UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE
That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of
late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing
principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well
known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves
us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent
the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste,
and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest
department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other
than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes
bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit,
turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done,
both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is
well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the
country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the
above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes;
for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable
manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland
or certain farm or garden crops.
The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main,
applied in the four following ways:—
(1) Firewood.
(2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc.
(3) Bark for tanning.
(4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.
Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with
what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch,
turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with
paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor
uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.
Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports and
Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three species of
Pinus: _P. palustris_, _P. Pinaster_, and _P. sylvestris_.
Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought
about by boiling.
Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines,
principally _Pinus palustris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. tæda_.
The common silver fir (_Abies pectinata_) produces the famous Strasburg
turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice turpentine of
commerce.
In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches,
bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the
lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the
great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause
a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot
be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in
some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs
“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing
with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the
common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses
and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar
leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in
Styria for the same purpose.
Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure.
Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is
thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for
its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other
poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some
of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be
applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester,
special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood,
charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most
intimately associated.
=(1) Firewood.=—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English firewood
more worthy of consideration than at the present time, when the price
of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons will maintain that
in districts where coal is abundant, it is very questionable whether
there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood. We have
satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than
its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as expensive as coal,
as sold previous to the war, in most of our large towns. No doubt, on
many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood,
it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood, more
particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the
inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work. But this
in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for
the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when the rent of ground on
which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling and converting it
into firewood is taken into account, it will be found nearly as costly
as household coal of ordinary quality.
What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question that
is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of the
country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the cutting
up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to say when
large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for their
manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5_s._ to 6_s._ Again, how many
cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is another question
that is more readily asked than answered, for the difference in weight
between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is considerable. For
all practical purposes, however, we may state that about one and a
half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus making the cost of
preparing and housing the latter about 10_s._ The lowest price at
which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was 8_s._, but 10_s._ is
nearer the usual price, or about one-half of what is generally obtained
for firewood. The cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than 3_s._
Much depends upon the distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is
usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.
The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost of
a ton of wood, 8_s._, cutting same into firewood and stacking, 8_s._;
cost of delivery, 3_s._—total 19_s._
It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of
firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which
of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of
heat.
Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the
estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand
somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing
and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the
firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it
is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving
effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of
the plantations.
In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is
usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing
and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the
country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference
between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be
considered.
=(2) Charcoal.=—The following are the chief uses to which charcoal
is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting powders,
the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, and the
smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing
agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the making of black
paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable as a horticultural
requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes. In the
manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly inflammable quality is
required, the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood
(_Rhamnus frangula_), the white willow (_Salix alba_), and the common
alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut
and our native _Rhamnus catharticus_ are substituted.
Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other,
as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and
for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch
in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.
Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of
charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning
is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of
charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this
book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small
wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger
size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and
splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less
cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the
present low price of charcoal—about 1_s._ per bushel—there is a fair
profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the following
figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord of
ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, 12 ft.
long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly burned,
yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of 10_d._ will
realize 29_s._ 2_d._ The cost of cutting this cord of wood, which is
generally performed by contract, will be at the least 5_s._, and that
of burning 7_s._; thus leaving a clear profit of 17_s._ 2_d._ per cord
for the wood.
Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed
up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but
such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a
discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as
hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit
of from 8_s._ to 10_s._ per cord of wood.
=(3) Bark.=—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was estimated
at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 tons were
imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the employment
of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. For tanning
purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally in use in
this country, though both willow and alder are largely used for the
same purpose in various countries, more especially in Russia. Although
not at present a valuable product, a small margin of profit, even
at the present low price, will accrue through careful and judicious
management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully convinced. It is,
perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties
of oak, _Quercus Robur pedunculata_ and _Q. R. sessiliflora_—the
former contains 15 and the latter only 13 per cent. of tannin. The
branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, contain a relatively higher
proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.
The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a
separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.
=(4) Faggots.=—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, the
remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in
size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground
or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after
being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about
six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are
usually bound up by contract at 4_s._ 6_d._ per hundred, except when
the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another shilling is
added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16_s._ per hundred in
the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11_s._ 6_d._, if we deduct
4_s._ 6_d._, for binding, per hundred.
In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being
used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller
bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and
half that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with
tarred rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3_s._ 6_d._ per
hundred.
This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous
spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for
brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied
up and dry can be sold at from 5_s._ to 6_s._ per hundred for the
brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2_s._ 6_d._ per hundred. By
the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig and branch is
carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat
and healthy condition.
=Minor Products.=—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, etc.,
which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and
woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with
largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay
the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include
flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods,
etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and
from which considerable profits are realized.
In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are
selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs,
etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.
Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5_s._ per cart load—indeed, near large
towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In all
cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable
soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.
Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening
is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve
plants and roots from severe frost.