AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM
Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the
question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one
of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has
already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting
waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns
therefrom.
For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and
private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up
some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in
order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us
less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad.
As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands
in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully
15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import
over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the
necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at
least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all,
and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies
are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the
increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the
retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for
the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing
links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land
available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within
bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000
to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough
pasture.
Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in
England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in
Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have
carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where
timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available
for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the
average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3_s_. per
acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in
at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes
would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.
It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property,
the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination
to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital
required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations.
Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of
management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed—in
so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the results being
that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and proprietors in
consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I have examined
and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country,
one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, where a large
area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which tree the soil
was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the whole ground the
average production of timber per tree was under 10 cubic feet in sixty
years. When pressing home the question of woodland extension I have
frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does
not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot
be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future
by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being
given to the relation of trees and soil.
With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the
disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting
operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible
way of overcoming the difficulty?
In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that
the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate
of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such
lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply
acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat
bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government at
the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British Isles as
a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual
rental of about 3_s._ per acre, or 40_s._ per acre for purchase. On
the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of land, described as
rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by public auction for
£15,670, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. I have little faith
either in the State advancing money to landed proprietors towards
afforesting, or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of
woodlands. The State would be the best custodian of forest property for
the simple reason that the State only can readily acquire the needed
land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms, and I am fully
convinced that plantations formed under Government supervision will, in
an economic sense at least, be far more successful than those planted
either by private persons or public bodies. Again, the continuity
of ownership under such a scheme, together with the ample resources
guaranteed by State control, would both largely contribute towards a
successful issue in such an undertaking.
The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in
afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but
from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I
anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good
deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked
to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three
or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated
or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age
and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so
created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as
we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.
After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the area
of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled by the
planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over 2_s._ per
acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the country generally
and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer
who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a grain of practice
is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally supervised every
operation, from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed
hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and disposing
of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least worthy of
consideration.
=The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.=—Than timber no article is
probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering
extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For
England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility
of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more
particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously
cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to
the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual
imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—
England 16,342,600 cub. yds.
Germany 11,766,667 ”
France 8,496,300 ”
Belgium 1,897,777 ”
Italy 915,148 ”
Denmark 849,630 ”
Spain 392,222 ”
Switzerland 313,778 ”
In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government
will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of
afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary
relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and
in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree
planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing
has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture
and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.
To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the
war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to
fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7
million loads in forty-two years.
Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so
that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of
want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England,
which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.
According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of
Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million
acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada,
and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But
regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the
present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing
to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember
that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in
time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying
the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis
Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me
that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will
have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out.
“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five
years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not
only pay to plant land valued at 3_s._ per acre, but that worth 20_s._
per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of those who know
well what they are talking about; neither are the writers in any
sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose business it
is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an
opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of
afforestation.
It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions
will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber,
principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while
the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our
wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India
and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more
timber than they possess.
=Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.=—When in the past the question
of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has been
that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument will no
longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent land for
the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable
quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of Lord Ancaster’s
estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of
several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, and from these
I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average price of £2
2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground was excellent for the production of
timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again
the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest
rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances could be quoted, but the
above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree
planting can be bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private
property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have
little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years
the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of
plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the
woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour
under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least,
as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the
money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a
systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first
necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable
in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree
planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a
moderate cost per acre.
=Cost of Forming Plantations.=—This will vary greatly with the manner
in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the
country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing
and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between
“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that
the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds
throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on
Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of
Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has
planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres
of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per
acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting
is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6
per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming
plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken
from the following figures will show:—
ENGLAND AND WALES.
£ _s._ _d._
Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting
and fencing per acre 4 18 9
Kent, fencing and planting ” 6 3 0
Lincolnshire ” ” ” 8 0 0
Gloucestershire ” ” ” 7 10 0
Carnarvonshire ” ” ” 5 2 0
SCOTLAND.
Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude,
cost of fencing and planting per acre 3 10 0
Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude, cost of
fencing and planting per acre 2 10 0
Perthshire (planting only) ” 2 10 0
Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and
planting ” 2 10 0
Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and
planting ” 2 0 0
IRELAND.
Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and
planting per acre 4 13 11
Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting ” 5 2 0
Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres were
planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 10_d._ per
acre. This included for fencing, £164 18_s._ 4_d._; drainage, £123
15_s._; plants, £520 10_s._; planting, £368 16_s._ 8_d._
In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that
in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been
carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The
average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be
about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named
plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we
have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental
per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation
referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who
used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at
1_s._ per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres of
land were let out previous to planting at 8_d._ per acre per annum.
Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing in a few
shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered that all the
above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed moorlands—the
very class of waste lands that I have so strongly advocated as being
suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of which at the present
time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle in various parts of
the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or
about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5_s._ for cost of purchase and 5_s._
for incidental expenses, would bring the initial total expenditure to
£7 10_s._ per acre. Elsewhere I have suggested that 1,000,000 acres
should be planted over a period of twenty-five years, at the rate
of 40,000 acres per year, which would entail an outlay of £300,000
annually—a small sum when compared with the £25,000,000 expended each
year by this country on supplies brought from abroad.
But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst
dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work
should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager,
who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It
is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds
good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong
methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper,
estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber
culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully
the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations
are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation
of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially
speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence,
fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the
question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been
confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant
further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in
many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of
management are alone responsible for the failure.
=Financial Returns from Tree Planting.=—Though it must be admitted
that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns cannot
be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too low),
owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes,
yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor ornamental
effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross returns
for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, where
game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development of the
trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first importance,
and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the
ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be
expected; but where, as on various Scottish and English estates, the
trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value,
the case is quite different, as the returns given below will attest.
One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862.
Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce
and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to
1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were
used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation
was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45
per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree,
but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that
dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at
from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost
of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return
per acre comes to about 20_s._ The adjoining heath-covered lands let
for about 2_s._ 6_d._ per acre. Again, on the Countess of Seafield’s
estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in 8_d._ per
acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at the age of
forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while in another
wood the individual trees brought 24_s._ 6_d._ each.
A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the
age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from
thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre.
The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value of
the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10_s._ per acre, thus leaving a
balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.
The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt
in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the
Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in
Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn
Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over
thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management
being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only
of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the
feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the
way of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands
where the planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are
concerned, it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years
no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales
of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting
and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual
return of fully 12_s._ per acre has in many instances been forthcoming,
while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found
to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that these figures
would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, in Scotland, the
larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were valued at 20_s._
each, while a valuation of 21_s._ per tree was made of larch on the
slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, at the age of forty
years. But many similar instances could be recorded, and are constantly
coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of
timber.
The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home
woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting
information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various
parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller
has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many
of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre
when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out
of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor
in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of
age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre.
One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy
years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about
forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations
were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste
land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10_s._ per acre.
It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only
from 1_s._ to 3_s._ per acre have been made to realize by judicious
tree planting as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years
with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the plantations
above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of
the British Isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are
properly planted and managed.
=Advantages of Tree Planting.=—Not only from a strictly financial point
of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations are of
the utmost importance.
For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of
the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and
ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly
be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on
a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce,
long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant
occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the
farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to
the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to
600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but
now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock
find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied.
So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that
the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.”
Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the
plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near
Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless
land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most
fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of
Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good
results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.
Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the
provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter
is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here.
It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in
the wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed
several plantations there, a full account of which will be found in
the _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland_
for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the
height which the trees had attained, the cubic contents of the timber,
and the price realized. Incidentally, it might be noticed that the
ground previously to planting was a dreary, heath-clad waste, only
suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel.
Many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from
a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited, not the
least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded
for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts all over the
country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult to get rid of
the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down, but were
larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming, I
feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special
transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by Irish
landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, after
negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the
quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for
delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and
rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet
of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they
were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber
have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these
cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme
of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate
prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible,
to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.
INDEX
A PAGE
Abele Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Acacia, False, for Town Planting, 102
Advantages of Tree Planting, 293
Afforesting Waste Lands, 282
_Agaricus melleus_, 218
Ailanthus for Town Planting, 101
Alder as Timber, 240
—— Common, for Seaside Planting, 78
—— for Economic Planting, 52
—— —— Exposed Positions, 52
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
—— —— Seaside ” 78
—— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, 78
Almond for Town Planting, 107
American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
Andromeda for the Shade, 192
Apple as Timber, 240
Appliances used in Forestry, 153
_Araucaria Imbricata_ Seed, 14
Area of Woodlands, 280
Arrangement of Plantations, 33
Ash as Timber, 240
—— for Economic Planting, 48
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Ornamental ” 132
—— —— Seaside ” 79
—— —— Town ” 104
—— Seed, 11
Aspect of Home Nursery, 26
Aspen for Seaside Planting, 78
Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
—— —— for Economic Planting, 65
_Aucuba Japonica_ for Town Planting, 105
—— —— —— Game Coverts, 179
—— —— —— Hedges, 189
Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, 65
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 69
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Town Planting, 108
—— —— Seed, 11
Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, 123
Autumn Work in Home Nursery, 30
B
Bark, 255
—— Stripping——Tools used, 222
Barking Oak, 220-222
Barron’s Transplanting Machine, 140
Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, 77
—— —— in London, 103
Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, 85
Beech Coccus, 205
Beech as Timber, 246
—— for Economic Planting, 49
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Hedge ” 187
—— —— Ornamental ” 188
—— —— Seaside ” 80
—— Seed, 11
Beetle Pine, 193
_Berberis Darwinii_ for Game Coverts, 180
—— —— —— Hedge Planting, 189
—— —— —— Seaside, 84
Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, 117
Birch as Timber, 240
—— for Economic Planting, 53
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Ornamental ” 122
—— —— Seaside ” 79
—— —— Town ” 104
—— Seed, 11
Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— —— Town Planting, 104
Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Blackberry for the Shade, 192
Bladder Senna for Town Planting, 106
—— Rust or Cluster-Cup, 219
Blasting Tree Roots, 273
Bog Soils, Trees for, 136
_Bostrichus Laricis_, 194
—— _Typographus_, 194
Box for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Game Covert, 177
—— Thorn for Seaside Planting, 83
Bracing a Tree, 159
Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
British Oak for Hedge Planting, 111
—— Timber and its Uses, 240
Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, 82
Burning Tree Stumps, 274
Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, 182
—— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, 192
By-products of the Forest, 250
C
Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, 130, 136
Charcoal, 253
—— Making, 226
—— Comparative Value of Wood, 231
—— Pit, 231
—— Kiln Burning, 231
—— Uses of, 232
Cherry as Timber, 240
—— for Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
Chestnut as Timber, 240
—— for Town Planting, 104
—— —— Economic Planting, 51
Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, 138
Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, 189
Climbers for Town Planting, 107
Cluster Pine for Planting, 81
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
Cockchafer, 202
Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
Collecting Tree Seeds, 8
Common Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
—— Gorse for Seaside Planting, 84
Common Holly for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— —— Town Planting, 107
—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
—— London Plane for Town Planting, 98
—— Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, 131
—— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— —— Town Planting, 108
—— Seeds, 9
—— Seaside, 80
Contract Work, Prices of, 277
Contents, xi
Coppice Wood Management, 170
—— Cost of, 173
Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, 111
Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
—— —— Seeds, 11
Cost of Forming Plantations, 287-288
_Cratægus Pyracantha_ for Town Planting, 108
Cricket Bat Willow, 54
Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, 101
_Cupressus Lawsoniana_, Seed of, 11
—— —— for Town Planting, 109
Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, 106
Cut-leaved Trees, 121
Cutting Osiers, 247
Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— Seaside Planting, 82
D
_Daphne Laureola_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Mezereon_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, 84
Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 117
Dedication, v
Dogwood for Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Charcoal, 232
Double Furze for Town Planting, 106
Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, 63
—— —— Seed, 12
Draining——Tools used, 37
—— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, 36
Dried Leaves as Litter, 251
E
Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Trees for, 48
Elder for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Seaside Planting, 76
Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
Elm, as Timber, 240
—— English for Hedge Planting, 111
—— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 85
—— Seed, 12
—— Tree Destroyer, 199, 200
English Elm for Hedge Planting, 111
—— Maple for Seaside Planting, 79
_Euonymus Japonicus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Radicans Variegata_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
—— Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
Exposed Ground, Planting, 72
F
Faggots, 255
False Acacia for Town Planting, 102
Felling——Tools used, 43
Felted Beech Coccus, 205
Fencing, 97
—— Plantations, 257
—— Tools used, 264
Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, 118
Financial Returns of Planting, 290
Firewood, 252
_Fitzroya Patagonica_ for Ornamental Planting, 118
Flowering Currant for Town Planting, 106
—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
Forest Area of the World, 280
Forest By-Products, 250
—— Produce, Utilizing, 250
Forestry and the War, 1
Formation of Game Coverts, 174
—— —— Plantations, 32
_Forsythia Viridissima_ for Town Planting, 106
Fountain Willow, 121
Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
Fungi on Trees, 212
Furze for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Town Planting, 106
G
Game Coverts, Formation and Management, 184
_Gaultheria Procumbens_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— _Shallon_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— —— —— Game Coverts, 181
Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, 64
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
Goat Moth, 200
—— Willow for Seaside Planting, 78
Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
Gorse for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 84
Grasses for the Sea-Coast, 86
—— —— Woodland Drives, 34
Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-137
Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, 177
_Griselinia Littoralis_ for Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— —— Town Planting, 105
Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, 84
H
Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, 47
Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, 130
—— —— Clay Soils, 132
—— —— Gravelly Soil, 131
—— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
Hawthorn Seed, 12
Hazel Nuts, 12
Heather for the Shade, 192
Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, 101
Hedges as Fences, 185
—— Formation of, 184
—— Management, 184
—— Ornamental, 188
—— Planting, 186
—— Pruning, 189
Hedgerow and Field Planting, 110
Hedging Tools used, 185
Height of Trees, Measuring, 271
Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
Holly as Timber, 240
—— Berries, 12
—— Fly, 204
—— for Game Coverts, 181
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 84
Home Nursery, 24
—— —— Spring Work, 28
—— —— Summer Work, 30
—— —— Autumn Work, 30
—— —— Winter Work, 30
Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
Hornbeam as Timber, 241
—— for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Hedge Planting, 113, 167
—— —— Seaside Planting, 80
—— —— Town Planting, 104
Horse Chestnut as Timber, 241
—— —— for Town Planting, 104
—— —— Seeds, 12
Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, 134
How to Prune, 157
Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, 77
_Hypericum Calycinum_ for Seaside Planting, 84
I
Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, 117
Index, 295
Indian Bean for Town Planting, 102
Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, 193
Introduction, ix
Ironstone Soil for Plantations, 133, 138
Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— Town Planting, 107
J
Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
_Jasminum Nudiflorum_ for Town Planting, 108
Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, 118
Juniper, Savin for towns, 109
K
Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, 106
Kilmarnock Willow, 121
Kiln Burning Charcoal, 231
L
Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Moth, 202
—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 84
Lackey Moth, 200
Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, 287
Larch Aphis, 197
—— Canker, 213
—— Cones, 12
—— Disease, Cause and Remedy, 213
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— —— Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Hedge Planting, 114
—— Miner, 195
—— Sawfly, 198
—— Timber, 241
Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, 82
Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Laurustinus for Game Coverts, 179
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Town Planting, 107
Leaf-Shedding Fungus, 218
Levelling, 38
_Leycesteria Formosa_ for Town Planting, 106
_Ligustrum Coriaceum_ for Town Planting, 105
—— _Ovalifolium_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Lilacs for Seaside Planting, 84
—— —— Town Planting, 84
Lime as Timber, 241
—— for Hedge Planting, 113
—— —— Town Planting, 103
Litter of Dried Leaves, 251
Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, 112
—— —— —— Town Planting, 101
London Plane for Town Planting, 98
Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, 84
M
Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— for Town Planting, 101
_Mahonia Aquifolia_ for Game Coverts, 180
Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, 100
Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, 118
Manufacture of Charcoal, 226
Manure for Home Nursery, 26
Maple as Timber, 241
—— for Seaside Planting, 79
Maram for Seaside Planting, 84
Measuring Height of Trees, 272
Measuring Standing Timber, 270
Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Minor Products of Forest Waste, 256
Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 78
—— —— —— Town Planting, 104
—— —— Seed, 12
Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
N
Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, 76
—— Spruce for Economic Planting, 64
Notch Planting, 44
Nursery, Formation and Management, 24
—— Home, its Formation and Management, 24
—— Plan of, 27
—— Tools used in, 29
—— Work for the Seasons, 28
O
Oak as Timber, 241
—— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, 79
—— for Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— —— Roller Moth, 204
—— Seed, 13
_Olearia Hastii_, 105
_—— Macrodonta_, 105
Oriental Plane for Town Planting, 98
Ornamental Planting, 116
—— Weeping Trees, 121
_Osmanthus Ilicifolius_ for Town Planting, 105
P
Paper=Pulp, 251
Peat Soil, 129
Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, 191
_Phillyrea Vilmoriniana_ for Town Planting, 106
_Picia Sitchensis_, 59
Pine Beetle, 193
—— for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
—— —— Seaside Planting, 81
—— Sawfly, 196
—— Shoot Moth, 195
—— Weevil, 194
_Pinus Insignis_, 82
_—— Montana_ for Seaside Planting, 81-85
_—— Macrocarpa_ Seed, 14
_—— Sabiniana_ Seed, 14
_—— Stropus_, 11
Pitch, 251
Pitting, 40
Plane for Town Planting, 99
—— Tree in Regent’s Park, 99
Plantations, Formation and Cost, 32
—— Hedges, 184
Planting, 41
—— Advantages of Tree, 293
—— Exposed Ground, 68
—— Financial Returns of, 290
—— Hedges, 184
—— Iron, 45
—— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— Notch, 44
—— Ornamental, 121
—— Osiers, 243
—— Tools used for, 43
_Polyporus Sulphureus_, 219
_—— Squamosus_, 216
Poplar as Timber, 241
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— Town Planting, 101
_Populus Canadensis_ for Seaside Planting, 78
_—— Alba_ for Seaside Planting, 78
_—— Nigra_ for Seaside Planting, 78
Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, 84
Preface, vii
Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, 92
—— —— —— Hedges, 184
Prices of Contract Work, 277
—— of Timber per ton, 239
—— —— —— per cubic foot, 238
—— —— Forest Produce, 237
Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Privet for Game Coverts, 178
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
Propagating Trees and Shrubs, 15
—— by Cuttings, 19
—— —— Grafting, 22
—— from Budding, 23
—— —— Layers, 21
—— —— Seed, 15
Prune, How and When to, 157
Pruning Bad Effects of, 152
—— Dead Wood, 155
—— Hedges, 152
—— Live Branches, 154
—— Shrubs, 157
—— Tools used in, 153
—— Trees, 151
Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, 118
Q
Quick Hedges, 186
R
Red-Rot Fungus, 217
Red Spider, 201
_Retinospora_ for Town Planting, 109
_Rhamnus Frangula_ for Charcoal, 233
_Rhododendron Ponticum_ for Game Coverts, 180
_Rhytisma Punctata_, 216
_Rosa Rugosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
_—— Rubiginosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
Rowan Tree for Town Planting, 104
_Ruscus Aculeatus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
S
St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— —— —— Game Coverts, 182
Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— Fir as Timber, 242
—— —— for Hedge Planting, 113
—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Pine for Economic Planting, 62
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 82
Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, 82
Seaside Planting, 73
—— —— Hardwoods for, 76
—— —— Shrubs for, 82
—— —— List of Trees for, 85
Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, 17
—— Collecting and Harvesting, 8
—— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, 10
—— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., 18
—— Tree, number in a lb., 10
Selecting Tree Seeds, 9
Shade-loving Shrubs, 191
Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, 191
Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, 134
—— —— the Sea-Coast, 82-86
—— —— Town Planting, 105-107
Silver Fir as Timber, 242
—— —— for Economic Planting, 64
—— —— Seed, 13
Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, 59
_Skimmia Japonica_ for Town Planting, 106
Slate Fences for Plantations, 258
Slit Planting, 44
Snowberry for Seaside Planting, 83
_Snowy Mespilus_ for Town Planting, 106
Soil for Home Nursery, 26
_Sophora Japonica_ for Town Planting, 104
Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Chestnut as Timber, 51
—— —— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Seed, 12
—— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Spider, Red, 201
_Spirea Adiantifola_ for Seaside Planting, 83
Spring Work in Home Nursery, 28
Spruce Fir as Timber, 242
—— for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— Gall Aphis, 198
Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— —— —— Town Planting, 106
Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, 106
Staking Trees, 119
Standing Timber Measuring, 270
Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, 257
Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, 106
—— —— for Seaside, 84
Summer Work in Home Nursery, 30
Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
—— Chestnut for Economic Planting, 51
Sycamore as Timber, 242
—— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Hedge Planting, 112
—— —— Seaside Planting, 76
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Fungus, 216
T
Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, 76-82
_Tamarix Gallica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
_—— Germanica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, 105
Tar, 251
_Taxodium Distichum_ for Town Planting, 109
Thinning Plantations, 141
—— —— Rules for, 149
Thorn Fly, 202
—— for Hedge Planting, 186
Thorns for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Town Planting, 105
_Thujopsis Dolabrata_ for Town Planting, 109
Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, 240
—— Measuring, 288
—— Prices, 237
Tools used in Forestry, 43
Town Planting, 87-109
—— —— Trees for, 98
Transplanting Seedlings, 18
—— Large Trees, 139
—— Machine, Faulkner’s, 140
—— Specimen Trees, 118
Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Guards, 265
—— Mallow for Seaside Planting, 83
Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, 101
—— Planting, Advantages of, 293
—— —— Financial Returns of, 290
—— Pruning in Economic Forestry, 151
—— Purslane for Seaside Planting, 83
Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, 15
—— best adapted for Various Soils, 128
—— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, 130
—— —— Clay Soils, 132
—— —— Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Exposed Planting, 68
—— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, 131
—— —— Hedge Planting, 110
—— —— Hedgerow and Field, 110
—— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— —— —— and Coal Soils, 133
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
—— —— Peaty Soils 129
—— —— Seaside Planting, 85
—— —— Town Planting, 98
Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, 102
Turf Dykes for Plantations, 269
Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
Turpentine, 250
U
Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, 118
Underwood, 170
Uses of Charcoal, 232
Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, 250
V
Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, 106
_Vinca Major_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Minor_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Vine for Town Planting, 108
Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, 107
W
Walnut as Timber, 242
—— for Town Planting, 104
—— Seed, 13
Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, 250
Water for Home Nursery, 26
Watering Trees, 97
Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, 106
Weeping Ash for Town Planting, 104
—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 121
Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, 60
—— Pine Seeds, 11
When to Prune, 157
White Beam Tree for Town Planting, 102
—— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
—— Rot Fungus, 218
Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
Willow Beetle, 197
—— Culture, 243
—— for Economic Planting, 54
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
—— —— Seaside Planting, 78
—— —— Timber, 242
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Kilmarnock, 121
—— Ringlet, 121
Willows for Basket-Making, 243
—— Profits of Culture, 248
—— Rules for Culture, 247
Winged Elm for the Seaside, 77
Winter Moth, 210
—— Work in Home Nursery, 30
Wire Fences for Plantations, 263
Wireworms, 208
Witch’s Broom or Willow, 210
Wood Fences for Plantations, 262
—— Leopard Moth, 203
Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
Y
Yew as Timber, 242
—— for Game Coverts, 181
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— Seed, 13
Butler & Tanner Frome and London