syllables accented about equally. It occurs as an occasional foot in a
four-syllable rhythm. No English poem is entirely spondaic. The
four-syllable foot and the spondee are so uncommon that there is
little use in the pupil's knowing more than that there are such
things. The example below is quoted from Lanier's "The Science of
English Verse."
| ^ | ^ | ^ ^ |
| e e e e | q e e | q q |
"Ah, the autumn days fade out, and the nights grow chill
| ^ | ^ | ^ ^ |
| e e e e | e e e e | q q |
And we walk no more to gether as we used of yore
When the rose was new in blossom and the sun was on the hill,
And the eves were sweetly vocal with the happy whippoorwill,
And the land-breeze piped its sweetest by the ocean shore."
Kinds of Metre.
_A verse is a single line of poetry._ It may contain from one foot to
eight feet.
_A line made of one foot is called monometer._ It is never used
throughout a poem, except as a joke, but it sometimes occurs as an
occasional verse in a poem that is made of longer lines. The two lines
which follow are from the song of "Winter" in Shakespeare's "Love's
Labour's Lost." The last is monometer.
"Then nightly sings the staring owl
Tu-whit."
_A line containing two feet is called dimeter._ It also is uncommon;
but it does sometimes make up a whole poem; as, "The Bridge of Sighs,"
already mentioned. Another example is:--
^ ^
"I'm wearing awa', Jean,
^ ^
Like snaw when it's thaw, Jean,
^ ^
I'm wearing awa'
^ ^
To the land o' the leal."
It is frequently met as an occasional line in a poem. Wordsworth's
"Daisy" shows it.
"Bright _Flower!_ for by that name at last,
When all my reveries are past,
I call thee, and to that cleave fast,
Sweet, silent creature!
That breath'st with me in sun and air,
Do thou, as thou art wont, repair
My heart with gladness, and a share
Of thy meek nature!"
_A line containing three feet is called trimeter._ Example:--
^ ^ ^
"The snow had begun in the gloaming,
^ ^ ^
And busily all the night
^ ^ ^
Had been heaping field and highway
^ ^ ^
With a silence deep and white."
_A line containing four feet is called tetrameter._ "Marmion" is
written in tetrameters. See the extract on p. 276.
_A line containing five feet is called pentameter._ This line is very
common in English poetry. It gives room enough for the poet to say
something, and is not so long that it breaks down with its own weight.
Shakespeare's Plays, Milton's "Paradise Lost," Tennyson's "Idylls of
the King,"--indeed, most of the great, serious work of the
master-poets has been done in this verse.
_A line containing six feet is called hexameter._ This is the form
adopted in the Iliad and the Odyssey of the Greeks, and the Aeneid of
the Romans; it has been used sometimes by English writers in treating
dignified subjects. "The Courtship of Miles Standish" and "Evangeline"
are written in hexameter.
Verses of seven and eight feet are rare; they are called heptameter
and octameter, respectively. The heptameter is usually divided into a
tetrameter and a trimeter; the octameter, into two tetrameters. Poe's
"Raven" and Tennyson's "Locksley Hall" are in octameters, and Bryant's
"The Death of the Flowers" is in heptameters.
A verse is named from its prevailing kind of foot and the number of
feet. For example, "The Merchant of Venice" is in iambic pentameter,
and "The Courtship of Miles Standish" is in dactylic hexameter.
Stanzas.
A stanza is a group of verses, but these verses are not necessarily of
the same length. Monometer, dimeter, and trimeter are not often used
for a whole stanza; but they are frequently found in a stanza,
introducing variety into it. A stanza made up of tetrameter
alternating with trimeter is very common. The stanzas from "Annabel
Lee" and "The Village Blacksmith," found on pages 278 and 279, are
excellent examples.
Scansion.
_Scansion is the separation of a verse of poetry into its component
feet._ Poetry was originally sung or chanted by bards and troubadours.
The accompaniment was a simple strumming on a harp of very few
strings, and was hardly more than the beating of time. The chanting
must have been much like the sing-song that some people fall into when
reading verses now. The first thing in scanning a line of poetry is to
drop into its rhythm,--to let it sing itself. When the regular accent
is felt, the lines can easily be separated into their metrical feet.
Read these lines from "Marmion," and mark only the accented syllables.
^ ^ ^ ^
"And there she stood so calm and pale,
^ ^ ^ ^
That but her breathing did not fail,
And motion slight of eyes and head,
And of her bosom, warranted
That neither sense nor pulse she lacks,
You might have thought a form of wax
Wrought to the very life was there;
So still she was, so pale, so fair."
The marked verses have an accented syllable preceded by an unaccented
syllable. Such a foot is iambic. There are four feet in each verse; so
the poem is written in iambic tetrameter. In the same way, one decides
that "The Song of Hiawatha" is written in trochaic tetrameter.
Variations in Metres.
In music the bar or measure is not always filled with exactly the same
kind of notes arranged in the same order. If the signature reads 3/8,
the measure may be filled by any notes that added together equal three
eighth notes. It may be a quarter and an eighth, an eighth and a
quarter, a dotted quarter, or three eighth notes. So, in poetry the
verses are not always as regular as in "Marmion" and "Hiawatha,"
although poetry is more regular than music and there are usually few
variations of metre in any one poem. A knowledge of the most common
forms of variation is necessary to correct scansion.
The commonest variation in verse is the substitution of three eighths
for the quarter and the eighth, or the eighth and the quarter. And the
very opposite of this often occurs; that is, the substitution of the
two-syllable foot for the three-syllable foot. The following, from
"The Burial of Sir John Moore," illustrates what is done. Notice,
however, that the beat is quite regular, and the lines lilt along as
if there were no change.
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^
| e e e | e q | e e e |e e e |
"Not a drum was heard, not a fun eral note,
| ^ | ^ | ^ |
| e e e | e e e | e e e [e] |
As his corse to the ram part we hur[ried];
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| e e e | e e e | e q | e q |
Not a sol dier discharged his fare well shot
| ^ | ^| ^ |
| e e e | e e e| e e e [e] |
O'er the grave where our he ro we bur[ied]."
In reading this the first time, a person is not likely to notice that
there are three feet in it containing but two syllables. The rhythm is
perfectly smooth, and cannot be called irregular. The accent remains
on the last syllable of the foot.
In the following selection from "Evangeline," trochees are substituted
for dactyls, yet there is no break in the rhythm. It does not seem in
the least irregular.
| ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e | e e e | q e |
"Be hind them followed the watch-dog,
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ | ^
| q e | e e e| e e e | e e e | e e e | q e |
Patient, full of im portance, and grand in the pride of his instinct,
Walking from side to side with a lordly air, and superbly
Waving his bushy tail, and urging forward the stragglers."
These examples are enough to illustrate the fact that one kind of foot
may be substituted for another and not make the rhythm feel irregular.
So long as the accent is not changed from the first syllable to the
last, or from the last to the first, there is no jar in the flow of
the lines. _The trochee and the dactyl are interchangeable; and the
iambus and the anapest are interchangeable._
We may take a step further. There are many times when some sudden
change of thought, some strong emotion forces a poet to break the
smooth rhythm, that the verses may harmonize with his feeling. Such a
variation is like an exclamation or a dash thrown into prose. The
following is taken from "Annabel Lee." The regular foot has the accent
on the last syllable. It is anapestic, in tetrameters and trimeters.
But note the shudder in the third line when the accent is changed on
the word "chilling." The music and the thought are in perfect harmony.
"And this was the reason that, long ago,
In this kingdom by the sea,
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
|e q | e q |e e e | q e |
A wind blew out of a cloud, chilling
My beautiful Annabel Lee;
So that her highborn kinsman came
And bore her away from me
To shut her up in a sepulchre
In this kingdom by the sea."
Another beautiful example is found in the last stanza of the same
poem. It is in the first two feet of the fifth line. Here the regular
accent has yielded to an accent on the middle syllable and there are
two amphibrachs. Notice, too, how it is almost impossible to tell in
the next foot whether the accent goes upon the second or upon the
third syllable. It is hovering between the form of the first two feet
and the anapest of the last foot.
"For the moon never beams, without bringing me dreams
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee;
And the stars never rise, but I feel the bright eyes
Of the beautiful Annabel Lee;
| ^ | ^ | ^ ^ | ^ |
| e e e | e e e |e e e | e e e |
And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side
Of my darling--my darling--my life and my bride,
In her sepulchre there by the sea
In her tomb by the sounding sea."
As has already been said, the iambus is the common foot of English
verse. It is made of a short and a long syllable. At the beginning of
a poem an unaccented syllable seems weak; and so very frequently the
first foot of a poem is trochaic; often the first two or three feet
are of this kind. At such a place the irregularity does not strike
one. The following is an illustration:--
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e |e q | e q | e q |
"Under a spread ing chest nut tree
| ^ | ^ | ^ |
| e q | e q |e q |
The vil lage smith y stands;
The smith, a mighty man is he,
With large and sinewy hands;
And the muscles of his brawny arms
Are strong as iron bands."
In this stanza the prevailing foot is iambic, but the first foot is
trochaic. In the following beautiful lines by Ben Jonson, there is the
same thing:--
| ^ | ^| ^ | ^ |
| q e |e q|e q | e q |
"Drink to me on ly with thine eyes
And I will pledge with mine;
Or leave a kiss but in the cup
And I'll not look for wine.
The thirst that from the soul doth rise
Doth ask a drink divine;
But might I of Jove's nectar sup,
I would not change for thine."
A similar substitution may occur in any other verse of the stanza; but
we feel the change more than when it is found in the first verse. The
second stanza of Jonson's song furnishes an example of the
substitution of a trochee for an iambus:--
"I sent thee late a rosy wreath,
| ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e | e q |e e e |
Not so much hon oring thee
As giving it a hope that there
It could not withered be,
But thou thereon didst only breathe
And sent'st it back to me;
Since when it grows and smells, I swear,
Not of itself, but thee."
Of all the great poets, but few have been such masters of the art of
making musical verse as Spenser. The following stanza is from "The
Faerie Queene;" and the delicate changes from one foot to another are
so skillfully made that one has to look twice before he finds them.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
"A little lowly hermitage it was,
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Down in a dale, hard by a forest's side,
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Far from resort of people that did pass
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
In travel to and fro; a little wide
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
There was a holy chapel edified,
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Wherein a hermit duly wont to say
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
His holy things each morn and eventide;
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Thereby a crystal stream did gently play,
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Which from a sacred fountain welled forth alway."
First and Last Foot.
From the lines on "The Burial of Sir John Moore," another fact about
metres may be derived. The second and fourth lines apparently have one
too many syllables. _This may occur when the accent is upon the last
syllable of the foot;_ that is, when the foot is an iambus or an
anapest.
Again, the last foot of each line may be one syllable short. _This may
occur when the accent is on the first syllable of a foot;_ that is,
when the foot is trochaic or dactylic. The scheme is like this:
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e | q e | q e | q e |
"Tell me not in mournful numbers
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e | q e | q e | q r |
Life is but an empty dream."
The last foot of a verse of poetry, then, may have more or fewer
syllables than the regular number; still the foot takes up the regular
time and cannot be deemed unrhythmical.
The first foot of a line, too, may contain an extra syllable; a good
example has been given in the lines on page 273, beginning,--
"Ah, the autumn days fade out, and the nights grow chill."
And the first foot of a line may lack a syllable, as in the first line
of "Break, Break, Break," by Tennyson.
In a line like the following, it is sometimes difficult to tell
whether the syllable is omitted from the first or the last foot. If
from the first, the verse is iambic, and is scanned like this:--
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| r q | e q |e q | e e e |
"Proud and low ly, beg gar and lord."
If the last foot is not full, the line is trochaic.
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
| q e | q e | e e e | q r |
"Proud and low ly, beg gar and lord."
Now if the whole of "London Bridge," from which this line is quoted,
be read, there will be found several lines that are trochaic beyond
question; and the last line of the chorus is iambic. The majority of
trochaic lines leads us to decide that the verse is trochaic. From
this example one learns to appreciate how nearly alike are trochaic
and iambic verses. Both are composed of alternating accented and
unaccented syllables; and the kind of metre depends upon which comes
first in the foot. In Blake's "Tiger, Tiger," there is not a line that
clearly shows what kind of verse the poet used. If the unaccented
syllable is supplied at the beginning the poem is iambic; if at the
end, it is trochaic.
"Tiger, Tiger, burning bright
In the forests of the night,
What immortal hand or eye
Framed thy fearful symmetry?"
Silences may occur in the middle of a verse of poetry as well as at
the beginning or the end. In the following nursery rhyme it is clear
that the prevailing foot is anapestic, though several feet are iambic,
and in the first two lines and the last line a single syllable makes a
foot. Silences are introduced here as rests are in music.
| r q | r q | r q |
"Three blind mice!
| r q | r q | e q |
See how they run!
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
Hurrah, hurrah for the farm er's wife!
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
She cut off their tails with a carv ing knife!
| ^ | ^ | ^ | ^ |
Did you ev er see such a sight in your life
|e q | r q | r q |
As three blind mice!"
Like this is the scansion of Tennyson's "Break, Break, Break."
| r q | r q | r q |
"Break, break, break!
On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me."
In scanning, then, it is necessary--
_First._ To determine by reading a number of verses the kind of foot
that predominates, and to make this the basis of the metrical scheme.
_Second._ To remember that one kind of foot may be substituted for
another, at the will of the poet, introducing into the poem a delicate
variety of rhythm.
_Third._ To keep in mind that the first foot of a verse and the last
foot may have more or fewer syllables than the regular foot of the
poem.
_Fourth._ That silences, like rests in music, may be introduced into a
verse and give to it a perfect smoothness of rhythm.
Kinds of Poetry.
It is a difficult thing to give a definition of poetry. Many have done
so, yet no one has been fortunate enough to have his definition go
without criticism. In general, it may be said that poetry deals with
serious subjects, that it appeals to the feelings rather than to the
reason, that it employs beautiful language, and that it is written in
some metrical form.
Poetry has been divided into three great classes: narrative, lyric,
and dramatic.
Narrative poetry deals with events, real or imaginary. It includes,
among other varieties, the epic, the metrical romance, the tale, and
the ballad.
_The epic is a narrative poem of elevated character telling generally
of the exploits of heroes._ The "Iliad" of the Greeks, the "Aeneid" of
the Romans, the "Nibelungen Lied" of the Germans, "Beowulf" of the
Anglo-Saxons, and "Paradise Lost" are good examples of the epic.
_The metrical romance is any fictitious narrative of heroic,
marvelous, or supernatural incidents derived from history or legend,
and told at considerable length._ "The Idylls of the King" are
romances.
The tale is but little different from the romance. It leaves the field
of legend and occupies the place in poetry that a story or a novel
does in prose. "Marmion" and "Enoch Arden" are tales.
_A ballad is a short narrative poem, generally rehearsing but one
incident._ It is usually vigorous in style, and gives but little
thought to elegance. "Sir Patrick Spens," "The Battle of Otterburne,"
and "Chevy Chase" are examples.
Lyric poetry finds its source in the author's feelings and emotions.
In this it differs from narrative poems, which find their material in
external events and circumstances. Epic poetry is written in a grand
style, generally in pentameter, or hexameter; while the lyric adopts
any verse that suits the emotion. The principal classes of lyric
poetry are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.
_The song is a short poem intended to be sung._ It has great variety
of metres and is generally divided into stanzas. "Sweet and Low," "Ye
Banks and Braes o' Bonnie Doon," "John Anderson, My Jo, John," are
songs.
_An ode is a lyric expressing exalted emotion; it usually has a
complex and irregular metrical form._ Collins's "The Passions,"
Wordsworth's "Intimations of Immortality," and Lowell's "Commemoration
Ode," are well known.
_An elegy is a serious poem pervaded by a feeling of melancholy._ It
is generally written to commemorate the death of some friend. Milton's
"Lycidas" and Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" are examples of
this form of lyric.
_A sonnet is a lyric that deals with a single thought, idea, or
sentiment in a fixed metrical form. The sonnet always contains
fourteen lines._ It has, too, a very definite rhyme scheme. Some of
the best English sonnets have been written by Shakespeare, Wordsworth,
and Mrs. Browning.
Dramatic poetry presents a course of human events, and is generally
designed to be spoken on the stage. Because such poetry presents human
character in action, the term "dramatic" has come to be applied to any
poetry having this quality. Many of Browning's poems are dramatic in
this sense. In the first sense of the word, dramatic poetry includes
tragedy and comedy.
_Tragedy is a drama in which the diction is dignified, the movement
impressive, and the ending unhappy._
_Comedy is a drama of a light and amusing character, with a happy
conclusion to its plot._
Exercises in Metres.
Enough of each poem is given below so that the kind of metre can be
determined. Always name the verse form and write the verse scheme.
Some hard work will be necessary to work out the irregular lines, but
it is only by work on these that any ability in scanning can be
gained. Always read a stanza two or three times to get the swing of
the rhythm. Remember the silences, and the substitutions that may be
made.
1. "I stood on the bridge at midnight
As the clocks were striking the hour,
And the moon rose over the city,
Behind the dark church tower.
"Among the long black rafters
The wavering shadows lay,
And the current that came from the ocean
Seemed to lift and bear them away."
2. "All things are new;--the buds, the leaves,
That gild the elm-tree's nodding crest,
And even the nest beneath the eaves;--
There are no birds in last year's nest!"
3. "Meanwhile we did our nightly chores,--
Brought in the wood from out of doors,
Littered the stalls, and from the mows
Raked down the herd's-grass for the cows;
Heard the horse whinnying for his corn;
And, sharply clashing horn on horn,
Impatient down the stanchion rows
The cattle shake their walnut bows;
While, peering from his early perch
Upon the scaffold's pole of birch,
The cock his crested helmet bent
And down his querulous challenge sent."
4. "You know, we French stormed Ratisbon:
A mile or so away,
On a little mound, Napoleon
Stood on our storming day;
With neck out-thrust, you fancy how,
Legs wide, arms locked behind,
As if to balance the prone brow
Oppressive with its mind."
5. "Come, read to me some poem,
Some simple and heartfelt lay,
That shall soothe this restless feeling,
And banish the thoughts of day.
"Not from the grand old masters,
Not from the bards sublime,
Whose distant footsteps echo
Through the corridors of Time.
"For, like strains of martial music,
Their mighty thoughts suggest
Life's endless toil and endeavor;
And to-night I long for rest.
"Read from some humbler poet
Whose songs gushed from his heart,
As showers from the clouds of summer,
Or tears from the eyelids start;
"Who through long days of labor,
And nights devoid of ease,
Still heard in his soul the music
Of the wonderful melodies."
6. "Hickory, dickery, dock,
The mouse ran up the clock;
The clock struck one,
And the mouse ran down;
Hickory, dickery, dock."
7. "Two brothers had the maiden, and she thought,
Within herself: 'I would I were like them;
For then I might go forth alone, to trace
The mighty rivers downward to the sea,
And upward to the brooks that, through the year,
Prattle to the cool valleys. I would know
What races drink their waters; how their chiefs
Bear rule, and how men worship there, and how
They build, and to what quaint device they frame,
Where sea and river meet, their stately ships;
What flowers are in their gardens, and what trees
Bear fruit within their orchards; in what garb
Their bowmen meet on holidays, and how
Their maidens bind the waist and braid the hair.'"
(In this quotation we have blank verse; that is, verse that does not
rhyme. It is iambic pentameter,--the most common verse in great
English poetry. What poems are you familiar with that use this
verse-form?)
8. "A wet sheet and a flowing sea,
A wind that follows fast
And fills the rustling sails
And bends the gallant mast;
And bends the gallant mast, my boys,
While like the eagle free
Away the good ship flies, and leaves
Old England on the lee.
"O for a soft and gentle wind;
I heard a fair one cry;
But give to me the snoring breeze
And white waves heaving high;
And white waves heaving high, my lads,
The good ship tight and free--
The world of waters is our home,
And merry men are we.
"There's tempest in yon horned moon,
And lightning in yon cloud;
But hark the music, mariners!
The wind is piping loud;
The wind is piping loud, my boys,
The lightning flashes free--
While the hollow oak our palace is,
Our heritage the sea."
9. "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door--
''T is some visitor,' I muttered, 'tapping at my chamber door--
Only this, and nothing more.'"
10. "Somewhat back from the village street
Stands the old-fashioned country-seat,
Across its antique portico
Tall poplar trees their shadows throw;
And from its station in the hall
An ancient timepiece says to all,--
'Forever--never!
Never--forever!'"
11. "Listen, my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere,
On the eighteenth of April, in seventy-five;
Hardly a man is now alive
Who remembers that famous day and year."
12. "Sweet and low, sweet and low,
Wind of the western sea,
Low, low, breathe and blow,
Wind of the western sea!
Over the rolling waters go,
Come from the dying moon, and blow,
Blow him again to me;
While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps.
"Sleep and rest, sleep and rest,
Father will come to thee soon;
Rest, rest, on mother's breast,
Father will come to thee soon;
Father will come to his babe in the nest--
Silver sails all out of the west
Under the silver moon:
Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep."
13. "See what a lovely shell,
Small and pure as a pearl,
Lying close to my foot,
Frail, but a work divine,
Made so fairily well
With delicate spire and whorl,
How exquisitely minute,
A miracle of design!"
(If the pupils have Palgrave's "Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics,"
they have a great fund of excellent material illustrating all
varieties of metrical variation. There are very few pieces of
literature that illustrate so many varieties of metre as Wordsworth's
"Ode on the Intimations of Immortality.")
* * * * *
APPENDIX
A. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
The Course of Study on pages xx-xxvi contemplates five days a week for
the study of English. The text which is to be the subject of the
term's work should first be studied for a few weeks. After it has been
mastered, three days of each week should be given to literature and
two to composition. In practice I have found it best to have the study
of literature occupy three consecutive days,--for example, Tuesday,
Wednesday, and Thursday. This arrangement leaves Monday and Friday for
composition. Friday is used for the study of the text-book and for
general criticism and suggestion. On Monday the compositions should be
written in the classroom. To have them so written is, at least during
the first year, distinctly better. The first draft of the composition
should be brought to class ready for amendment and copying. During the
writing the teacher should be among the pupils offering assistance,
and insisting upon good penmanship. Care at the beginning will form a
habit of neatness, and keep the penmanship up to a high standard.
The arrangement suggested is only one plan. This works well. Many
others may be adopted. But no plan should be accepted which makes the
number of essays fewer than one a week; nor should the number of days
given to literature be smaller than three a week.
During the second year, if the instructor thinks it can be done
without loss, the compositions may be written outside of school hours
and brought to class on a definite day. A pupil should not be allowed
to put off the writing of a composition any more than a lesson in
geometry. On Monday of each week a composition should be handed in;
irregularity only makes the work displeasing and leads to shirking.
Writing out of school gives more time for criticism and study of
composition, and during the second year this extra time is much
needed.
By the third year the pupils certainly can do the work out of school.
As the compositions increase in length, more time will be necessary
for their preparation. The teacher should, however, know exactly what
progress has been made each week; and by individual criticisms and by
wise suggestions she should help the pupil to meet the difficulties of
his special case.
In order that the instructor may have time for individual criticism,
she should have two periods each day vacant in which to meet pupils
for consultation. To make this clear, suppose that a teacher of
English has one hundred pupils in her classes. She should have no
more, for one hundred essays a week are enough for any person to
correct. If there be six recitation periods daily, place twenty-five
pupils in each of four sections for the study of literature,
composition, and general criticism. This leaves two periods each day
to meet individuals, giving ten pupils for each period. These should
come on scheduled days, with the same regularity as for class
recitation. The pupil's work should have been handed in on the second
day before he comes up for consultation, in order that the teacher may
be competent to give criticisms of any value. The inspiration of the
first reading cannot be depended upon to suggest any help, nor is
there time for such a reading during the recitation.
There will be need of class recitation in argument. Ten days or two
weeks are all that is necessary for text-book work. This should be
done before pupils read the "Conciliation." In the reading constantly
keep before the pupils the methods of the author.
Every teacher should be able to do what she asks of the pupils. No
person would dare to offer herself as a teacher of Latin or algebra
until she could write all the translations of the one and solve all
the problems of the other. Yet there are persons who have the audacity
to offer their services as teachers of English, when they cannot write
a letter correctly, to say nothing of a more formal piece of
composition. If an instructor in physics, who had asked his pupils to
solve a problem in electricity, should say to each unfortunate person
as he handed in his solution, "No, that isn't right; you'll have to
try again," without offering any help or suggestion, and should
continue this discouraging process until some bright pupil worked it
out, or perhaps some one guessed it, we should say that such a person
was no instructor at all. We might go so far as to question his
intellectual competency. We certainly should think him quite deserving
of dismissal. Still many teachers of English do nothing more than say,
"It isn't right. Make it so." If the teacher does not know how to do
the thing she asks the pupils to do, she should not be teaching. And
even when she can do it, she will often benefit herself and the pupils
by actually writing the composition. In this way not only does she
gain command of her own powers of expression, but she finds out the
difficulties with which the pupils have to contend. Every teacher of
English composition should be able to do some creditable work in
English; and every teacher of English should put this talent into
actual use.
Numerous examples of correct paragraphs, well-made sentences, and apt
words have not been included in the text. They have been omitted
because they can be found in the literature study. It is better for
pupils to find these for themselves. It will put them in the way of
reading with the senses always alert for something good; and all good
paragraphs and sentences lose something of their beautiful adaptation
when torn from the place of their birth and growth.
So, too, there are no long lists of errors. One hundred pupils in a
term make enough to fill a volume. When a teacher knows that Sentences
is to be her next subject she should begin three months in advance to
get a good collection of specimens. These should be classified so that
they may be most usable. By the time the class comes to the study of
Sentences some new, live material will be on hand for illustration.
In the pupils' exercises each week those errors should be singled out
and dwelt upon which are the special subject of text-book work. If the
pupils are studying Coherence in sentence structure, select all
violations of this principle in the week's exercises, and by means of
them nail that one principle down instead of trying to lay down the
whole set of principles given in the chapter on Sentences. Alongside
of this collection of mistakes in Coherence of sentences show the
pupils the best examples of tight-jointed sentences to be found in the
literature they are studying. Point out how these sentences have been
made to hold together, and how their own shambling creations can be
corrected.
Some teachers will fear the amount of literature required. It may seem
large, especially in the first two years. It certainly would be quite
impossible to read aloud in class all of this. However, that is not
intended. There would be but sorry progress either in the course of
study or in the power to analyze literature if the class time were
taken up with oral reading of narration and description. The whole of
a short story or one or two chapters of a novel are not too much for a
lesson. The discussion of the meaning and the method of the author
should take up the largest part of the time. Then such portions should
be read aloud as are especially suited to an exercise in oral reading.
In this way the apparently large list will be easily covered within
the time.
Moreover, there is distinct gain in reading much. If only three or
four pages be given for a lesson, the study of literature degenerates
into a study of words. A study of words is necessary, but it is only a
part of the study of literature. Such a method of study gives the
pupil no sense of values. He does not get out into the wide spaces of
the author's thought, but is eternally hedged about by the dwarfing
barriers of etymology and grammar.
B. THE FORM OF A COMPOSITION.
THE MARGIN. It is the custom to leave a margin of about an inch at the
left side of the page. In this margin the corrections should be
written, not in the composition. There should be no margin at the
right. The device of writing incomplete lines, or of making each
sentence a paragraph, is sometimes adopted by young persons in the
hope of deceiving the teacher as to the length of the composition.
Remember that pages do not count for literature any more than yards of
hideous advertising boards count as art. Write a full page with a
straight-lined margin at the left.
INDENTION. To designate the beginning of a new paragraph, it is
customary to have the first line begin an inch farther in than the
other lines. This indention of the margin and the incomplete line at
the end mark the visible limits of the paragraph.
THE HEADING. The heading or title of the composition should be written
about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and well placed in
the middle from left to right. There should be a blank line between
the title and the beginning of the composition. Some persons prefer,
in addition to the title, the name of the writer and the date of
writing,--an unnecessary addition, it seems to me. If they are to
appear, the name should be at the left and the date at the right, both
on one line. The title will be on the next line below.
Jay Phillips. Jan. 27, 1900.
The Circus-Man's Story.
"There was once an old man whom they called a wizard, and
who lived in a great cave by the sea and raised dragons. Now
when I was a very little boy, I had read a great deal about
this old man and felt as if he were quite a friend of mine.
I had planned for a long time to pay him a visit, although I
had not decided just when I should start. But the day Jim
White's father brought him that camel, I was crazy to be
after my dragon at once.
"When bedtime came, I had made all my plans; and scarcely
had Nurse turned her back when I was on my way. It was
really very far, but I traveled so swiftly that I arrived in
a remarkably short time at the wizard's house. When I
rapped, he opened the door and asked me in.
"'I came to see if you had any dragons left,' I told him. 'I
should like a very good, gentle dragon,' I added, 'that
would not scare Nurse; and if it is isn't too much trouble,
I should want one that I could ride.'"
THE INDORSEMENT. When the composition is finished, it should be folded
but once up and down the middle of the page. The indorsement upon the
back is generally written toward the edges of the leaves, not toward
the folded edge. I prefer the other way, however; and for this reason.
If in a bunch of essays a teacher is searching for a particular one,
she generally holds them in the left hand and with the fingers of the
right lifts one essay after another. Indorsing toward the folded edge
insures lifting a whole essay every time; while if the edges of the
leaves be toward the right hand, too many or too few may be lifted.
The indorsement should contain: first, the name of the writer; second,
the term and period of his recitation; third, the title of the essay;
and fourth, the date. In describing the class and period, it is well
to use a Roman numeral for the term, counting two terms in each year,
and an Arabic numeral to denote the period of his recitation.
||=============================
|| |
|| Jay Phillips. |
|| |
|| II, 3. |
|| |
|| The Circus-Man's Story. |
|| |
|| Jan. 27, 1900. |
| |
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PENMANSHIP. The penmanship should be neat and legible. Not all persons
can write elegantly; but all can write so that their work can be
easily read, and all can make a clean page. Scribbling is due to
carelessness. A scribbled page points to a scribbling mind; clean-cut
handwriting, perhaps not Spencerian, but a clear, legible handwriting
is not only an indication of clear-cut thinking but a means and
promoter of accurate thought. Moreover, as a business proposition, one
cannot afford to become a slovenly penman. Every composition should be
a lesson in penmanship, and by so much improve one's chances in the
business world. And last, the teacher who has to read and correct the
compositions of from one hundred to two hundred persons each week
demands some consideration. No one but a teacher knows the drudgery of
this work; it can be much lightened if each pupil writes so that the
composition can be read without difficulty. By doing this, the pupil
is sure of better criticism; for the teacher can give all her
attention to the composition, none being demanded for the penmanship.
C. MARKS FOR CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS.
In correcting compositions certain abbreviations will save a teacher
much time. Some of the common ones are given below. Underscore the
element that needs correcting, and put the abbreviation in the margin.
In case the whole paragraph needs remodeling, draw a line at its side
and note the correction in the margin.
Cap. Use a capital letter.
l. c. Use a small letter.
D. See the dictionary for the correct use of the word.
Sp. Spelling.
Gr. A mistake in grammatical use of language.
Cnst. The construction of the sentence is awkward or
unidiomatic.
Cl. Not clear. The remedy may be suggested by reference to
certain pages of the text.
W. Weak. As above, point out the trouble by a page
reference.
Rep. Repetition is monotonous; or it may be necessary for
clearness.
p. Punctuation.
Cond. Condense.
Exp. Expand.
Tr. Transpose.
? Some fault not designated. It is well to use page
reference.
P Make a new paragraph.
No P Unite into one paragraph.
[Greek lower-case delta] Cut out.
^ There is something omitted.
[Transcriber's note: The paragraph symbol cannot be displayed
with ascii characters. It is best described as a reversed
"P" with two vertical lines. We have substituted an upper
case "P".]
In addition to the above very common corrections, many others should
be made. Instead of abbreviations, it will be better to refer the
pupil to the page of the book which treats of the special fault. For
instance, if there be an unexpected change of construction, underscore
it, and write in the margin "226;" on this page is found "parallel
construction" of sentences. It may be well to use the letters U., C.,
and M., in connection with the page numbers to indicate that the fault
is in the unity, coherence, or mass of the element to be corrected.
The constant reference to the fuller statement of the principles
violated will serve to fix them in the mind.
D. PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation seeks to do for written composition what inflections and
pauses accomplish in vocal expression. It makes clear what kind of an
expression the whole sentence is: whether declarative, exclamatory, or
interrogative. And it assists in indicating the relations of the
different parts within a sentence. While there is practically
uniformity in the method of punctuation at the end of a sentence,
within a sentence punctuation shows much variety of method. Where one
person uses a comma, another inserts a semicolon; and where one finds
a semicolon sufficient, another requires a colon. It should be
remembered that the parts of a sentence have not equal rank; and that
the difference in rank should, as far as possible, be indicated by the
marks of punctuation. Keeping in mind, also, the fact that the
internal marks of punctuation,--the colon, the semicolon, and the
comma,--have a rank in the order mentioned, from the greatest to the
least, a writer will use the stronger marks when the rank of the parts
of a sentence demands them, and the weaker marks to separate the
lesser elements of the sentence. The sentences below illustrate the
variety which may be practiced, and the use of punctuation to show the
relation and rank of the elements of a sentence.
1. Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste but there are
definite rules for final punctuation.
2. Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste; there are,
however, definite rules for final punctuation.
3. Internal punctuation, the purpose of which is to group phrases and
clauses which belong together and to separate those which do not
belong together, and to indicate the relative rank of the parts
separated, is, to a great extent, a matter of taste: on the other
hand, there are definite rules for final punctuation, the object of
which is to separate sentences, and also to assist in telling what
kind of a sentence precedes it; that is, whether it be declarative,
interrogative, or exclamatory.
Looking at the first sentence, we find two elements of equal rank
separated by a comma. Some authors would prefer no punctuation at all
in a sentence as short as this. Again, if one wished to make the two
elements very independent, he would use a semicolon. There would be
but little difference in meaning between no punctuation and a comma;
but there is a wide difference in meaning between no punctuation and a
semicolon. The independence caused by the use of the semicolon is felt
in the second sentence, where the words are the same except one. In
this sentence a colon might be used; and one might go so far as to
make two sentences of it. Notice that in these two sentences the
question is how independent you wish the elements to be, and it is
also a question of taste. In the third sentence, there are elements of
different rank. To indicate the rank, punctuation of different value
must be introduced. The two independent elements are separated by a
colon. A semicolon might be used, if a semicolon were not used within
the second independent element. This renders the greater mark
necessary. Look at the commas in the first independent element. The
assertion is that "internal punctuation is a matter of taste." This is
too sweeping. It is modified by an explanatory phrase, "to a large
extent;" and this phrase is inclosed by commas. Moreover, the long
clause indicating the purpose of internal punctuation is inclosed by
commas. The use of a semicolon in the second part falls under the
third rule for the semicolon. If one should substitute for this
semicolon a comma and a dash, he could use a semicolon instead of a
colon for separating the two main divisions of the sentence. However,
the method in which they are first punctuated is in accord with the
rules generally accepted. The simplest of these rules are given below
but one must never be surprised to find a piece of literature in which
the internal punctuation is at variance with these rules.
CAPITAL LETTERS.
1. A capital letter begins every new sentence.
2. A capital letter begins every line of poetry.
3. All names of Deity begin with a capital letter.
4. All proper names begin with capital letters.
5. All adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital
letters.
6. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital
letter.
7. Most abbreviations use capital letters.
COMMAS.
8. A series of words or a series of phrases, performing similar
functions in a sentence, are separated from each other by commas,
unless all the connectives are expressed.
"Her voice was ever soft,
Gentle, and low,--an excellent thing in woman."
"Good my lord,
You have begot me, bred me, loved me: I
Return those duties back as are right fit,
Obey you, love you, and most honor you."
But, "shining and tall and fair and straight," because all the
connectives are expressed.
9. Words out of their natural order are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
"To the unlearned, punctuation is a matter of chance."
10. Words and phrases, either explanatory or slightly parenthetical,
are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
"Then poor Cordelia!
And yet not so; since, I am sure, my love 's
More richer than my tongue."
However when phrases and clauses are quite parenthetic, they are
separated from the remainder of the sentence by parentheses, or by
commas and dashes. The comma and dash is more common, and generally
indicates a lesser independence of the inclosed element.
"Then Miss Gunns smiled stiffly, and thought what a pity it
was that these rich country people, who could afford to buy
such good clothes (really Miss Nancy's lace and silk were
very costly), should be brought up in utter ignorance and
vulgarity."
11. The nominative of direct address, and phrases in the nominative
absolute construction are cut off by commas.
"Goneril,
Our eldest born, speak first."
"The ridges being taken, the troops advanced a thousand
yards."
12. Appositive words and phrases are separated from the remainder of
the sentence by commas.
"In the early years of this century, such a linen weaver,
named Silas Marner, worked at his vocation, in a stone
cottage that stood among the nutty hedgerows near the
village of Raveloe, and not far from the edge of a deserted
stone-pit."
13. When words are omitted, the omission is indicated by the use of a
comma.
"Fairest Cordelia, that art most rich, being poor;
Most choice, forsaken; and most loved, despis'd!"
14. A comma is used before a short and informal quotation.
"In the bitterness of his wounded spirit, he said to
himself, '_She_ will cast me off too.'"
15. A comma is used to separate the independent clauses of a compound
sentence sufficiently involved to necessitate some mark of
punctuation, and yet not involved enough to require marks of different
ranks.
"But about the Christmas of the fifteenth year a second
great change came over Marner's life, and his history became
blent in a singular manner with the life of his neighbors."
6. Small groups of more closely related words are inclosed by commas
to indicate their near relation and to separate them from words they
might otherwise be thought to modify.
"In this strange world, made a hopeless riddle to him, he
might, if he had had a less intense nature, have sat
weaving, weaving--looking towards the end of his pattern, or
towards the end of his web, till he forgot the riddle, and
everything else but his immediate sensations; but the money
had come to mark off his weaving into periods, and the money
not only grew, but it remained with him."
SEMICOLONS.
17. A semicolon is used to separate the parts of a compound sentence
if they are involved, or contain commas. It is also used to give
independence to the members of a compound sentence when not very
complex.
"The meadow was searched in vain; and he got over the stile
into the next field, looking with dying hope towards a small
pond which was now reduced to its summer shallowness, so as
to leave a wide margin of good adhesive mud."
"As for the child, he would see that it was cared for; he
would never forsake it; he would do everything but own it."
18. Semicolons are used to separate a series of clauses in much the
same way as commas are used to separate a series of words.
"I love you more than words can wield the matter;
Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty;
Beyond what can be valued, rich or rare;
No less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honor;
As much as child e'er loved, or father found;
A love that makes breath poor, and speech unable;
Beyond all manner of so much I love thee."
19. A semicolon is generally used to introduce a clause of repetition,
a clause stating the obverse, and a clause stating an inference.
(Many examples of the last two rules will be found in the discussion
of compound sentences on pages 202, 203.)
COLONS.
20. A colon is used to introduce a formal quotation. It is frequently
followed by a dash.
"Under date of November 28, 1860, she wrote to a friend:--
"'I am engaged now in writing a story--the idea of which
came to me after our arrival in this house, and which has
thrust itself between me and the other book I was
meditating. It is Silas Manner, the Weaver of Raveloe.'"
"On the last day of the same year she wrote: 'I am writing a
story which came across my other plans by a sudden
inspiration, etc.'"
21. A colon is used to introduce a series of particulars, either
appositional or explanatory, which the reader has been led to expect
by the first clause of the sentence. These particulars are separated
from each other by semicolons.
"The study of the principles of composition should include
the following subjects: a study of words as to their origin
and meaning; a study of the structure of the sentence and of
the larger elements of discourse--in other words, of
concrete logic; a study of the principles of effective
literary composition, as illustrated in the various
divisions of literature; and also a study of the aesthetics
of literature."
"What John Morley once said of literature as a whole is even
more accurate when applied to fiction alone: its purpose is
'to bring sunshine into our hearts and to drive moonshine
out of our heads.'"
22. A colon is used to separate the major parts of a very complex and
involved sentence, if the major parts, or either of them, contain
within themselves semicolons.
"For four years he had thought of Nancy Lammeter, and wooed
her with a tacit patient worship, as the woman who made him
think of the future with joy: she would be his wife, and
would make home lovely to him, as his father's home had
never been; and it would be easy, when she was always near,
to shake off those foolish habits that were no pleasures,
but only a feverish way of annulling vacancy."
23. A colon is sometimes used to mark a strong independence in the
parts of a compound sentence.
"He didn't want to give Godfrey that pleasure: he preferred
that Master Godfrey should be vexed."
THE DASH.
24. A dash is frequently used with a colon to introduce a formal
quotation. The quotation then begins a new paragraph.
(Example under colon.)
25. A dash is used alone or with a comma to inclose a phrase or clause
which is parenthetic or explanatory.
"'But as for being ugly, look at me, child, in this
silver-colored silk--I told you how it 'ud be--I look as
yallow as a daffadil.'"
(Example under comma.)
26. A dash is used to denote a sudden turn of the thought.
"I've no opinion of the men, Miss Gunn--I don't know what
_you_ have."
"'It does make her look funny, though--partly like a
short-necked bottle wi' a long quill in it."
27. A dash is frequently used when the composition should be
interrupted to indicate the intensity of the emotion.
"No--no--I can't part with it, I can't let it go,' said
Silas abruptly. 'It's come to me--I've a right to keep it.'"
"And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life!
Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,
And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more,
Never, never, never, never, never!--
Pray you, undo this button:--thank you, sir.--
Do you see this? Look on her,--look,--her lips,--
Look there, look there!"--
28. A dash is sometimes used alone before an appositive phrase or
clause.
"For the first time he determined to try the coal-hole--a
small closet near the hearth."
PERIOD, EXCLAMATION POINT, INTERROGATION MARK.
29. A period closes every declarative sentence.
30. A period is used after abbreviations.
31. An exclamation point follows an expression of strong emotion.
32. An interrogation mark follows a direct question.
33. An interrogation mark is sometimes used in the body of a sentence,
when the writer wishes to make the assertion forceful and uses a
rhetorical question for the purpose.
"The shepherd's dog barked fiercely when one of these
alien-looking men appeared on the upland, dark against the
early winter sunset; for what dog likes a figure bent under
a heavy bag?--and these pale men rarely stirred abroad
without that mysterious burden."
34. Quotation marks inclose every quotation of the exact words of
another. When one quotation is made within another, the inner or
secondary quotation is inclosed with single marks, the main or outer
quotation is included within the double marks.
(Examples of both may be found above.)
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING PUNCTUATION.
At the time the pupils are studying the rules for punctuation they are
reading Hawthorne or some other author equally careful of his
punctuation. In his writing they will find numerous examples of the
rules for punctuation. Let them take five rules for the comma, finding
all the examples in five pages of text. In the same way furnish
semicolons, colons, and dashes. When the rules have all been learned,
they should be able to give the reason for every mark they find in
literature. Next place upon the board paragraphs not punctuated, and
have the pupils punctuate them. Remember that there is not absolute
uniformity in the use of the comma, semicolon, and colon; though in
each author there is a general adherence to the principles he adopts.
Punctuation should be consistent. Insist that the pupil punctuate his
written work consistently.
E. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF LITERATURE.[57]
HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys.
TENNYSON. . . . . . . . Enoch Arden.
LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Tales of a Wayside Inn.
WHITTIER. . . . . . . . The Tent on the Beach.
MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Lays of Ancient Rome.
DICKENS . . . . . . . . A Christmas Carol.
KIPLING . . . . . . . . Wee Willie Winkie, and Other Stories.
KIPLING . . . . . . . . The Jungle Books.
HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . Twice-Told Tales.
HAWTHORNE . . . . . . . Mosses from an Old Manse.
DICKENS . . . . . . . . The Cricket on the Hearth.
BROWN . . . . . . . . . Rab and his Friends.
OUIDA . . . . . . . . . A Dog of Flanders.
HALE. . . . . . . . . . The Man without a Country.
DEFOE . . . . . . . . . Robinson Crusoe.
POE . . . . . . . . . . The Gold-Bug.
SCOTT . . . . . . . . . Marmion.
SCOTT . . . . . . . . . The Lady of the Lake.
BROWNING. . . . . . . . Herve Riel, an Incident of the French Camp,
and other Narrative Poems.
FRANKLIN. . . . . . . . Autobiography.
COOPER. . . . . . . . . The Last of the Mohicans.
LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Evangeline.
LONGFELLOW. . . . . . . Miles Standish.
DAVIS . . . . . . . . . Gallegher, and Other Stories.
MAUPASSANT. . . . . . . Number Thirteen.
MISS WILKINS. . . . . . Short Stories.
MISS JEWETT . . . . . . Short Stories.
POPE. . . . . . . . . . The Iliad.
ALDRICH . . . . . . . . Marjorie Daw.
LOWELL. . . . . . . . . The Vision of Sir Launfal, and Other Poems.
IRVING. . . . . . . . . Tales of a Traveller.
IRVING. . . . . . . . . The Sketch Book.
POE . . . . . . . . . . The Fall of the House of Usher.
WHITTIER. . . . . . . . Snow-Bound.
BURROUGHS . . . . . . . Sharp Eyes; Birds and Bees; Pepacton.
GOLDSMITH . . . . . . . The Deserted Village.
SCOTT . . . . . . . . . Ivanhoe.
DICKENS . . . . . . . . David Copperfield.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Julius Caesar.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . The Merchant of Venice.
IRVING. . . . . . . . . Rip Van Winkle.
IRVING. . . . . . . . . The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
BRYANT. . . . . . . . . Selected Poems.
GRAY. . . . . . . . . . An Elegy in a Country Churchyard.
TENNYSON. . . . . . . . The Princess; Idylls of the King.
DICKENS . . . . . . . . The Pickwick Papers.
BURNS . . . . . . . . . Selected Poems.
DRYDEN. . . . . . . . . Alexander's Feast.
BYRON . . . . . . . . . Childe Harold.
GEORGE ELIOT. . . . . . Silas Marner.
COLERIDGE . . . . . . . The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Essay on Milton.
RUSKIN. . . . . . . . . Sesame and Lilies.
EMERSON . . . . . . . . Friendship; Self-Reliance; Fortune of the
Republic; The American Scholar.
ARNOLD. . . . . . . . . On the Study of Poetry; Wordsworth and Keats.
LOWELL. . . . . . . . . Emerson, the Lecturer; Milton; Books and
Libraries.
HOLMES. . . . . . . . . The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table.
ADDISON . . . . . . . . The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.
WORDSWORTH. . . . . . . Intimations of Immortality, and Other Poems.
KEATS . . . . . . . . . Selected Poems.
SHELLEY . . . . . . . . Selected Poems.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Macbeth.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . A Midsummer Night's Dream.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . As You Like It.
WEBSTER . . . . . . . . Bunker Hill Monument Oration; Adams and
Jefferson.
GOLDSMITH . . . . . . . The Vicar of Wakefield.
MILTON. . . . . . . . . L'Allegro; Il Penseroso; Comus; Lycidas.
DE QUINCEY. . . . . . . Confessions of an English Opium Eater, and
Other Papers.
JOHN HENRY NEWMAN . . . Selected Essays.
THACKERAY . . . . . . . Henry Esmond.
STEVENSON . . . . . . . Virginibus Puerisque.
STEVENSON . . . . . . . Memories and Portraits.
SCHURZ. . . . . . . . . Abraham Lincoln.
GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS . Selected Addresses.
CHARLES LAMB. . . . . . Essays of Elia.
STEVENSON . . . . . . . Travels with a Donkey.
STEVENSON . . . . . . . An Inland Voyage.
BURKE . . . . . . . . . Conciliation with the Colonies.
LINCOLN . . . . . . . . Cooper Union Address; Gettysburg Speech.
CHAUCER . . . . . . . . Prologue, and Two Canterbury Tales.
MILTON. . . . . . . . . Paradise Lost, and Sonnets.
CARLYLE . . . . . . . . Essay on Burns.
TENNYSON. . . . . . . . In Memoriam, and Lyrics.
BROWNING. . . . . . . . Rabbi Ben Ezra; Saul; A Grammarian's Funeral.
THOREAU . . . . . . . . Walden.
AUSTEN. . . . . . . . . Pride and Prejudice.
GEORGE ELIOT. . . . . . Romola.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . King Lear.
SHAKESPEARE . . . . . . Hamlet.
MACAULAY. . . . . . . . Essay on Johnson.
THACKERAY . . . . . . . Vanity Fair.
LOWELL. . . . . . . . . Democracy; Lincoln.
STEVENSON . . . . . . . Lantern Bearers; A Humble Remonstrance; Gossip
about Romance.
* * * * *
INDEX
Abstract vs. concrete, 89, 90.
"Adams and Jefferson," Webster's, quotation from, 176.
Adjectives, 78.
"Alice in Wonderland," a story without facts, 25.
Allegory, 261.
Allusion, 263.
Amphibrach, 273.
Analogy, use of, 137.
Anapest, defined, 273;
interchangeable with iambus, 278.
"And," use of, 192.
Andersen, Hans Christian, his "Tannenbaum," 12.
Anecdotes in exposition, 97.
"Annabel Lee," quotations from, 271, 278, 279.
Anti-climax, 210.
Antithesis, 227.
"Apologia," Newman's, quotation from, 160.
Apostrophe, 261.
Argument, 4, 128-137;
from cause, 133;
sign, 133-137;
example, 137.
Arnold, Matthew, quotation from, 159;
quotation to illustrate repetition, 167;
to illustrate sentence structure, 222.
Arrangement, in narration, 29-32;
description, 74, 75;
exposition, 108-114;
argument, 138-141;
sentence, 222, 223.
Association of ideas, 103.
"Autumn Effect, An," quotation from, 17.
"Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," its purpose, 7;
beginning, 29;
length of sentences in, 33;
time for the action, 36.
Balanced sentences, 227, 228.
Ballad, defined, 285.
"Barbara Frietchie," a narrative poem, 4.
Bates, Arlo, quoted, 35.
Beauty, gained by use of figurative language, 258.
Beginning of a story, 29.
Bellamy, Edward, his "Looking Backward," 7.
"Biglow Papers," quotation from, 51.
"Birthmark," Hawthorne's, 24.
Blake, William, "Tiger, Tiger," quoted, 282, 283.
"Bonnie Brier Bush, Beside the," 25.
Bookish words, 242.
"Break, Break, Break," quotation from, 283.
"Bridge of Sighs, The," quotation from, 270.
Brief in argument, 138, 139.
Browning, Robert, vivid narration of, 23.
"Burial of Sir John Moore, The," quotation from, 277.
Burke, Edmund, quotation from his speech on "Conciliation with the
Colonies," 116;
that speech analyzed, 142-147;
quotations to illustrate paragraph structure, 171, 175, 177, 188;
quotations to show sentence structure, 200, 209, 214, 226.
Burroughs, John, his knowledge of his field, 9;
quotations from, 158, 160.
"But," use of, 192.
Capital letters, 303.
Cause and effect, 133-136.
Characters, number of, 35.
Chaucer, Geoffrey, quotation from, 245.
Choice of subject, 8-12.
Choice of words, 78-80, 239-255.
"Cinderella," 12.
Clearness and coherence, 180-193, 224, 225.
Clearness gained by use of figurative language, 258.
Climax, 139-141, 211, 218;
defined, 262.
Coherence, 20;
in narration, 31, 32;
in description, 74, 75;
in exposition, 116-118;
in paragraphs, 180-193;
in sentences, 224, 225.
Colons, 306, 307.
Comedy, 286.
Commas, 303, 304.
Comparisons, use of, 77, 98;
paragraph of, 165;
confusion of, 259.
Composition, 1;
oral and written, 2;
conventions of, 2.
"Conciliation with the Colonies," Burke's speech on, quoted, 116, 171,
175, 177, 188, 214, 226;
analyzed, 142-147.
Conclusion of a story, 23.
Concrete facts, use of, 89, 90.
Conjunctions, use of, 190, 191.
Connectives in sentences, 228, 229.
Consistency, 25.
Cooke, Josiah P., his essay on "Fire," 8.
"Copyright," quotations from Macaulay's speech on, 159, 172.
Correction, marks for, 300.
Curtis, George William, quoted, 111.
Dactyl, defined, 272;
interchangeable with trochee, 278.
"Daisy, The," Wordsworth's quotation from, 274.
"Darkness and Dawn," 8.
Dash, 307, 308.
"David Copperfield," description quoted from, 65.
"David Harum," its construction criticised, 22.
Davis, Richard Harding, small number of characters in his books, 35;
simple plot in his "Gallegher," 36.
Deduction, 129.
Definition, a, 91-94.
Description, 4, 49-80;
an aid to narration, 34;
and exposition, 91.
Description and painting, 50.
Details, in narration, 22-25;
paragraph of, 163.
Dickens, Charles, his "Nicholas Nickleby" as an exposition, 5;
description from his "David Copperfield" quoted, 65;
quotations from Mr. Micawber's conversation, 253.
Dictionary, use of, 237.
Differentia, 92, 93.
Digression, 22.
Dimeter, 274.
Discourse, forms of, 3-7.
"Discussions and Arguments," Newman's, quotation from, 97.
Dramatic poetry, 286.
Dynamic point of sentence, 221.
Elegy, the, 285.
Eliot, George, her "Silas Marner," 13;
quotation from, 152-156.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, primarily an essayist, 9.
Emotional statement, 115.
Emphasis, how secured, 110-112, 115, 116, 217-219.
End of a paragraph, 175-179;
of a sentence, 208-212.
"English Composition," Wendell's, quotation from, 94.
Enthymeme, 130.
Enumeration _vs._ suggestion, 52.
Enumerative description, 54.
Epic, the, 284.
Epithet, 260.
"Evangeline," quotation from, 277, 278.
Events, order of, 29, 30.
Everett, Edward, description from, quoted, 71.
Examples, paragraph of, 171.
Exclamation, 262.
Exclamation point, 308.
Exclusion of details, 22, 23, 26.
Exposition, 4, 89-120;
and description, 91.
Facts in stories, 25.
"Faerie Queene, The," quotation from, 281.
"Fall of the House of Usher, The," descriptions in, 34;
quotation from, 69, 71.
Familiar images, 76.
Farrar, Canon, as a writer of sermons, 8.
"Feathertop," 13.
Figurative language, 257;
value of, 258.
Figures of speech, 77, 250, 257-268.
Fine writing, 253.
"First Snow-Fall, The," quotation from, 274.
Fiske, John, his "History of the United States," 25.
Foot, a, in poetry, 272;
one kind may be substituted for another, 277-281;
first and last foot of a verse may be irregular, 281, 282.
Force, gained by use of figurative language, 258.
Foreign words, 243.
Francis I. quoted, 113.
"Function of Criticism at the Present Time," Arnold's, quotation from,
222.
"Gallegher," simple plot of, 36.
General terms, 89, 248-252.
Genung, J. F., on paragraph structure, 162.
Genus and differentia, 92, 93.
"Gold Bug," length of sentences in, 33.
Good usage, 222, 223, 239-245.
Grant, U. S., his "Memoirs" have no plot, 16.
Hackneyed phrases, 253.
Haggard, Rider, 12.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, a story writer, 9;
his "Feathertop," 13;
his descriptions in "The Marble Faun," 34;
quoted, 50;
quotations from, about "The Old Manse," 58, 59;
descriptions from his "House of the Seven Gables" quoted, 66;
from "The Old Apple Dealer," 67.
Heading of essay, 297.
Heptameter, 275.
"Herve Riel" as a piece of narrative, 23.
Hexameter, 275.
"Hiawatha," quotation from, 270.
"Historical Sketches," Newman's, quotation from, 52-54.
Hood, Thomas, "The Bridge of Sighs" quoted, 270.
"House of the Seven Gables," descriptions quoted from, 66.
Hugo, Victor, his description of Waterloo quoted, 67.
Huxley, Thomas, example of his use of comparison, 98;
quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure, 161.
Hyperbole, 263.
Iambus, defined, 272;
the common foot of English verse, 272, 279;
interchangeable with anapest, 278.
"Idea of a University," quotations from, 95, 171, 193, 203, 210, 247.
Illustrations, their value, 97.
"Impressions de Theatre," quotation from, 63.
"Incident of a French Camp, An," as an example of a short story, 23.
Incident, the main, 20, 21.
Incidents, order of, 29, 30.
Inclusion of material, 24.
Indention of paragraph, 297.
Individual arrangement of paragraph, 181-188.
Individuality of author, 8.
Indorsement of essay, 298.
Induction, 128, 132.
Interest, 11, 12.
Interrogation, 262.
Interrogation point, 308.
Introduction of story, 23.
Inversion, 262.
Irony, 262.
Irrelevant matter, 22, 23.
Irving, Washington, as a story writer in the third person, 27;
description from, quoted, 54;
short characterization quoted, 70;
description of a coachman quoted, 75;
quotations to illustrate paragraph structure, 164, 183;
to illustrate sentence construction, 202, 203, 219, 220, 229.
Jonson, Ben, quotation from, 280.
"Jungle Books," 12;
quotation from, 78.
"Kidnapped," quotations from, 15, 165;
its unity, 27.
"King Lear," its plot, 16;
quotation from, 60.
Kingsley, Charles, "The Three Fishers" quoted, 271.
Kipling, Rudyard, his "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," 7;
his "Jungle Books," 12;
his use of climax, 21;
as a story-teller, 22, 27;
small number of characters in his stories, 35;
quotation from his "Light that Failed," 60;
description quoted from his "Jungle Books," 78;
quotation to illustrate sentence construction, 201;
his "L'Envoi" quoted, 252.
"Lady of the Lake, The," quotation from, 269.
Language _vs._ painting, 49-52.
Lanier, Sidney, "The Science of English Verse," cited, 269;
quoted, 273.
Latin words, 245-248.
Le Gallienne, Richard, his essay on pigs, 10;
quoted, 257.
"Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The," 27, 29;
description in, 34;
quotation from to show paragraph structure, 163, 183;
to show sentence structure, 202, 219.
Lemaitre, Jules, criticism of Zola quoted, 63.
Length, of a description, 63, 64;
of a paragraph, 151-156;
of a sentence, 178, 179, 204, 205.
"L'Envoi" to "The Seven Seas," quoted, 252.
"Les Miserables," its intricate plot, 16;
quotation from, 67.
"Light that Failed, The," quotation from, 60.
"Little Dorrit," large number of characters in, 35.
"Little Red Riding Hood," 12.
Logical definition, 91.
"London Bridge," quotation from, 282.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, "Hiawatha" quoted, 270;
"Evangeline" quoted, 277, 278;
"The Village Blacksmith" quoted, 279, 280.
"Looking Backward," as a novel with a purpose, 7.
Loose sentences, 212, 214, 215.
Lovelace, Richard, quoted, 112.
Lowell, James Russell, his "Sir Launfal," 13;
quotation from "Biglow Papers," 51;
from a "Song," 52;
from "To W. L. Garrison," 89;
from "The First Snow-Fall," 274.
Lyric poetry, 285.
Lytton, Lord, quotation from, 241.
Macaulay, Lord, quotation on Milton from, 96;
quotation to illustrate comparison, 98;
his essay on "Milton" analyzed, 106;
last sentence of that essay quoted, 111;
that essay as an example of proportion in treatment, 114;
his denunciation of Charles I. quoted, 115;
further quotations from his "Milton," 117;
his speeches on "Copyright" and the "Reform Bill" quoted, 159, 172,
193;
quotations from the "Milton" to illustrate paragraph structure, 164,
166, 168, 178, 182, 184.
"Macbeth," 13.
Maclaren, Ian, 25.
Main incident, 20-26.
Major term, 129.
"Marble Faun, The," description in, 34.
Margin of composition, 296.
"Marmion," 27, 29;
quoted, 276.
Mass, 20;
in description, 64-75;
in exposition, 108-114;
in paragraphs, 174-178;
in sentences, 207-212.
Masson, David, 104.
Maupassant, Guy de, quotation from his "Pierre et Jean," 56;
from his "Odd Number," 156.
Meredith, George, quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure,
161;
sentence structure, 205.
Metaphor, 77, 260.
Metonymy, 250, 263.
Metre, kinds of, 273-275;
variations in, 276.
Metrical romance, the, 284.
Middle term, 130.
"Milton," Macaulay's essay on, quotations from, 96, 98, 111, 115, 117,
119, 164, 166-168, 178, 184;
analyzed, 106.
Milton, John, quotations from, 241, 245, 248.
Minor term, 129.
Monometer, 273.
Mood in description, 59-62, 67-69.
"Mosses from an Old Manse," quotation from, 50.
Movement of story, 32, 33.
Narration, 4, 13-37.
Narrative poetry, 284.
National usage, 242.
"New Testament," quotation from, 241.
Newman, Cardinal, quotation from, about Athens, 52;
quotation on theology, 95;
quotation to illustrate the use of specific instances in exposition,
97;
to illustrate paragraph structure, 160, 171, 177, 193;
to show sentence construction, 203, 210;
to show use of words, 247.
"Nicholas Nickleby," as an exposition of school abuses, 5.
Nouns, 78.
Number of characters, 35.
Observation, its value, 55.
Obverse statement, 95, 96;
paragraph of, 169-171.
Octameter, 275.
"Odd Number, The," quotation from, 156.
Ode, defined, 285.
"OEnone," quotation from, 51.
"Old Apple Dealer, The," quotation from, 67.
Omniscience of an author, 27.
Order of events in stories, 29;
of words in sentences, 217-219.
Outline, use of, 32, 109, 110, 138, 139, 174.
Palmer, Professor G. H., quotations from, on composition writing, 101,
112.
"Paradise Lost," quotations from, 241, 245, 248.
Paragraphs, 151-195.
Parallel construction, 192-194, 226, 227.
Particulars in exposition, 96;
paragraph of, 163.
Penmanship, 300.
Pentameter, 274.
"Pepacton," 9;
quotations from, 158, 160.
Period, 308.
Periodic sentences, 212-216.
Personification, 77, 260.
Persuasion, 4.
Philippians iv. 8, 241.
"Physical Basis of Life," Huxley's, quotations from, 98, 161.
"Pierre et Jean," quotation from, 55.
"Pilgrim's Progress," 13.
Place of a story, 29.
Plot, 15-20, 36.
Poe, Edgar Allan, his sentences, 33;
his use of description in "The Fall of the House of Usher," 34;
quotations from that work, 68, 71;
"Annabel Lee" quoted, 271, 278, 279.
Poetic feet, 272.
Poetical words, 254.
Poetry, kinds of, 284-286.
Point of view, 56-59;
change of, 58;
mental, 59.
Position of words in sentences, 217.
"Praeterita," Ruskin's, quotations from, 169.
Premises, 129;
false, 131.
"Present Position of Catholics in England," Newman's, quotation from,
177.
Present usage of words, 244, 245.
"Prince Otto," quotations from, 72, 73.
"Princess, The," quotation from, 251.
Pronouns, use of, 188, 189.
Proportion in description, 73;
in exposition, 104-108, 114;
in paragraphs, 179.
"Prose Fancies," 10.
Provincialisms, 242.
Purpose, of an author, 6, 7;
in description, 59-62.
Quotation marks, 308.
"Quo Vadis," 7.
Rapidity of movement, 32.
"Reform Bill," quotation from Macaulay's speech on, 193.
Refutation in argument, 141.
Repetition, its value, 94;
paragraph of, 167.
Reputable words, 239-241.
"Richard Feverel," quotations from, 161, 205.
"Richelieu," quotation from, 241.
"Robinson Crusoe," has little plot, 16.
Royce, Josiah, quotation from, 242.
Ruskin, John, 49;
quotation to illustrate building up a paragraph, 169;
his "Sesame and Lilies," 239.
Saxon words, 245-248.
Scale of treatment, 104-108.
Scansion, 275-284;
requisites for scanning, 283, 284.
"Science of English Verse, The," quotation from, 273.
Scott, Sir Walter, as a story-teller in the third person, 27;
his dull introductory chapters, 31;
"The Lady of the Lake" quoted, 269;
"Marmion" quoted, 276.
Selection of material in narration, 21-28;
in description, 56-62;
in exposition, 102-104;
in argument, 138.
"Self-Cultivation in English," quotation from, 101, 112.
Semicolons, 202, 203, 305, 306.
Sentences, 200-230;
simple and compound, 200, 201;
long or short, 204, 205.
Sequence of events, 29, 30.
Serial arrangement of paragraph, 181-188.
"Sesame and Lilies," 239.
Sienkiewicz, Henry, his "Quo Vadis," 7.
"Silas Marner," written for a purpose, 13;
example of a plot, 20;
time consumed in the story, 36;
quotation to show paragraph length, 152-156.
Simile, 77, 261.
Sing-song, natural tendency toward, 269, 276.
Slang, 240.
Slowness of movement, 33.
"Snow-Bound," narrative or descriptive?, 4.
Song defined, 285.
Sonnet defined, 285.
Specific words, 248-252.
Spencer, Herbert, on the philosophy of the periodic sentence, 212.
Spenser, Edmund, "The Faerie Queene" quoted, 281.
"Spirit of Modern Philosophy," Royce's, quotation from, 242.
Spondee, 273.
Stanza, 275.
Stedman, E. C., an authority on literature, 9.
Stevenson, Robert Louis, his "Treasure Island" and "Travels with a
Donkey" as narratives, 4;
quotation from "Kidnapped," 15;
his "An Autumn Effect" quoted, 17;
unity in his stories, 27;
descriptions from, quoted, 62, 72;
examples of personification from, 77;
his unusual use of words, 79;
quotation to show paragraph structure, 165.
Subdual of subordinate parts, 219.
Subject, 8-12;
common, 11;
interesting, 11;
in exposition, 99, 100.
Suggestion _vs._ enumeration, 52.
Suggestions to teachers, 257-260.
Suggestive description, 55.
Summary, a, 119.
Superlatives, 80.
Syllogism, 129-132.
Synecdoche, 250, 263.
"Tannenbaum," 12.
Technical words, 242.
Tennyson, Lord, quotations from, 51, 251, 283.
Terms of syllogism, 129, 130.
Testimony, 136.
Tetrameter, 274.
Thackeray, W. M., quotation from, 157.
Theme in exposition, 100, 101.
"Three Fishers, The," quotation from, 271.
"Tiger, Tiger," quotation from, 283.
Time of story, 35.
Title in exposition, 102.
"To W. L. Garrison," quotation from, 89.
Topic-sentence, 157;
its position, 157-161.
Tragedy, 286.
Transitions, 118, 119.
"Travels with a Donkey," narrative or descriptive? 4;
absence of plot, 17;
quotations from, 62, 65, 157.
"Treasure Island," a narrative, 4;
plot simple, 16.
Trimeter, 274.
Trochee, defined, 272;
interchangeable with dactyl, 278.
Type-form of paragraph, 162.
"Ugly Duckling, The," 25.
Undistributed middle, 131.
Unity, 20;
in narration, 21, 22;
in description, 56-64;
in exposition, 102, 103;
in argument, 138;
in paragraphs, 173;
in sentences, 205.
"Uses of Astronomy, The," quotation from, 72.
Value of observation, 55.
"Vanity Fair," example of a plot, 19;
quotation from, 157.
Variations in metre, 276-284.
Verbs in description, 79.
Verne, Jules, 12.
Verse, a, definition of, 273;
how named, 275.
Verse forms, 269-291.
"Village Blacksmith, The," quotation from, 279, 280.
"Vision of Sir Launfal, The," 13;
quotation from, 67.
Vocabulary, need of, 236.
Vulgarisms, 240.
"Wake Robin," 9.
Webster, Daniel, quotation from, to illustrate paragraph structure,
176;
his use of words, 247.
"Wee Willie Winkie," its climax, 21.
Wendell, Barrett, quotation on printed words from, 94.
Whittier, John G., his "Barbara Frietchie" and "Snow-Bound" as
narratives, 4.
Wilkins, Miss, small number of characters in her books, 35.
Wolfe, Charles, "The Burial of Sir John Moore" quoted, 277.
Words, 235-256;
choice of, 78, 79, 80, 254-260;
reputable, 240, 241;
national, 242;
in present use, 244, 245;
Latin and Saxon, 245-248;
general and specific, 248-252.
"Wordsworth," Arnold's essay on, quotations from, 158, 167;
"The Daisy" quoted, 274.
* * * * *
FOOTNOTES
1. See pp. 13, 14, of the Report of Committee on College Entrance
Requirements.
2. See the first essay in _Prose Fancies._
3. Unless otherwise stated, all page references are to the Riverside
Literature Series.
4. _Biglow Papers,_ No. X.
5. Tennyson's _OEnone._
6. _Historical Sketches,_ by Cardinal Newman.
7. _Pierre et Jean,_ by Maupassant. Quoted from Bates's _Talks on
Writing English._
8. _Impressions de Theatre,_ by Jules Lemaitre.
9. _The Marble Faun,_ by Nathaniel Hawthorne.
10. _Travels with a Donkey,_ by R. L. Stevenson.
11. _Les Miserables,_ by Victor Hugo.
12. _The Stage Coach,_ in Irving's _Sketch Book._
13. _The Jungle Book,_ by Rudyard Kipling.
14. _To W. L. Garrison,_ by J. R. Lowell.
15. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman.
16. _Essay on Milton,_ by Lord Macaulay.
17. _Discussions and Arguments._
18. _Essay on Milton._
19. _The Physical Basis of Life,_ by T. H. Huxley.
20. _Self-Cultivation in English,_ by Professor G. H. Palmer.
21. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke.
22. A text-book on Logic, such as Jevons's, should be used to
illustrate the kinds of argument more fully.
23. _Silas Marner,_ by George Eliot.
24. _The Odd Number,_ by Guy de Maupassant.
25. _Vanity Fair,_ by W. M. Thackeray.
26. _Idyl of the Honey-Bee,_ from Burroughs's _Pepacton._
27. _Essay on Wordsworth,_ by Matthew Arnold.
28. Speech on _Copyright,_ by Lord Macaulay.
29. _Idyl of the Honey-Bee,_ from Burroughs's _Pepacton._
30. _The Physical Basis of Life,_ by T. H. Huxley.
31. See Scott and Denney's _Composition-Rhetoric._
32. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving.
33. _Essay on Milton,_ by Lord Macaulay.
34. _Kidnapped,_ by R. L. Stevenson.
35. _Praeterita,_ by John Ruskin.
36. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke.
37. Barrett Wendell's _English Composition._
38. Oration on _Adams and Jefferson,_ by Daniel Webster.
39. _Present Position of Catholics in England,_ by Cardinal Newman.
40. Speech on _Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke.
41. Speech on the _Reform Bill of 1832,_ by Lord Macaulay.
42. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman.
43. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving.
44. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman.
45. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman.
46. _Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke.
47. _Legend of Sleepy Hollow,_ by W. Irving.
48. _Function of Criticism at the Present Time,_ by Matthew Arnold.
49. _Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies,_ by Burke.
50. _The Spirit of Modern Philosophy,_ by Josiah Royce.
51. See Lowell's _Biglow Papers,_ Introduction to Second Series.
52. _Idea of a University,_ by Cardinal Newman.
53. From _The Princess: a Medley,_ Part IV.
54. From _The Seven Seas,_ published by D. Appleton & Co., New York.
Copyright, 1896, by Rudyard Kipling.
55. In any piece of literature there are many figures. The following
should be used only to make pupils familiar with varieties of
figures. They will find many more in the literature they read.
56. The treatment of this subject is based upon Lanier's _The Science
of English Verse._
57. See p. xix.