as fine an art as is preserving
them after they are obtained.
SECTION IV.: CARE OF SPECIMENS.--Just as soon as a bird is shot,
examine it carefully by blowing aside the feathers in order to find the
shot-holes; if they bleed, remove the clotted blood with a small stick,
or, better, the point of a penknife, then with a pointed stick, or the
knife, plug the hole with a little cotton, and sprinkle plaster, or
better, some of my preservative, on the spot. Next plug the mouth with
cotton, taking care to push the wad down far enough to allow the bill
to close, for if the mandibles are left open the skin of the chin and
upper throat will dry, causing the feathers to stand upright. Smooth
the specimen lightly and place it, head down, in a paper cone, which
should be long enough to allow folding the top without bending the
tail feathers. Then the bird may be placed in a fish basket, which
is the best receptacle for carrying birds, as it is not only light
to carry, but also admits the air. Never shut a bird up in a close
box in warm weather, as it will spoil very quickly. Care of a bird in
the field will save much labor, and your cabinet specimens will look
enough better to warrant it. Blood left under the plumage gradually
soaks through the feathers, thus causing them to become matted, when
they are exceedingly difficult to clean. Some specimens however, will
bleed, and if they are to be preserved this blood must be removed. I
have always found it best to wash the blood off in the first water I
could find, and then let the bird dry, either by carrying in my hand,
or, by suspending it to a limb of a tree, where I could return for
it afterwards. Care should be taken in such cases, however, to wash
_all_ the blood off, and then plug the wound with cotton, as if any
flows out when the plumage is wet it will spread on the feathers and
stain them. In picking up birds that are only wounded never take them
by the tail, wing, or any part of the plumage, but grasp them firmly
in the hand in such a way as to imprison both wings, then kill them
by a firm pressure of the thumb and forefinger, applied to the sides
just back of the wings. This compresses the lungs, and the birds die of
suffocation almost instantly. Never strike a bird, no matter how large,
with a stick, but in case of hawks, eagles, etc., the talons of which
are dangerous, seize them first by the tip of one wing, then by the
other, work the hands downward until the back is grasped, then apply
the pressure to the lungs. There is no danger from the beak of even the
most formidable species after the pressure is put upon the lungs, for
I never knew a specimen to bite while being killed in this way; the
only thing necessary is to keep out of the way of their talons. I have
frequently been obliged to remove eagles from a box and kill them, and
have done it with my hands alone.
Wounded doves and pigeons should be grasped very firmly, and not
allowed to struggle in the least, as their feathers fall out very
easily; and the same is true, though to a less extent, with cuckoos;
in fact, it is always best to brush the plumage as little as possible,
handling the specimen when dead by the feet or bill. In picking up
white herons or other birds which have fallen in mud or other dirty
water, take them up by the bill and shake them gently to remove the
ooze. The feathers of all birds, especially aquatic species, are
covered with a delicate oil, and all extraneous matter glides off the
plumage if they are not soaked in water. In catching wounded herons,
take them by the beak to avoid the danger of losing an eye from a
lunge of the sharp point. When a bird is to be placed in a basket or
on a bench, do not _throw_ it down, but lay it gently on its back,
always bearing in mind that the smoother a bird is kept before it is
skinned the better it will look when preserved. I have even noticed
that the true ornithological enthusiast always keeps his birds in
good condition, while others who merely shoot birds for the momentary
pleasure of the thing, or for gain, are very apt to handle them
roughly. In other words, the student of nature possesses an innate love
of his pursuits, which causes him to respect even a dead bird.
CHAPTER II.
SKINNING BIRDS.
SECTION I.: ORDINARY METHOD.--The only instruments that I use in
removing the skin of birds ordinarily is a simple knife of a peculiar
form (see Fig. 3); but I like to have a pair of dissecting scissors by
me to be used in cases given further on. I also have plenty of cotton,
and either Indian meal or dermal preservative at hand to absorb blood
and other juices.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
To remove the skin from the bird, first see that the mouth is plugged
with cotton, and if it is, note if this be dry, if not remove it and
substitute fresh. It is also well to note if the bird be flexible, for
if rigid it is extremely difficult to skin, and it is always best to
wait until this peculiar rigidity of the muscles, which follows death
in all vertebrate animals, shall have passed. This occurs in warm
weather in much less time than in cold, often in one or two hours, but
in moderate temperature a bird had better lie for at least six hours
after it has been killed. Take then a specimen in the proper condition,
lay it on its back on a bench, on which clean paper has been spread,
with its head from you, but slightly inclined to the left. Now part the
feathers of the abdomen with the left hand, and, excepting in ducks and
a few other species, a space, either naked or covered with down, will
be seen extending from the lower or costal extremity of the sternum
to the vent. Insert the point of the knife, which is held in the left
hand, with the back downward, under the skin near the sternum, and,
by sliding it downward, make an incision quite to the vent, taking
care not to cut through the walls of the abdomen. This can readily be
avoided in fresh birds, but not in specimens that have been softened
by lying too long. The fingers of the right hand should be employed
during this operation in holding apart the feathers. Now sprinkle meal
or preservative in the incision, especially if blood or juices flow
out, in order to absorb them and prevent them soiling the feathers.
Next, with the thumb and finger of the right hand, peel down the skin
on the left side of the orifice, at the same time pressing the tibia on
that side upward. This will disclose the second joint of the leg, or
knee proper. Pass the knife under this joint, and, by cutting against
the thumb, cut it completely off, a matter easily accomplished in small
birds; rub a little absorbent on either side of the severed joint; then
grasping the end of the tibia firmly between the thumb and forefinger
of the right hand, draw it outward. At the same time, the skin of the
leg should be pressed downward by the fingers of the right hand to
prevent tearing. The leg is thus easily exposed, and should be, as a
rule, skinned to the tarsal joint. With the thumb-nail, nip off the
extreme tip of the tibial bone, and strip the flesh off the remainder
of the bone by a downward pull; then give the whole a twist, and cut
all the tendrils at once. Of course the flesh may be removed from the
bone by scraping, etc., but the above is the best method, and in case
of large birds, break the end of the tibia with pliers. Turn the bird
end for end, and proceed the same with the other leg, but during both
operations the bird should not be raised from the bench. Now peel away
the skin about the tail, place the forefinger under its base, and cut
downward through the caudal vertebra and muscles of the back quite to
the skin, the finger being a guide to prevent going through this.
Rub absorbent on the severed portion. Grasp the end of the vertebra
protruding from the body, thus raising the bird from the bench; peel
down front and back by pushing downward with the hand, rather coaxing
the skin off than forcing or pulling it. Soon the wings will appear;
sever these where the humerus joins the coracoid, cutting through the
muscles from above downward in large specimens, thus more readily
finding the joints. Rub on absorbent, and it may be well to remark that
this must be done whenever a fresh cut is made. Then the body is laid
on the bench, and the skin is held in one hand, or, in large specimens,
allowed to rest on the lap or on the bench, but never to dangle.
Keep on peeling over the neck by using the tips of as many fingers
as can be brought into service and soon, the skull will appear. The
next obstruction will be the ears; these should be pulled or, better,
pinched out with the thumb and forefinger nails. Do not tear the ears,
and special care should be exercised in this respect in owls. When the
eyes are exposed, pass the knife between the lids and orbit, close to
the former, taking care that the nyctatating membrane be removed from
the skin, or it will be in the way when the eyelids are arranged in
making the skin. Peel well down to the base of the bill, so that every
portion of the skin may be covered with preservative. Push the point of
the knife under the eyes, and remove them by a single motion, without
breaking them. Cut off the back of the skull at the point shown in the
line A, Fig. 4; turn the head over and make two cuts outward as seen at
A. A., Fig. 5, thus removing a triangular portion of the skull B, Fig.
4, to which the brain will usually adhere, but when it does not, remove
it with the point of the knife. This leaves the eye-cavities open
from beneath. Draw out the wings by grasping the end of the humerus
in the left hand, and press the skin back with the right, to the
forearm; then with the thumb-nail, or back of the knife, separate the
secondary quills which adhere to the larger bone from it, thus turning
out the wing to the last joint or phalanges. Cover the skin well with
preservative, especially the skull, wings, and base of tail; roll up
balls of cotton of about the size of the entire eye removed, and place
in the cavities in such a condition that the smooth side of the ball
may come outward so that the eyelids may be arranged neatly over them.
Nothing now remains but to turn the skin back to its former position.
Turn the wings by gently pulling the primaries and the head, by forcing
the skull upward until the bill can be grasped; then by pulling forward
on this, and working the skin backward with one hand, the matter
will be accomplished, when the feathers may be lightly smoothed and
arranged. It must be borne in mind that the quicker and more lightly
a skin is removed the better the specimen will look. By lightly, I
mean that the skin should not be tightly grasped nor stretched by
pulling. Some workmen will remove a skin from a bird which is nearly
spoiled without starting a feather, while others may skin a specimen
as quickly, but the plumage will be crushed and broken through rough
usage. The time for removing the skin from a small bird should not
exceed six minutes, and I have seen it taken off in half this time. Of
course the beginner will be longer than this; and then the skin should
be occasionally moistened, by using a damp sponge.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
SECTION II.: EXCEPTIONS TO THE USUAL METHOD OF SKINNING.--In case of
birds which are very soft on account of having been dead a long time,
it may be advisable to open either beneath the wing, making a short
incision along the side or above the wing, cutting along the feather
tracks just above the scapularies; and some skin ducks through a
hole in the back just above the rump. I do not, however, advise such
practice, as a rule, as the skins are more difficult to make up, and
the bird cannot be mounted quite as readily.
Woodpeckers with large heads and small necks, like the pileated and
ivory-billed, and ducks having similar characteristics, as the wood,
pintail, and a few other species; also flamingoes, sand-hill, and
whooping cranes, cannot be skinned over the head in the usual manner,
but the neck should be cut off after the skin has been removed as far
as possible, and then a slit should be cut in the back of the head,
and the head be skinned through this orifice, but an abundance of
absorbent should be used to prevent the feathers from becoming soiled.
Care should be exercised in skinning cuckoos, doves, thrushes, and some
species of sparrows, as the skin is not only thin, but the feathers
start in the rump and back very readily. Peel the skin off gently, and
do not fold it abruptly backward in working on these parts, but hold it
as nearly as possible in its original position. The skin of the wood
duck, and sometimes that of the hooded merganser, adheres to the flesh
of the breast, but it may be separated by working carefully with the
back of the knife. In removing the skins of young birds in the down,
like ducks and gallinaceous birds, do not attempt to skin the wings.
If a specimen is to be mounted with the wings spread, the secondaries
should not be detached, but the knife should be forced down back of
the primaries in order to break up the muscles; then as much of the
flesh as possible should be removed, and a quantity of preservative
pushed in beneath the skin. In larger birds a slit should be made on
the under side of the wing, and the muscles removed from the outside
without detaching the secondaries; and also when a specimen is to be
mounted, the eye cavities should be filled with clay well kneaded to
the consistency of putty.
SECTION III.: ASCERTAINING THE SEX OF BIRDS.--Although the sex of many
birds can be ascertained with tolerable certainty by the plumage, yet
this is never an infallible guide, and to make perfectly sure of every
case the internal organs should be examined. I always advise dissecting
such plainly-marked birds as scarlet tanagers or red-winged blackbirds,
and by practising this habit I was once fortunate enough to discover
a female painted bunting in full male livery. The sex of birds can be
readily ascertained in the following manner: Lay the bird's body on its
left side, with the head from you; then with a knife or scissors, cut
through the ribs and abdominal walls on the _right_ side; then raise
the intestines, and the organs will appear.
In males, two bodies, the testicles, more or less spherical, will be
seen lying just below the lungs on the upper portion of the kidneys
(Fig. 6, 3, 3). These vary not only in color from white to black, but
also in size, depending upon the season or age of the specimen. Thus,
in an adult song sparrow, during the beginning of the breeding season,
the testicles will be nearly or quite a half inch in diameter, whereas
in autumn they will not exceed a number eight shot in size; and in
nestlings of the same species they are not larger than a small pellet
of dust-shot. At this early age, the sex of birds which have become
somewhat soft is quite difficult to determine, and the same is true at
any season if the specimens be badly shot up. There are other organs,
however, in the male. For example, the sperm ducts are always present,
appearing like two white lines; and in the breeding season the plexus
of nerves and arteries about the vent becomes swollen, forming two
prominent tubercles on either side (Fig. 6, 3, 3).
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
In the female the ovaries lie on the right side (Fig. 7, 2) in about
the same position as is occupied by the testicles in the male. The
ovaries vary in size from that of half the size of an egg to minute
points, depending, as in the male, on the season of the year and age of
the specimen. In very young birds the ovaries consist of a small white
body which under a magnifying glass appears somewhat granular. In both
male and female are two yellowish or whitish bodies, in the former sex
lying above the testicles, but further forward, and consequently just
in front of the kidneys; and in the female they occupy about the same
position. In addition to the ovaries in the female, the oviduct is
always present (Fig. 7, 3), large, swollen, and convoluted during the
breeding season, but smaller and nearly straight at other times. In
young specimens it appears as a small white line.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
The denuded breast and abdomen seen in birds during the breeding
season, cannot always be depended upon as a mark of sex, as this
occasionally occurs in males as well as in females.
SECTION IV.: PRESERVING SKINS.--Taxidermists for many years have made
use of arsenic in some form as a preservative; and in the first edition
of my "Naturalists' Guide," I recommended the use of it dry, stating
that I did not think it injurious if not actually eaten. I have,
however, since had abundant cause to change my opinion in this respect,
and now pronounce it a dangerous poison. Not one person in fifty
can handle the requisite quantity of arsenic necessary to preserve
specimens, for any length of time, without feeling the effects of it.
For a long time I was poisoned by it, but attributed it to the noxious
gases arising from birds that had been kept too long. It is possible
that the poison from arsenic with which my system was filled might have
been affected by these gases, causing it to develop itself, but I do
not think that the gas itself is especially injurious, as I have never
been poisoned since I discontinued the use of arsenic.
When I became convinced that arsenic was injuring my health, and that
of others, I began to experiment upon other substances, and after
trying a quantity of various things, have succeeded in manufacturing
a nearly odorless compound which has the following advantages over
arsenic: It thoroughly preserves the skins of birds, mammals, reptiles,
and fishes from decay, and also prevents the attacks of dermestes or
anthrenus, while the feathers of birds and hair of mammals are not
as liable to be attacked by moths as when the skin is preserved with
arsenic. This preservative when properly applied abstracts the oil
from greasy skins, thus preventing them from becoming decayed through
carbonization, as nearly always occurs in ducks' skins after a few
years. It is a deodorizer, all disagreeable smells leaving the skin
to which it is applied; and above all it is not a poison. I used
this dermal preservative, as we have named it, as an absorbent while
skinning birds, especially small ones, as then the plumage is dusted
with it necessarily, which insures more or less protection to the
feathers from the attacks of moths.
To render my preservative, or indeed any other, effective, it must be
thoroughly applied to the skin; all the portions, especially those to
which any flesh adheres, must be well covered with it, and the fibre
of the muscles should be broken up as much as possible. But a small
portion, at best, of arsenic is soluble in either water or alcohol,
and but a little in the juices of the skin, whereas in my dermal
preservative at least three-fourths of that which comes in contact with
a moist skin is absorbed, thus thoroughly preserving the specimen. In
the case of a greasy skin, remove as much fat as possible by peeling it
off or gently scraping until all the little cells which contain the oil
are broken up and the skin appears; then coat the skin liberally with
the preservative, when it will be found to absorb the oil. Allow this
layer to remain a few minutes, then scrape it all off and coat again
with a fresh supply. Continue to do this until all the oil that will
flow out is absorbed, and then dust with a final coating.
There are two chemical processes carried on in preserving oily skins,
one of which converts the oil into soap, and this is in turn absorbed
and dried. Thus the preservative which has been scraped from the skin
can be after a time used again, as it has lost but a small portion of
its efficiency. It might be borne in mind, however, that all the fat
cells possible must be broken up, as the skin which surrounds these is,
in a measure, impervious to the preservative, which must, in order to
absorb oil, come in contact with it.
SECTION V.: OTHER METHODS OF PRESERVING SKINS.--Skins may be
temporarily preserved by simply using black pepper, but the effect is
not lasting. The same is true of tannic acid, but either of these,
alum, or even common salt, will do as a substitute for the preservative
until the skins can be got into the hands of a taxidermist, or until
the collector can procure the proper preservative. I will here mention
that the dermal preservative costs only twenty-five cents per single
pound, and this quantity will preserve at least three times as many
skins as the same amount of arsenic.
A good method by which large skins may be temporarily preserved is
by salting them. Simply coat the inside of the skin with fine salt,
turn it, smooth the feathers and fold the wings neatly, then pack in
paper. The salt prevents the skin from quite drying, and thus it can
be moistened much more readily, and made into a skin or mounted. The
advantage of packing large birds in so small a capacity is obvious to
any one. Two collectors whom we have had out the past season have sent
in some thousand large skins in this condition; and these we shall
endeavor to work up within six months' time, as salted skins become
quite brittle if allowed to lie too long. They should be kept in a dry
place, as salt absorbs moisture, which causes the skin to decay. They
are also liable after the first year to be attacked by dermestes and
anthrenus.
Birds which are in a bad condition through having been dead a long
time may be sometimes skinned, in case of rare specimens, by using
great care. Sprinkle the inside of the skin well with preservative, as
this tends to set the feathers, being a stringent, keeping the skin as
straight as possible, as folding it is liable to loosen the feathers.
The intestines of birds may be removed and the cavity salted when large
birds are to be sent from a distance.
CHAPTER III.
MAKING SKINS.
SECTION I.: CLEANING FEATHERS.--If a bird is bloody, the feathers may
be washed either in turpentine or water. Saturate a rag or piece of
cotton, and clean off the blood, which if dry may require some soaking.
Try to keep the water from spreading as much as possible, but be sure
that every particle of clotted blood is removed and the spot washed
thoroughly. Then dry by covering the spot well with either plaster or
dermal preservative, the latter being preferable as it never bleaches
the plumage. This should be worked well into the feathers with a soft
brush, aided by the fingers, applying a fresh supply constantly until
all the moisture is absorbed; then dust with a soft duster. In case
of grease-spots, if fresh, use the dermal preservative alone, but if
old and yellow use benzine to start the grease, and then dry with
preservative, when it will generally be found that all stains will be
removed; but in some cases two or three applications of benzine may be
necessary. Small spots of dried blood may often be removed from dark
feathers by simply scraping with the thumb-nail, aided by a moderately
stiff brush, much after the manner in which a living bird removes
foreign substances from its plumage. Do not leave clotted spots of
blood in the plumage, as the feathers never lie well over them, and
such places are liable to be attacked by insects, and even a spot of
blood under the wing should, in my opinion, always be removed. Before
any attempt is made either to make a bird into a skin or mount it,
it should be thoroughly cleansed. Stains of dirt may be removed with
alcohol, which dries more readily than water, but it will not start
blood as well as turpentine or water.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]