TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
* Italics are denoted by underscores as in _italics_.
* Small caps are represented in upper case as in SMALL CAPS.
* Letter spaced Greek text is enclosed in tildes as in ~καὶ τὰ
λοιπά~.
* Footnotes have been renumbered. Each footnote is placed at the
end of the paragraph that includes its anchor.
* Obvious printer errors have been silently corrected, after
comparison with a later edition of this work. Greek text has
also been corrected after checking with this later edition and
with Perseus, when the reference was found.
* Original spelling, hyphenation and punctuation have been kept,
but variant spellings were made consistent when a predominant
usage was found.
* Nevetherless, no attempt has been made at normalizing proper
names (i.e. Ægæan and Ægean, Æschines and Æschinês, Alkibiades and
Alkibiadês, Andokides and Andokidês, Aristeides and Aristeidês,
Boedromion and Boëdromion, Chalkiœkos and Chalkiœkus, Deinomenes
and Deinomenês, Deïphonus and Dêiphonus, Demosthenes and
Demosthenês, Inaros and Inarôs, Isokrates and Isokratês,
Kephallenia and Kephallênia, Miltiades and Miltiadês, Mykenæ and
Mykênæ, Pegæ and Pêgæ, Sestus and Sestos, Thucydides and
Thucydidês, Xenophon and Xenophôn, etc.). The author established
at the beginning of the first volume of this work some rules of
transcription for proper names, but neither he nor his publisher
follow them consistently.
HISTORY OF GREECE.
BY
GEORGE GROTE, ESQ.
VOL. V.
REPRINTED FROM THE LONDON EDITION.
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS
329 AND 331 PEARL STREET.
1857.
PREFACE TO VOL. V.
VOLUMES V AND VI.
FROM THE BATTLE OF MARATHON TO THE PEACE OF NIKIAS.
B. C. 490-421.
I had reckoned upon carrying my readers in these two volumes down to
the commencement of the great Athenian expedition against Syracuse.
But the narration of events, now that we are under the positive
guidance of Thucydidês,—coupled with the exposition of some points on
which I differ from the views generally taken by my predecessors,—
have occupied greater space than I had foreseen: and I have been
obliged to enlarge my Sixth Volume beyond the usual size, in order to
arrive even at the Peace of Nikias.
The interval of disturbance and partial hostility, which ensued
between that peace and the Athenian expedition, will therefore be
reserved for the beginning of my Seventh Volume, the publication of
which will not be long delayed.
G. G.
Dec. 1848.
CONTENTS.
VOL. V.
PART II.
CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
FROM THE BATTLE OF MARATHON TO THE MARCH OF XERXES AGAINST GREECE.
Resolutions of Darius to invade Greece a second time. His death.
— Succeeded by his son Xerxes. — Revolt and reconquest of Egypt
by the Persians. — Indifference of Xerxes to the invasion of
Greece — persons who advised and instigated him — persuasions
which they employed — prophecies produced by Onomakritus. —
Xerxes resolves to invade Greece. — Historical manner and
conception of Herodotus. — Xerxes announces his project to an
assembly of Persian counsellors — Mardonius and Artabanus,
the evil and good genius. — Xerxes is induced by Artabanus to
renounce his project — his repeated dreams — divine command to
invade Greece. — Religious conception of the sequences of history
— common both to Persians and Greeks. — Vast preparations of
Xerxes — March of Xerxes from the interior of Asia — collection
of the invading army at Sardis — his numerous fleet and large
magazines of provision beforehand. — He throws a bridge of boats
across the Hellespont. — The bridge is destroyed by a storm —
Wrath of Xerxes — he puts to death the engineers and punishes the
Hellespont. — Remarks on this story of the punishment inflicted
on the Hellespont: there is no sufficient reason for disbelieving
its reality. — Reconstruction of the bridge — description of it
in detail. — Xerxes cuts a ship-canal across the isthmus of Mount
Athos. — Superior intelligence of the Phenicians. — Employment
of the lash over the workmen engaged on the canal — impression
made thereby on the Greeks. — Bridge of boats thrown across the
Strymon. — March of Xerxes from Sardis — disposition of his army.
— Story of the rich Kappadokian Pythius — his son put to death
by order of Xerxes. — March to Abydos — respect shown to Ilium
by Xerxes. — Xerxes and his army cross over the Hellespontine
bridges. — March to Doriskus in Thrace, near the mouth of the
Hebrus — his fleet joins him here. — Review and muster on the
plain of Doriskus — immense variety of the nations brought
together. — Numbering of the army — method employed. — Immense
and incredible totals brought out by Herodotus. — Comments upon
the evidence of Herodotus and upon himself as witness and judge.
— Other testimonies about the number of the Persians. — Xerxes
passes in review the land-force and the fleet at Doriskus — his
conversation with the Spartan king Demaratus. — March of Xerxes
from Doriskus westward along Thrace. — Contributions levied on
the Grecian towns on the coast of Thrace — particularly Thasus
and Abdêra. — Xerxes crosses the Strymon — marches to Akanthus —
zeal of the Akanthians in regard to the canal of Athos. — March
of Xerxes to Therma — his fleet join him in the Thermaic Gulf.
— Favorable prospects of the invasion — zeal of the Macedonian
prince to assist Xerxes.
1-44
CHAPTER XXXIX.
PROCEEDINGS IN GREECE FROM THE BATTLE OF MARATHON TO THE TIME OF
THE BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ.
Violent proceedings and death of Kleomenês king of Sparta. —
Complaint of the Æginetans at Sparta against Kleomenês and
Leotychidês, on the subject of the hostages which those two
kings had taken from Ægina. — The Spartans deliver Leotychidês
to the Æginetans, who require him to go with them to Athens,
to get back the hostages. — Refusal of the Athenians to give
up the hostages — reprisals of the Æginetans. — The Æginetan
Nikodromus lays a scheme for a democratical revolution in Ægina,
in concert with Athens — the movement fails. — Treatment of the
defeated conspirators — sacrilege. — The Athenians land a force
in Ægina — war which ensues. — Effect of this war in inducing the
Athenians to enlarge their military force. — Themistoklês and
Aristeidês, the chief men at Athens — intense rivalry between
them. — Banishment of the latter by ostracism. — Conversion
of Athens from a land power into a naval power proposed and
urged by Themistoklês. — Views and long-sighted calculations of
Themistoklês — he was at this time more essential to his country
than Aristeidês. — Fleet of Athens — the salvation of Greece
as well as of herself. — Valuable fund new first available to
Athens from the silver mines of Laurium in Attica. — Themistoklês
prevails upon the Athenian people to forego the distribution
of this fund, and employ it in building an increased number of
ships. — Preparations of Xerxes — known beforehand in Greece. —
Heralds from Persia to demand earth and water from the Grecian
cities — many of them comply and submit. — Pan-Hellenic congress
convened jointly by Athens and Sparta at the Isthmus of Corinth.
— Important effect on Grecian mind. — Effects of the congress in
healing feuds among the different Greeks — especially between
Athens and Ægina. — Alarm and mistrust prevalent throughout
Greece. — Terror conveyed in the reply of the Delphian oracle
to the Athenian envoys. — Sentence of the oracle frightful, yet
obscure: efforts of the Athenians to interpret it: ingenuity
and success of Themistoklês. — Great and genuine Pan-Hellenic
patriotism of the Athenians — strongly attested by Herodotus, as
his own judgment. — Unwillingness, or inability, on the part of a
large proportion of Greeks, to resist the Persians. — Ambiguous
neutrality of Argos. — Different stories current in Greece about
Argos — opinion of Herodotus. — Refusal or equivocation of the
Kretans and Korkyræans. — Mission to Gelon at Syracuse — his
reply. — Grecian army sent into Thessaly, to defend the defile
of Tempê against Xerxes. — On arriving, they find that it cannot
be successfully held against him, and retire. — Consequences of
this retreat — the Thessalians, and nearly all Hellas north of
Kithæron, either submit to Xerxes or waver.
45-70
CHAPTER XL.
BATTLES OF THERMOPYLÆ AND ARTEMISIUM.
Engagement taken by the Confederate Greeks against such Greeks
as joined the Persians. — Resolution taken to defend Thermopylæ
as well as the adjoining strait of Eubœa. — Pass of Thermopylæ
and its neighborhood. — The Greeks take post at Thermopylæ —
Leonidas, king of Sparta, conducts the force thither — the
combined fleet under Eurybiadês occupy the Eubœan strait. —
Numbers and composition of the force of Leonidas. — Phocians
and Lokrians. — Olympian and Karneian festivals — the Greeks
could not bring themselves to postpone these, even under such
imminent danger. — Path over Mount Œta by which Thermopylæ might
be evaded — Leonidas first informed of it on reaching the spot —
the Phocians engage to defend it. — Numbers and composition of
the Greek fleet at Artemisium. — Three triremes of the Grecian
fleet sent forward as scouts — their first encounter with the
Persian fleet. — Capture of these three triremes — panic of
the general Grecian fleet, who abandon Artemisium, and retire
to Chalkis. — Imminent danger of the Greek scheme of defence —
they are rescued by a terrific storm. — Movements of Xerxes from
Therma. — He arrives with his army in the Malian territory, close
upon the pass of Thermopylæ. — Advance of the Persian fleet — it
is overtaken by a destructive storm and hurricane on the coast
of Magnesia. — Immense damage inflicted upon it by the storm. —
Encouragement occasioned to the Greek fleet — they return from
Chalkis to Artemisium. — Delay of Xerxes with his land-force
near Trachis. — Impressions of Xerxes about the defenders at
Thermopylæ — conversation with Demaratus, whom he will not
believe. — Doubts about the motives ascribed by Herodotus to
Xerxes. — First attack upon Thermopylæ — made by the Median
troops — repulsed. — Repeated attacks, by the best troops in the
Persian army, all repulsed with slaughter. — Embarrassment of
Xerxes — he is relieved from it by hearing of the path over the
mountain. — A Persian detachment under Hydarnês march over the
mountain-path, driving away the Phocian guard. — They arrive in
the rear of Leonidas. — Debate among the defenders of Thermopylæ,
when it became known that the Persians were approaching their
rear. — Resolution of Leonidas to stay and die in the pass. — The
three hundred Spartans, together with the Thespians, remain with
Leonidas: the rest of the detachment retire. — Doubts about the
Theban contingent. — Last exploits and death of Leonidas and his
band. — Individuals among them distinguished — scorn exhibited
towards Aristodêmus who did not fight. — Fate of the Theban
contingent. — Impressions of Xerxes after the combat — advice
given to him by Demaratus — he rejects it. — Proceedings of the
two fleets, at Artemisium and Aphetæ — alarm among the Grecian
fleet — Themistoklês determines them to stay and fight, at the
urgent instance of the Eubœans. — Important service thus rendered
by Themistoklês. — Confident hopes of the Persian fleet — they
detach a squadron to sail round Eubœa, and take the Greeks in
the rear. — Sea-fight of Artemisium — advantage gained by the
Greeks. — Second storm — increased damage to the Persian fleet,
and ruin to the detachment sent round Eubœa. — Renewed sea-fight
off Artemisium — indecisive — but the Greek fleet resolves to
retreat. — They retreat immediately on hearing of the disaster
at Thermopylæ — they go to Salamis. — Advance of the Persian
fleet to Eubœa — manœuvres ascribed to Xerxes in respect of the
dead bodies at Thermopylæ — Numbers of dead on both sides. —
Subsequent commemorating inscriptions. — Impressive epigram of
Simonides.
70-104
CHAPTER XLI.
BATTLE OF SALAMIS. — RETREAT OF XERXES.
Surprise and terror of the Greeks immediately after the battle
of Thermopylæ. — No ulterior plan of defence formed — no
new position to be found, capable of defending Attica — the
Peloponnesians crowd to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth. —
Hopeless situation of the Athenians — no measures yet taken
to remove their families from Attica. — The Athenians abandon
Attica, removing their families and property to Salamis, Ægina,
Trœzen, etc. — Unavoidable hurry and sufferings of the emigrants.
— Energy of the Athenians, and unanimity of the leaders —
Themistoklês proposes the restoration of Aristeidês from exile. —
Numbers and composition of the combined Greek fleet at Salamis.
— Xerxes occupies Athens and Attica — the Persian fleet enters
the road of Phalêrum. — The Persian army ravage the Phocian
townships in their march from Thermopylæ to Attica — pillage
of the temple at Abæ. — Persian division detached against the
temple of Delphi. — Failure, flight, and ruin of the detachment.
— Xerxes with the Peisistratids in Athens — the acropolis holds
out — is taken and sacked. — Atoning visit of the Peisistratids
to the ruined acropolis. — Xerxes reviews his fleet at Phalêrum —
debate about the policy of fighting a naval battle at Salamis —
prudent counsel of Queen Artemisia. — Resolution taken by Xerxes
to fight at Salamis. — Dissensions among the Greeks in the fleet
at Salamis. Resolution taken to remove the fleet to the Isthmus.
— Ruinous consequences, if that resolution had been executed. —
Themistoklês opposes the resolution, persuades Eurybiadês, and
prevails upon him to reopen the debate. — Synod of Grecian chiefs
again convened — Themistoklês tries to get the former resolution
rescinded — the Peloponnesians adhere to it — angry words. —
Menace of Themistoklês to retire with the Athenian squadron,
unless a battle were to be fought at Salamis — Eurybiadês takes
upon him to adopt this measure. — The Peloponnesian chiefs,
silenced for the moment, afterwards refuse obedience. Third
synod convened — renewed disputes; the majority opposed to
Themistoklês and determined on retreating to the Isthmus. —
Desperate stratagem of Themistoklês — he sends a private message
across to Xerxes, persuading him to surround the Greek fleet in
the night, and thus render retirement impossible. — Impatient
haste of Xerxes to prevent any of the Greeks from escaping — his
fleet incloses the Greeks during the night. — Aristeidês comes in
the night to the Greek fleet from Ægina — informs the chiefs that
they are inclosed by the Persians, and that escape has become
impossible. — Position of Xerxes — order of the fleets, and plan
of attack. — Battle of Salamis — confusion and complete defeat
of the Persians. — Distinguished gallantry of Queen Artemisia.
— Expectations of the Greeks that the conflict would be renewed
— fears of Xerxes for his own personal safety — he sends his
fleet away to Asia. — Xerxes resolves to go back himself to Asia
— advice and recommendation of Mardonius, who is left behind,
as general, to finish the conquest of Greece. — The Greeks
pursue the Persian fleet as far as Andros — second stratagem of
Themistoklês by secret message to Xerxes. — Themistoklês with the
fleet — levying money in the Cyclades. — Xerxes evacuates Attica
and returns home by land, with the larger portion of his army. —
Retreating march of Xerxes to the Hellespont — sufferings of his
troops. He finds the bridge broken, and crosses the strait on
shipboard into Asia. — Joy of the Greeks — distribution of honors
and prizes. — Honors rendered to Themistoklês.
104-147
CHAPTER XLII.
BATTLES OF PLATÆA AND MYKALE. — FINAL REPULSE OF THE PERSIANS.
The Persian fleet, after retiring from Greece, winters at Kymê,
and collects in the spring at Samos. — The Greek fleet assembles
in the spring at Ægina. — General adherence of the _medizing_
Greeks to Mardonius — revolt of Potidæa — which is besieged in
vain by Artabazus. — Mardonius, after wintering in Thessaly,
resumes operations in the spring in Bœotia. He consults the
Bœotian oracles. — Mardonius sends Alexander of Macedon to
Athens, to offer the most honorable terms of peace. — Temptation
to Athens to accept this offer — fear of the Lacedæmonians that
she would accept it — Lacedæmonian envoys sent to Athens to
prevent it. — Resolute reply of the Athenians, and determination
to carry on the war, in spite of great present suffering. —
Selfish indifference displayed by Sparta and the Peloponnesians
towards Athens. — The Spartans, having fortified the Isthmus,
leave Attica undefended: Mardonius occupies Athens a second
time. — Second migration of the Athenians to Salamis — their
bitter disappointment and anger against Sparta for deserting
them. — Second offer of Mardonius to the Athenians — again
refused — intense resolution which they display. — Remonstrance
sent by the Athenians to Sparta — ungenerous slackness of the
Spartans. — Large Spartan force collected under Pausanias at
the Isthmus. — Mardonius, after ravaging Attica, retires into
Bœotia. — Discouragement in the army of Mardonius generally:
Thersander of Orchomenus at the banquet: jealousies between
Mardonius and Artabazus, the second in command — zeal and
eagerness of the Thebans. — Numbers of the Greeks collected under
Pausanias. — March of Pausanias over Kithæron into Bœotia. — He
is attacked by the Persian cavalry under Masistius, and much
harassed — superior efficiency of the Athenians against cavalry
— Masistius is slain. — The Greeks quit the protection of the
mountain-grounds and take up a position nearer to Platæa, along
the Asôpus. — Mardonius alters his position, and posts himself
nearly opposite to the Greeks on the other side of the Asôpus. —
Unwillingness of both armies to begin the attack — the prophets
on both sides discourage first aggression. — Mardonius annoys
the Greeks with his cavalry, and cuts off their supplies in the
rear. — Impatience of Mardonius — in spite of the reluctance
of Artabazus and other officers he determines on a general
attack: he tries to show that the prophecies are favorable to
him. — His intention communicated to the Athenians in the night
by Alexander of Macedon. — Pausanias changes places in the line
between the Spartans and Athenians. — Mardonius again attacks
them with his cavalry. — In consequence of the annoyance of the
Persian cavalry, Pausanias determines to move in the night into
the Island. — Confusion of the Grecian army in executing this
night-movement. — Refusal of the Spartan lochage Amompharetus
to obey the order for the night-march. — Mistrust of Pausanias
and the Spartans, exhibited by the Athenians. — Pausanias moves
without Amompharetus, who speedily follows him. — Astonishment of
Mardonius on discovering that the Greeks had retreated during the
night — he pursues and attacks them with disorderly impatience.
— Battle of Platæa. — Great personal bravery of the Persians —
they are totally defeated, and Mardonius slain. — The Athenians
on the left wing defeat the Thebans. — Artabazus, with a large
Persian corps, abandons the contest and retires out of Greece
— the rest of the Persian army take up their position in the
fortified camp. — Small proportion of the armies on each side
which really fought. — The Greeks attack and carry the fortified
camp. — Loss on both sides. — Funeral obsequies by the Greeks —
monuments — dead body of Mardonius — distribution of booty. —
Pausanias summons Thebes, requiring the surrender of the leaders
— these men give themselves up, and are put to death. — Honors
and distinctions among the Greek warriors. — Reverential tribute
to Platæa, as the scene of the victory, and to the Platæans:
solemnities decreed to be periodically celebrated by the latter,
in honor of the slain. — Permanent Grecian confederacy decreed
by the victors, to hold meetings at Platæa. — Proceedings of the
Grecian fleet: it moves to the rescue of Samos from the Persians.
— The Persian fleet abandons Samos and retires to Mykalê in
Ionia. — Mistrust of the fidelity of the Ionians entertained by
the Persian generals. — The Greeks land to attack the Persians
ashore — revelation of the victory of Platæa, gained by their
countrymen on the same morning, springs up in their minds before
the battle. — Battle of Mykalê — revolt of the Ionians in the
Persian camp — complete defeat of the Persians. — Retirement
of the defeated Persian army to Sardis. — Reluctance of the
Spartans to adopt the continental Ionians into their alliance
— proposition to transport them across the Ægean into Western
Greece — rejected by the Athenians. — The Grecian fleet sails
to the Hellespont: the Spartans return home, but the Athenians
remain to attack the Chersonese. — Siege of Sestos — antipathy
of the Chersonesites against Artayktês. — Capture of Sestos —
crucifixion of Artayktês. — Return of the fleet to Athens.
147-203
CHAPTER XLIII.
EVENTS IN SICILY DOWN TO THE EXPULSION OF THE GELONIAN DYNASTY
AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF POPULAR GOVERNMENTS THROUGHOUT THE
ISLAND.
Agrigentum and Gela superior to Syracuse before 500 B. C.
— Phalaris despot of Agrigentum. — Syracuse in 500 B. C.
— oligarchical government under the Gamori, or privileged
descendants of the original proprietary colonists — the Demos
— the Kyllyrii, or Serfs. — Early governments of the Greek
cities in Sicily — original oligarchies subverted in many places
by despots — attempted colony of the Spartan prince Dorieus. —
Kleander despot of Gela, B. C. about 500. — First rise of Gelo
and Ænesidêmus in his service. Têlinês, the first marked ancestor
of Gelo. — Gelo — in high command among the mercenaries of
Hippokratês despot of Gela. — Fate of the Ionic town of Zanklê,
afterwards Messina — it is seized by the Samians — conduct of
Hippokratês. — Hippokratês is victorious over the Syracusans —
takes Kamarina — dies. — Gelo becomes in his place despot of
Gela. — Greatness of Gelo — he gets possession of Syracuse, and
transfers the seat of his power from Gela to Syracuse. — Conquest
of various Sicilian towns by Gelo — he transports the oligarchy
to Syracuse and sells the Demos for slaves. — Increased power
and population of Syracuse under Gelo — it becomes the first
city in Sicily. — Power of Gelo when the envoys from Sparta and
Athens came to entreat his aid, B. C. 481. — Plans of Gelo for
strengthening Sicilian Hellenism against the barbaric interests
in the islands. — Spartan and Athenian envoys apply to Gelo —
his answer. — Carthaginian invasion of Sicily, simultaneous with
the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — The Carthaginian army under
Hamilkar besiege Himera — battle of Himera — complete victory
gained over them by Gelo. — Supremacy of Gelo in Sicily — he
grants peace to the Carthaginians. — Conduct of Gelo towards the
confederate Greeks who were contending against Xerxes. — Number
of prisoners taken at the battle of Himera and distributed among
the Carthaginian cities — their prosperity, especially that
of Agrigentum. — Death and obsequies of Gelo. — Number of new
citizens whom Gelo had introduced at Syracuse. — Hiero, brother
and successor of Gelo at Syracuse — jealous of his brother
Polyzêlus — harsh as a ruler — quarrel between Hiero of Syracuse
and Thêro of Agrigentum — appeased by the poet Simonides. —
Severe treatment of the inhabitants of Himera by Thêro. — Power
and exploits of Hiero — against the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians
— against Anaxilaus — he founds the city of Ætna — new wholesale
transplantation of inhabitants — compliments of Pindar. — Death
of Anaxilaus of Rhegium, and of Thêro of Agrigentum. Thrasydæus,
son of Thêro, rules Agrigentum and Himera. His cruel government
— he is defeated by Hiero and expelled. — Great power of Hiero,
after the defeat of Thrasydæus — his death. — Thrasybulus,
brother and successor of Hiero — disputes among the members of
the Gelonian family. — Cruelties and unpopularity of Thrasybulus
— mutiny against him at Syracuse. — Expulsion of Thrasybulus,
and extinction of the Gelonian dynasty. — Popular governments
established in all the Sicilian cities — confusion and disputes
arising out of the number of new citizens and mercenaries
domiciliated by the Gelonian princes. — Internal dissensions
and combat in Syracuse. — Defeat of the Gelonians — Syracuse
made into one popular government, one city, one fortification.
— Disorders in other Sicilian cities, arising from the return
of exiles who had been dispossessed under the Gelonian dynasty.
Katana and Ætna. — General congress and compromise — the exiles
are provided for — Kamarina again restored as a separate
autonomous city. — Reactionary feelings against the previous
despotism, and in favor of popular government, at Syracuse and in
the other cities. — Italiot Greeks — destructive defeat of the
inhabitants of Tarentum and of Rhegium.
204-239
CHAPTER XLIV.
FROM THE BATTLE OF PLATÆA AND MYKALE DOWN TO THE DEATHS OF
THEMISTOKLES AND ARISTEIDES.
Causes of the disgraceful repulse of Xerxes from Greece — his own
defects — inferior quality and slackness of most of his army. —
Tendency to exaggerate the heroism of the Greeks. — Comparison
of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes with the invasion of Persia
afterwards by Alexander the Great. — No improvement in warfare
among the Persians during that interval of one hundred and fifty
years — great improvement among the Greeks. — Progressive spirit
in Greece — operating through Athenian initiative. — Conduct of
Athens in the repulse of the Persians — her position, temper,
and influence, after that event. — Proceedings of the Athenians
to restore their city — jealous obstructions caused by the
Peloponnesians. — Stratagem of Themistoklês to procure for the
Athenians the opportunity of fortifying their city. — Athens
fortified — confusion of the Spartans — disappointment of the
allies. — Effect of this intended, but baffled, intervention
upon Athenian feelings. — Enlargement of the walls of Athens.
— Large plans of Themistoklês for the naval aggrandizement of
the city — fortified town and harbor provided at Peiræus — vast
height and thickness projected for the walls. — Advantages of
the enlarged and fortified harbor — increase of metics and of
commerce at Athens. — Resolution to build twenty new triremes
annually. — Expedition of the united Greek fleet against
Asia, under the Spartan Pausanias — capture of Byzantium. —
Misconduct of Pausanias — refusal of the allies to obey him —
his treasonable correspondence with Xerxes. — Pausanias, having
assurances of aid from Xerxes, becomes more intolerable in his
behavior. He is recalled to Sparta. — The allies transfer the
headship from Sparta to Athens. — Importance of this change in
the relations of the Grecian states. — Tendency of the Spartan
kings to become corrupted on foreign service — Leotychidês. —
Momentary Pan-Hellenic union under Sparta, immediately after the
repulse of Xerxes — now broken up and passing into a schism,
with two distinct parties and chiefs, Sparta and Athens. —
Proceedings of Athens in her capacity of leader — good conduct
of Aristeidês. — Formation of the confederacy of Delos, under
Athens as president — general meetings of allies held in that
island. — Assessment of the confederacy and all its members, made
by Aristeidês — definite obligation in ships and money — money
total — Hellênotamiæ. — Rapid growth, early magnitude, of the
confederacy of Delos: willing adhesion of the members. — State
and power of Persia at the time when the confederacy of Delos
was first formed. — Conduct of Pausanias after being removed
from the command — he prosecutes his treasonable designs in
conjunction with Persia. — He is recalled to Sparta — imprisoned
— put on his trial — tries to provoke the Helots to revolt. — He
is detected by the revelation of a slave — incredulity or fear of
the Ephors. — His arrest and death — atonement made for offended
sanctuary. — Themistoklês is compromised in the detected treason
of Pausanias. — Position of Themistoklês at Athens — tendency
of Athenian parties and politics. — Effect of the events of the
Persian war upon Athenian political sentiment — stimulus to
democracy. — Alteration of the Kleisthenean constitution — all
citizens without exception are rendered politically admissible to
office: first, universal eligibility and election of magistrates
— next, sortition, or drawing by lot. — Increase of the power
of the Stratêgi — alteration in the functions and diminution
of the importance of the archons. — Administration of Athens
enlarged — new functionaries appointed — distribution between
Athens and Peiræus. — Political career and precarious tenor of
Themistoklês — bitter rivals against him — Kimon, Alkmæon, etc.
— His liability to charges of corruption. — Themistoklês is
charged with accepting bribes from Persia — acquitted at Athens.
— Increased bitterness of feud between him and his political
rivals, after this acquittal. He is ostracized. — While in
banishment under ostracism, the Lacedæmonians prefer a charge of
treason against him. — Flight and adventures of Themistoklês. —
Themistoklês gets over to Asia, and seeks refuge with the Persian
king. — Stories about the relations between the Persian king
and Themistoklês. — Real treatment of Themistoklês in Persia. —
Influence which he acquires with the Persian king. — Large reward
which he receives — His death at Magnesia. — Death of Aristeidês
— his poverty.
239-289
CHAPTER XLV.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFEDERACY UNDER ATHENS AS HEAD. — FIRST
FORMATION AND RAPID EXPANSION OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE.
Consequence of the formation of the confederacy of Delos. —
Bifurcation of Grecian politics between Sparta and Athens.
— Distinction between the confederacy of Delos, with Athens
as president — and the Athenian empire which grew out of it.
— Tendency to confuse these two, and to impute to Athens
long-sighted plans of ambition. — The early years, after the
formation of the confederacy of Delos, were years of active
exertion on the part of Athens. — Our imperfect knowledge of
them. — Necessity of continued action against the Persians, even
after the battles of Platæa and Mykalê. This necessity was the
cause, both of the willing organization of the confederacy of
Delos and of the maritime improvement of Athens. — Confederacy of
Delos — sworn to by all the members — perpetual and peremptory
— not allowing retirement nor evasion. — Enforcing sanction of
Athens, strictly exercised, in harmony with the general synod. —
Gradual alteration in the relations of the allies — substitution
of money-payment for personal service, demanded by the allies
themselves, suitable to the interests and feelings of Athens. —
Change in the position as well as in the feelings of Athens. —
Growing unpopularity of Athens throughout Greece — causes of it.
— Synod of Delos — gradually declines in importance and vanishes.
— Superior qualities and merit of the Athenians as compared with
the confederates of Delos generally. — Tribute first raised by
the synod of Delos — assessment of Aristeidês. — Events between
B. C. 476-466. — Eion — Skyros — Karystus. — Athens as guardian
of the Ægean sea against piracy. — The Hero Theseus. — First
revolt among the members of the confederacy of Delos — Naxos
revolts and is reconquered. — Operations of Athens and the
confederacy against Persia. — Defeat of the Persians by Kimon at
the river Eurymedon. — Revolt of Thasos from the confederacy of
Delos. — Siege of Thasos by the Athenians under Kimon. — Mines in
Thrace. — First attempt of Athens to found a city at Ennea Hodoi
on the Strymon above Eion. The attempt fails and the settlers
are slain. — Reduction of Thasos after a blockade of two years —
it is disarmed and dismantled. — Application of the Thasians to
Sparta for aid — granted, but not carried into effect — glimpse
of hostilities between Sparta and Athens. — Trial and acquittal
of Kimon at Athens. — Great increase of the Athenian power. —
Proceedings in Central Greece between 470-464 B. C. Thebes and
the Bœotian towns. Discredit of Thebes. — Sparta restores and
upholds the supremacy of Thebes over the lesser Bœotian towns.
— Events in Peloponnesus — Arcadia — Elis, etc. — Terrible
earthquake at Sparta, 464 B. C. — Revolt of the Helots. — The
Lacedæmonians invoke the aid of their allies against the revolted
Helots. — March of the Athenians under Kimon into Laconia, to
aid them. — Mistrust conceived by the Lacedæmonians of their
Athenian auxiliaries, who are dismissed from Laconia. Displeasure
and change of policy at Athens. — The Athenians renounce the
alliance of Sparta, and contract alliance with Argos. Position
of Argos — her conquest of Mykênæ and other towns. — Megara
becomes allied with Athens. Growing hatred of Corinth and the
neighboring Peloponnesian states towards Athens. — Energetic
simultaneous action of the Athenians — in Cyprus, Phenicia,
Egypt, and Greece — they build the first “Long Wall” from
Megara to Nisæa. — War of Athens against Corinth, Ægina, etc.
Total defeat of the Æginetans at sea. — The Athenians besiege
Ægina — the Corinthians, Epidaurians, etc. are defeated by the
Athenians under Myrônidês. — The Long Walls between Athens and
Peiræus are projected — espoused by Periklês, opposed by Kimon —
political contentions at Athens — importance of the Long Wall. —
Expedition of the Lacedæmonians into Bœotia — they restore the
ascendancy of Thebes. — Intention of the Spartan army in Bœotia
to threaten Athens and sustain the Athenian oligarchical party
opposed to the Long Walls. — Battle of Tanagra — defeat of the
Athenians. — Effects of the battle — generous behavior of Kimon
— he is recalled from ostracism. — Compromise and reconciliation
between the rival leaders and parties at Athens. — Victory of
Œnophyta gained by the Athenians — they acquire ascendency over
all Bœotia, Phocis, and Lokris. — Completion of the Long Walls.
— Conquest of Ægina, which is disarmed, dismantled, and rendered
tributary. — The Athenians first sail round Peloponnesus — their
operations in the gulf of Corinth. — Defeat and losses of the
Athenians in Egypt. — The revolted Helots in Laconia capitulate
and leave the country. — Truce for five years concluded between
Athens and Lacedæmonians, through the influence of Kimon. —
Fresh expeditions of Kimon against Persia. — Death of Kimon at
Cyprus — victories of the Athenian fleet — it returns home. — No
farther expeditions of the Athenians against Persia — convention
concluded between them. — Mistakes and exaggerations respecting
this convention — doubts raised as to its historical reality.
Discussion of those doubts — confirmatory hints of Thucydidês. —
Thucydidês, son of Melêsias, succeeds Kimon as leading opponent
of Periklês. — Transfer of the common fund of the confederacy
from Delos to Athens. — Gradual passage of the confederacy into
an Athenian empire. — Transfer of the fund was proposed by the
Samians. — Position of Athens with a numerous alliance both
of inland and maritime states. — Commencement of reverses and
decline of power to Athens. — Revolt of Bœotia from Athens —
defeat of the Athenians at Korôneia — they evacuate Bœotia. —
Revolt of Phocis, Lokris, Eubœa, and Megara: invasion of Attica
by the Peloponnesians under the Lacedæmonian king Pleistoanax. —
Eubœa reconquered by Periklês. — Humiliation and despondency of
Athens. — Conclusion of the Thirty years’ truce. — Diminution of
Athenian power. — Feud between Athens and Megara.
290-352
CHAPTER XLVI.
CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL CHANGES AT ATHENS UNDER PERIKLES.
First establishment of the democratical judicial system
at Athens. — Union, in the same hands, of functions both
administrative and judicial in early Athens — great powers of the
magistrates, as well as of the senate of Areopagus. — Magistrates
generally wealthy men — oligarchical tendencies of the senate of
Areopagus — increase of democratical sentiment among the bulk
of the citizens. — Political parties in Athens. — Periklês and
Ephialtês democratical: Kimon, oligarchical or conservative. —
Democratical Dikasteries, or Jury-courts, constituted by Periklês
and Ephialtês. — How these dikasteries were arranged. — Pay
to the dikasts introduced and made regular. — The magistrates
are deprived of their judicial and confined to administrative
functions. — Senate of Areopagus — its antiquity — semi-religious
character — large and undefined controlling power. — Large powers
of the senate of Areopagus, in part abused, became inconsistent
with the feelings of the people after the Persian invasion. —
New interests and tendencies then growing up at Athens. — Senate
of Areopagus — a centre of action for the conservative party and
Kimon. — Opposition between Kimon and Periklês — inherited from
their fathers. — Character and working of Periklês. — Reserved,
philosophical, and business-like habits of Periklês — his little
pains to court popularity — less of the demagogue than Kimon. —
Ephialtês belonging to the democratical party, and originally
equal to Periklês in influence. — Efforts of Ephialtês against
magisterial abuse. — Kimon and his party, more powerful than
Ephialtês and Periklês, until the time when the Athenian troops
were dismissed from Laconia. — Ostracism of Kimon. — Measures
carried by Ephialtês and Periklês to abridge the power of the
senate of Areopagus as well as of individual magistrates. —
Institution of the paid dikasteries. — Separation of judicial
from administrative functions. — Assassination of Ephialtês by
the conservative party. — Commencement of the great ascendency of
Periklês, after the death of Ephialtês. Compromise between him
and Kimon. — Brilliant success of Athens, and era of the maximum
of her power. — Other constitutional changes. — The Nomophylakes.
— The Nomothetæ — distinction between laws and psephisms,
or special decrees — process by which laws were enacted and
repealed. — Procedure in making or repealing of laws assimilated
to the procedure in judicial trials. — Graphê Paranomôn —
indictment against the mover of illegal or unconstitutional
propositions. — Working of the Graphê Paranomôn. — Conservative
spirit in which it is framed. — Restraint upon new propositions,
and upon the unlimited initiative belonging to every citizen.
— Abusive extension of the Graphê Paranomôn afterwards. — It
was often used as a simple way of procuring the repeal of an
existing law — without personal aim against the author of the
law. — Numbers and pay of the dikasts, as provided by Periklês.
— The Athenian democracy, as constituted by Periklês, remained
substantially unaltered afterwards down to the loss of Athenian
independence — excepting the temporary interruptions of the Four
Hundred and the Thirty. — Working of the numerous dikasteries
— their large numbers essential to exclude corruption or
intimidation — liability of individual magistrates to corruption.
— The Athenian dikasteries are jury-trial applied on the broadest
scale — exhibiting both its excellences and its defects in
an exaggerated form. — The encomiums usually pronounced upon
the theory of jury-trial would apply yet more strongly to the
Athenian dikasteries. — Imperfections of jury-trial — exaggerated
in the procedure of the dikasteries. — Powerful effects of the
dikasteries in exercising and stimulating the intellect and
feelings of individual citizens. — Necessity of learning to speak
— growth of professional teachers of rhetoric — professional
composers of speeches for others. — Rhetors and Sophists. —
Polemics of Sokratês, himself a sophist, against the sophists
generally. — Sophists and rhetors were the natural product of
the age and of the democracy. — The dikasteries were composed,
not exclusively of poor men, but of middling and poorer citizens
indiscriminately.
352-407
HISTORY OF GREECE.
PART II.
CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.