HUNTING--FISHING--WARS AND EXPEDITIONS.
THE CARNIVORA MORE SKILFUL HUNTERS THAN THE
HERBIVORA--DIFFERENT METHODS OF HUNTING--HUNTING IN
AMBUSH--THE BAITED AMBUSH--HUNTING IN THE DWELLING OR IN THE
BURROW--COURSING--STRUGGLES THAT TERMINATE THE HUNT--HUNTING
WITH PROJECTILES--PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES PUT TO
PROFIT--METHODS FOR UTILISING THE CAPTURED GAME--WAR AND
BRIGANDAGE--EXPEDITIONS TO ACQUIRE SLAVES--WARS OF THE ANTS.
_The Carnivora more skilful hunters than the Herbivora._--The search
for food has necessarily been the cause of the earliest industries
among animals. It is easy to understand that the herbivora need little
ingenuity in seeking nourishment; they are so superior to their prey
that they can obtain it and feed on it by the sole fact of an
organisation adapted to its assimilation. They are, it is true, at the
mercy of circumstances over which they have no control, and which lead
to famine. The carnivora also may have to suffer from the absence of
prey, but even in the most favourable seasons, and in the regions
where the animals on which they live abound, it is necessary to them
to develop a special activity to obtain possession of beings who are
suspicious, prompt in flight, and as fleet as themselves. Thus it is
among these that we expect to find the art of hunting most cultivated;
especially if we put aside the more grossly carnivorous of them, whose
whole organisation is adapted for rapid and effective results.
_Different methods of hunting._--Like Man, some animals hunt in ambush
or by coursing; others know how to overturn the desired victim by
throwing some object at it. These profit by all the exterior
circumstances which are capable of frightening the game, of stunning
it, and of rendering capture easy. But it is by studying each separate
feature that we shall best be able to observe the close way in which
these industries are related to our own. It is impossible to bring
forward all the facts relating to the search for prey among animals;
we can only take a few as signposts which mark the road.
_Hunting in ambush._--The most rudimentary method of hunting in ambush
is simply to take advantage of some favourable external circumstance
to obtain concealment, and then to await the approach of the prey.
Some animals place themselves behind a tuft of grass, others thrust
themselves into a thicket, or hang on to the branch of a tree in order
to fall suddenly on the victim who innocently approaches the
perfidious ambush. The Crocodile, as described by Sir Samuel Baker,
conceals himself by his skill in plunging noiselessly. On the bank a
group of birds have alighted. They search the mud for insects or
worms, or simply to approach the stream to drink or bathe. In spite of
his great size and robust appetite the Crocodile does not disdain this
slight dish; but the least noise, the least wrinkle on the surface of
the water would cause the future repast to vanish. The reptile
plunges, the birds continue without suspicion to come and go. Suddenly
there emerges before them the huge open jaw armed with formidable
teeth. In the moment of stupor and immobility which this unforeseen
apparition produces a few imprudent birds have disappeared within the
reptile's mouth, while the others fly away. In the same sly and brutal
manner he snaps up dogs, horses, oxen, and even men who come to the
river to drink.
One of the most dangerous ambushes which can be met on the road by
animals who resort to a spring is that prepared by the Python. This
gigantic snake hangs by his tail to the branch of a tree and lets
himself droop down like a long creeper. The victim who comes within
his reach is seized, enrolled, pounded in the knots which the snake
forms around him. It is not necessary to multiply examples of this
simple and widespread method of hunting.
Not content with utilising the natural arrangements they meet with,
there are animals which construct genuine ambushes, acting thus like
Man, who builds in the middle or on the edge of ponds, cabins in which
to await wild ducks, or who digs in the path of a lion a hole covered
with trunks of trees, at the bottom of which he may kill the beast
without danger. Certain insects practise this method of hunting. The
Fox, for instance, so skilful a hunter in many respects, constructs an
ambush when hunting hares.[11]
[11] C. St. John, _Wild Sports, etc._, chap. xx.
The larva of the Tiger Beetle (_Cicindela campestris_) constructs a
hole about the size of a feather quill, disposed vertically, and of a
depth, enormous for its size, of forty centimetres. It maintains
itself in this tube by arching its supple body along the walls at a
height sufficient for the top of its head to be level with the surface
of the soil, and to close the opening of the hole. (Fig. 1.) A little
insect--an ant, a young beetle, or something similar--passes. As soon
as it begins to walk on the head of the larva, the latter letting go
its hold of the wall allows itself to fall to the bottom of the trap,
dragging its victim with it. In this narrow prison it is easily able
to obtain the mastery over its prey, and to suck out the liquid
parts.[12]
[12] Lamarck, _Histoire des Animaux sans Vertebres_, 2e
edition, 1835, p. 676.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
The _Staphilinus Caesareus_ acts with still greater shrewdness; not
only is his pit more perfect, but he takes care to remove all traces
of preceding repasts which might render the place obviously one of
carnage. He chooses a stone, beneath which he hollows a
cylindro-conical hole with extremely smooth walls. This hole is not to
serve as a trap, that is to say that the proprietor has no intention
of causing any pedestrian to roll to the bottom. It is simply a place
of concealment in which he awaits the propitious moment. No creature
is more patient than this insect, and no delay discourages him. As
soon as some small animal approaches his hiding-place he throws
himself on it impetuously, kills it, and devours it. Near his ditch he
has hollowed a second of a much coarser character, the walls of which
have not been smoothed with the same care. One here sees elytra and
claws piled up; they are the hard and horny parts which he has not
been able to eat. The heap in this ditch is not then an alimentary
store. It is the _oubliette_ in which the _Staphilinus_ buries the
remains of his victims. If he allowed them to accumulate around his
hole all pedestrians would come to fear this spot and to avoid it. It
would be like the dwelling of a Polypus, which is marked by the
numerous carapaces of crabs and shells which strew the neighbourhood.
The ambuscade of the Ant-lion is classic; it does not differ greatly
from the others. He excavates a conical pitfall, in which he conceals
himself, and seizes the unfortunate ants and other insects whom
ill-chance causes to roll into it.[13]
[13] See _e.g._ Tennent, _Ceylon_, vol. i. p. 252. Also
Reaumur, _Memoires pour d'histoire des Insectes_, t. i. p.
14, and t. vi. p. 333.
_The baited ambush._--A variety of ambush which brings this method of
hunting to considerable perfection lies in inciting the prey to
approach the hiding-place instead of trusting to chance to bring it
there. In such circumstances Man places some allurement in the
neighbourhood--that is to say, one of the foods preferred by the
desired victim, or at least some object which recalls the form of that
food, as, for example, an artificial fly to obtain possession of
certain fishes.
It is curious to find that fish themselves utilise this system; it is
the method adopted by the Angler and the _Uranoscopus_.[14] The
_Uranoscopus scaber_ lives in the Mediterranean. At the end of his
lower jaw there is developed a mobile and supple filament which he is
able to use with the greatest dexterity. Concealed in the mud, without
moving and only allowing the end of his head to emerge, he agitates
and vibrates his filament. The little fishes who prowl in the
neighbourhood, delighted with the sight of this apparent worm,
regarding it as a destined prey, throw themselves on to it, but before
they are able to bite and recognise their error they have disappeared
in the mouth of the proprietor of the bait.
[14] Lacepede, _Histoire des Poissons_, 1798-1803.
The Angler (_Lophius piscatorius_) has not usurped his rather
paradoxical name. He retires to the midst of the sea-weed and algae. On
his body and all round his head he bears fringed appendages which, by
their resemblance to the leaves of marine plants, aid the animal to
conceal himself. The colour of his body also does not contrast with
neighbouring objects. From his head arise three movable filaments
formed by three spines detached from the upper fin. He makes use of
the anterior one, which is the longest and most supple. Working in the
same way as the _Uranoscopus_, the Angler agitates his three
filaments, giving them as much as possible the appearance of worms,
and thus attracting the little fish on which he feeds.
In these two examples we see a special organ utilised for a particular
function; it is one of the intermediate cases, already referred to,
between the true industries involving ingenuity and the simple
phenomena due to adaptations and modifications of the body.
_Hunting in the dwelling or in the burrow._--All these methods of
hunting or of fishing by surprise are for the most part practised by
the less agile species which cannot obtain their prey by superior
fleetness. Midway between these two methods may be placed that which
consists in surprising game when some circumstance has rendered it
motionless. Sometimes it is sleep which places it at the mercy of the
hunter, whose art in this case consists in seeking out its dwelling.
Sometimes he profits by the youth of the victim, like all
bird-nesters, whose aim is to eat the eggs or to devour the young
while still incapable of flying. The animals who eat birds' eggs are
numerous both among mammals and reptiles, as well as among birds
themselves.
The Alligator of Florida and of Louisiana delights in this chase. He
seeks in particular the Great Boat-Tail (_Quiscalus major_) which
nests in the reeds at the edge of marshes and ponds. When the young
have come out and are expecting from their parents the food which the
chances of the hunt may delay, they do not cease chirping and calling
by their cries. But the parents are not alone in hearing these
appeals. They may also strike the ears of the alligator, who furtively
approaches the imprudent singers. With a sudden stroke of his tail he
strikes the reeds and throws into the water one or more of the hungry
young ones, who are then at his mercy. (Audubon.)
The animals who feed on species living in societies either seize on
their prey when isolated or when all the members of the colony are
united in their city. A search for the nest is necessary in the case
of creatures who are very small in comparison with the hunter, as in
the case of ants and the Ant-eater. But the ant-eater possesses a very
long and sticky tongue, which renders the capture of these insects
extremely easy; when he finds a frequented passage it is enough to
stretch out his tongue; all the ants come of their own accord and
place themselves on it, and when it is sufficiently charged he
withdraws it and devours them. The African _Orycteropus_ (Fig. 2), who
is also a great eater of ants and especially of termites, is equally
aided by a very developed tongue; but he has less patience than the
ant-eater, and he adds to this resource other proceedings which render
the hunt more fruitful and enable him to obtain a very large number of
insects at one time. Thanks to his keenness of scent he soon discovers
an ant-path bearing the special and characteristic odour which these
Hymenoptera leave behind them, and he follows the track which leads to
their nest. On arriving there, without troubling himself about the
scattered insects that prowl in the neighbourhood, he sets himself to
penetrate into the midst of the dwelling, and with his strong claws
hollows out a passage which enables him to gain access. On the way he
pierces walls, breaks down floors, gathering here and there some
fugitives, and arrives at last at the centre, in which millions of
animals swarm. He then swallows them in large mouthfuls and retires,
leaving behind him a desert and a ruin in the spot before occupied by
a veritable palace, full of prodigious activity.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The colonies are not only exposed to the devastations of those who
feed on their members; they have other enemies in the animals who
covet their stores of food. The most inveterate robber of bees is the
nocturnal Death's Head Moth. When he has succeeded in penetrating the
hive the stings of the proprietors who throw themselves on him do not
trouble him, thanks to his thick fleece of long hairs which the sting
cannot penetrate; he makes his way to the cells, rips them open,
gorges himself with honey, and causes such havoc that in Switzerland,
in certain years when these butterflies were abundant, numbers of
hives have been found absolutely empty.[15] Many other marauders and
of larger size, such as the Bear, also spread terror among these
laborious insects and empty their barns. No animal is more crafty than
the Raven, and the fabulist who wished to make him a dupe was obliged
to oppose to him the very cunning Fox in order to render the tale
fairly life-like. A great number of stories are told concerning the
Raven's cleverness, and many of them are undoubtedly true. There is no
bolder robber of nests. He swallows the eggs and eats the little ones
of the species who cannot defend themselves against him; he even seeks
the eggs of Sea-gulls on the coast; but in this case he must use
cunning, for if he is discovered it means a serious battle. On the
coast also the Raven seeks to obtain possession of the Hermit-crab.
This Crustacean dwells in the empty shells of Gasteropods. At the
least alarm he retires within this shell and becomes invisible, but
the bird advances with so much precaution that he is often able to
seize the crab before he has time to hide himself. If the raven fails
he turns the shell over and over until the impatient crustacean allows
a claw to emerge; he is then seized and immediately devoured.
[15] Huber, _Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles_,
t. ii. p. 291.
If there is a question of hunting larger game like a Hare, the Raven
prefers to take an ally. They start him at his burrow and pursue him
flying. In spite of his proverbial rapidity the hare is scarcely able
to flee more than two hundred yards. He succumbs beneath vigorous
blows on his skull from the beaks of his assailants. During winter, in
the high regions of the Alps, when the soil is covered with snow, this
chase is particularly fruitful for ravens. The story is told of that
unfortunate hare who had hollowed out in the snow a burrow with two
entrances. Two of these birds having recognised his presence, one
entered one hole in order to dislodge the hare, the other awaited him
at the other opening to batter his head with blows from his beak and
kill him before he had time to gain presence of mind.[16]
[16] F. von Tschuedi, _Les Alpes_, Berne and Paris, 1859.
Rooks sometimes hunt in burrows by ingeniously-concerted operations.
Mr. Bernard[17] has described the interesting way in which the Rook
hunts voles or field-mice in Thuringia. His curiosity was excited by
the way in which numerous rooks stood about a field cawing loudly. In
a few days this was explained: the field was covered with rooks; the
original assemblage had been calling together a mouse-hunt, which
could only be successfully carried out by a large number of birds
acting in conjunction. By diligently probing the ground and blocking
up the network of runs, the voles, one or more at a time, were
gradually driven into a corner. The hunt was very successful, and no
more voles were seen in that field during the winter.
[17] _Zoologist_, October 1892.
_Coursing._--Other animals are not easily discouraged by the swiftness
of their prey; they count on their own resistance in order to tire the
game; some of them also manage their pursuit in the most intelligent
way, so as to preserve their own strength while the tracked animal's
strength goes on diminishing until exhaustion and fatigue place him at
their mercy.
Mammals especially, such as Dogs, Wolves, and Foxes, exercise this
kind of chase; it is, exactly, the coursing which Man has merely had
to direct for his own benefit. Wild dogs pursue their prey united in
immense packs. They excite each other by barking while they frighten
the game and half paralyse his efforts. No animal is agile and strong
enough to be sure of escaping. They surround him and cut off his
retreat in a most skilful manner; Gazelles and Antelopes, in spite of
their extreme nimbleness and speed, are caught at last; Boars are
rapidly driven into a corner; their vigorous defence may cost the life
of some of the assailants, but they nevertheless become the prey of
the band who rush on to the quarry. In Asia wild dogs do not fear even
to attack the tiger. Many no doubt are crushed by a blow of the
animal's paw or strangled in his jaws, but the death of comrades does
not destroy either the courage or the greediness of the surviving
aggressors. Their number also is such that the great beast, covered by
agile enemies who cling to him and wound him in every part, must at
last succumb.
Wolves hunt also in considerable bands. Their audacity, especially
when pressed by hunger in the bad season, is well known. In time of
war they follow armies, to attack stragglers and to devour the dead.
In Siberia they pursue sledges on the snow with terrible perseverance,
and the pack is not delayed by the massacre of those who are shot. A
few stop to devour at once their fallen comrades, while the others
continue the pursuit.
Besides these brutal chases wolves seem able to exercise a genuine
feint. Sometimes it is a couple who hunt in concert. If they meet a
flock, as they are well aware that the dog will bravely defend the
animals entrusted to him, that he is vigilant, and that his keen scent
will bring him on them much sooner than the shepherd, it is with him
that they first occupy themselves. The two wolves approach secretly;
then suddenly one of them unmasks and attracts the attention of the
dog, who rushes after him with such ardour that he fails to perceive
that in the meantime the second thief has seized the sheep and dragged
it into the wood. The dog finally renounces his pursuit of the
fugitive and returns to his flock. Then the two confederates join each
other and share the prey. In other circumstances it is a wolf who
hunts with his female. When they wish to obtain possession of a deer,
whose robust flight may last a long time, one of the couple, the male
for example, pursues him and directs his chase in such a way that the
game must pass by a place where the female wolf is concealed. She then
takes up the chase while the male reposes. It is an organised system
of relays. The strength of the deer becomes necessarily exhausted; he
cannot resist the animation shown by his active foe, and is seized and
killed. Then the other wolf calmly approaches the place of the feast
to share his part of the booty.
The small but bold Hawk called the Merlin also courses in relays in
exactly the same manner. These birds pursue a Lark or a Swallow in the
most systematic manner. First one Merlin chases the bird for a short
time, while his companion hovers quietly at hand; then the latter
relieves his fellow-hunter, who rests in his turn. The victim is soon
tired out and caught in mid-air by one of the Merlins, who flies away
with him, leaving his companion to hunt alone, while he feeds the
young brood.[18]
[18] C. St. John, _Wild Sports and Natural History of the
Highlands_, chap. xi.
The Fox also successfully uses this method of coursing with relays.
There are indeed few animals who possess so many tricks of all kinds
to gain possession of their prey. Constantly prowling about the
fields, he neglects no propitious circumstance, and profits by all the
advantages furnished by the situation of places or the habits of the
game he is seeking. He pursues tired or wounded animals whom he meets,
and easily masters them. If he finds a burrow, he quickly hollows a
hole and brings to light the young rabbits who thought themselves in
safety in the bowels of the earth; he robs nests placed in the
thickets, and devours the young birds. Beehives are not protected
against his greediness by the stings of the swarms; he rolls on the
earth, crushes his assailants, and finally triumphs over the
discouraged insects and gorges himself with honey.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
Birds of prey also invent ingenious combinations to reach a good
flier. Most of the great rapacious birds of rapid flight or with
powerful talons are so well organised for the chase that they have no
need of cunning. To see the prey, to seize it and devour it, are acts
accomplished in a moment by the single fact of their natural
organisation. It is rather among those who are less well endowed that
one finds real art and frequent ruses. The Goshawk (_Astur
palumbarius_, Fig. 3) is sufficiently strong and flies sufficiently
well to seize small birds; but in order to obtain a copious repast at
one snatch he prefers to attack pigeons. Generally the strength of
their wings promptly places them in safety. He therefore hides himself
in the neighbourhood of the pigeon-house, ready to fall on those
pigeons who pick up food around. But the pigeons are suspicious, and
if they recognise his presence they remain hidden in their dwellings.
In this case it has sometimes been found that the Goshawk has quietly
flown up to their house and alighted on its summit; there, by
violently beating his wings, he gives a succession of sudden blows to
the roof. Startled and frightened by this unaccustomed noise, the
inhabitants dart out, and the bird of prey can then profit by their
alarm to seize one or two.[19]
[19] Wodzicki, "Ornithologische Miscell.," _Journ. f.
Ornithol._, 1856.
The _Pseudaetus_ is also obliged to have recourse to a subterfuge in
order to gain birds that fly well. He easily destroys fowls, and hunts
them so successfully that in Spain, in certain isolated farms, it has
been necessary to give up rearing fowls in consequence of these
numerous depredations. But to seize pigeons is not so easy a matter.
Generally, according to Jerdon, two birds unite to attack a band. One
of the aggressors pretends to wish to seize them from below. This is a
very unusual method, for birds of prey always rise above the game in
order to throw themselves down on it. This puts out the pigeons, and
they fear the manoeuvre all the more because they are unaccustomed to
it. During this instant of confusion the second assailant passes
unperceived above them, plunges into the midst and seizes a pigeon;
there is a new panic, by which the first aggressor profits in order to
rise rapidly in his turn and seize a second victim.
_Struggles that terminate the hunt._--It is not always sufficient for
the hunter to find game and to reach it. If the game is of large size
it may be able to hold its own, and the pursuit may end in a violent
struggle, in which both skill and cunning are necessary to obtain
conquest.
The Bald Eagle of North America (_Haliaeetus leucocephalus_) hides
himself on a rock by the edge of a stream and awaits the passing of a
swan. This eagle is brave and strong, but the palmiped is vigorous,
and though inferior in the air, he has an advantage on the water, and
may escape death by plunging. The eagle knows this advantage, so he
compels the swan to remain in the air by attacking him from below and
repeatedly striking his belly. Weakened by the flow of blood, and
obliged to fly, not being able to reach the water without finding the
sharp beak which strikes him, the swan succumbs in this unequal
combat, which has been vividly described by Audubon.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
The bird who displays the most remarkable qualities in this struggle
which terminates the chase, exhibiting indeed a real fencing match, is
the Secretary Bird (_Gypogeranus reptilivorus_. Fig. 4.) He is the
more interested in striking without being himself struck since the
fangs with which his prey, the snake, is generally armed might at the
first blow give him a mortal wound. In South Africa he pursues every
snake, even the most venomous. Warned by instinct of the terrible
enemy he has met, the reptile at first seeks safety in flight; the
Secretary follows him on foot, and the ardour of the chase does not
prevent him from being constantly on guard. This is because the snake,
finding himself nearly overtaken, suddenly turns round, ready to use
his defensive weapons. The bird stops, and turns in one of his wings
to protect the lower parts of his body. A real duel then begins. The
snake throws himself on his enemy, who at each stroke parries with the
end of his wing; the fangs are buried in the great feathers which
terminate it, and there leave their poison without producing any
effect. All this time with the other wing the Secretary repeatedly
strikes the reptile, who is at last stunned, and rolls over on the
earth. The conqueror rapidly thrusts his beak into his skull, throws
his victim into the air, and swallows him.[20]
[20] The combat was minutely described by Le Vaillant
(_Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux d'Afrique_, Paris, 1798, t. i. p.
177), whose account has been confirmed by many subsequent
observers.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
_Hunting with projectiles._--It has often been repeated that Man is
the only creature sufficiently intelligent to utilise as weapons
exterior objects like a stone or a stick; in a much greater degree,
therefore, it was said, was he the only creature capable of striking
from afar with a projectile. Nevertheless creatures so inferior as
fish exhibit extreme skill in the art of reaching their prey at a
distance. Several act in this way. There is first the _Toxotes
jaculator_, who lives in the rivers of India. His principal food is
formed by the insects who wander over the leaves of aquatic plants. To
wait until they fell into the water would naturally result in but
meagre fare. To leap at them with one bound is difficult, not to
mention that the noise would cause them to flee. The _Toxotes_ knows a
better trick than that. He draws in some drops of water, and,
contracting his mouth, projects them with so much force and certainty
that they rarely fail to reach the chosen aim, and to bring into the
water all the insects he desires.[21] (Fig. 5.) Other animals also
squirt various liquids, sometimes in attack, but more especially in
defence. The Cephalopods, for example, emit their ink, which darkens
the water and allows them to flee. Certain insects exude bitter or
foetid liquids; but in all these cases, and in others that are similar,
the animal finds in his own organism a secretion which happens to be
more or less useful to his conservation. The method of the _Toxotes_
is different. It is a foreign body which he takes up, and it is an
intended victim at which he takes aim and which he strikes; his
movements are admirably co-ordinated to obtain a precise effect.
[21] Cuvier et Valenciennes, _Hist. Nat. des Poissons_,
Paris, 1831, t. vii. p. 231.
Another fish, the _Chelinous_ of Java, also acts in this manner. He
generally lives in estuaries. It is therefore a brackish water which
he takes up and projects by closing his gills and contracting his
mouth; he can thus strike a fly at a distance of several feet. Usually
he aims sufficiently well to strike it at the first blow, but
sometimes he fails. Then he begins again until he has succeeded, which
shows that his movements are not those of a machine. He knows what he
is doing, what effect ought to be produced, and whether this desired
result has happened, and he perseveres until the insect has fallen.
These facts are unquestioned; the Chinese preserve these curious fish
in jars, and amuse themselves by making them carry on this little
exercise. Many observers have witnessed and described it.
_Particular circumstances put to profit._--In the various kinds of
hunting which we have been passing in review, it is certain that the
animals in question generally exercise them nearly always in the same
manner. If an animal has carried out a ruse successfully he does not
abandon it, but reproduces it as often as it is efficacious. When,
however, conditions happen to change, animals are prompt to profit by
them, and one sees how all these acts are derived from reflection.
This is the clearer the more the favourable circumstance is accidental
and unforeseen, when it is not possible to consider the animals as
accustomed to profit by it.
In the wild regions of Africa it happens that from some reason or
another, perhaps from the effect of lightning on immense forests,
dense thickets or plains covered by tall plants become the prey of
gigantic fires which spread as long as they find food on their road.
The heat as of a furnace arises above and around; an acrid smoke veils
everything, and the frightened animals flee before the scourge.
Travellers who have witnessed these magnificent scenes often insist on
the panics thus produced, and describe the inoffensive lion fleeing in
the midst of a herd of gazelles. All are seized by the same fear,
because all are exposed to the same danger. But birds, whose wings can
carry them at will afar from the furnace, preserve greater presence of
mind, and profit by the public calamity and general anxiety to make a
successful hunt and copious feasts. One may see the birds of prey
flying in front of the fire and seizing easy victims. Certain birds of
Africa are the most furious hunters during a fire. Legions of insects
flee far from the tall dried plants, and clouds of birds arrive to
throw themselves on them. They pursue them with incredible audacity
through the smoke close to the flames and always retire in time to
avoid singeing. A member of the Crow family who inhabits India,
_Anomalocorax splendens_, enjoys a deserved reputation of astuteness
and allows no opportunity to escape without seizing it by the
forelock. In ordinary times his food is composed of very varied
substances--crabs, insects, worms, etc.; but if he perceives afar an
ascending cloud he immediately abandons his small researches, knowing
there is something better to be done over there. He is not selfish,
and he calls a few comrades and they all put themselves into position
to await events. They know very well the relation that exists between
this smoke and the prey they covet. The fire indicated by the smoke
can have no other reason in this hot country than the cooking of food.
A Hindoo family are in fact installed and preparing their repast. The
birds see all this and observe. The Hindoos are accustomed to throw
outside the remains of their meals, and the _Anomalocorax_, who have
come together from afar to await patiently this result, then throw
themselves on the quarry. (Jerdon.)
Tennent narrates a singular trick which was twice, to his knowledge,
played on a dog by two of these small glossy crows of Ceylon. The dog
was gnawing a bone and would not be disturbed from the pure delight of
sucking the marrow of which he was the legitimate proprietor. A crow
approached the scene of the feast, and conceived the design of taking
possession of it; he began by hopping around the dog, going and
coming, trying to attract the animal's attention and ready to profit
by the first distraction. His gambols remaining without result, he
understood that he would not succeed and he flew away; but it was only
to return accompanied by a friend possessing as little respect as
himself for the property of others. The associate perched on a branch
a few steps away, while the first crow renewed his attempts by flying
around the bone and the dog; but the latter remained impassive. Then
the second personage, whose part had hitherto been to remain
contemplative, flew off his branch, threw himself on the dog and gave
him a formidable blow on the spine. Seized with indignation, the dog
turned round to punish the author of this unjustifiable aggression;
but the bird was already far away, and in the meanwhile from the other
side the first _Anomalocorax_ seized the long-coveted bone and also
took flight. The feelings of the sheepish dog who saw both his
vengeance and his repast flying away in the air may be better imagined
than described.[22]
[22] Tennent, _Ceylon_, vol. i. p. 171.
All the birds, indeed, of this family know how to reach their ends. I
have already spoken of certain hunts of the Raven; it is even said
that in Iceland he knows when a ewe is going to give birth to young,
and awaits this moment with immense patience. As soon as the lamb
appears the Raven alights on him, digs out his eyes, and devours them.
The Quelelis or Guadaloupe Caracara (_Polyborus lutosus_), a
Californian bird of prey, is a cruel enemy to animals like the goat
when they are about to bring forth their young. No sooner is one kid
born, and while the mother is yet in labour with the second, than the
birds pounce upon it, and should the mother be able to interfere, she
is assaulted also. If there are a number of young kids together, the
birds unite their forces and with great noise and flapping of wings
succeed in separating the weakest and killing it.[23]
[23] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_,
1892, p. 319.
Dr. J. Lowe has recently called attention to a very curious method of
attracting prey adopted by the Blackcap (_Sylvia atricapilla_) at
Orotava, Teneriffe.[24] This bird has discovered that the juice exuded
by certain flowers (_Hibiscus Rosa sinensis_ and _Abutilon frondosum_)
is attractive to the insects upon which he preys; he therefore
punctures the petals of these flowers in order to promote the
exudation of this viscid secretion.
[24] Linnaean Society, 1st June 1893.
Many of us in our schooldays have admired the intelligence of Jackdaws
having their nests in some old tower or belfry. They are able to
distinguish according to the hour the significance of the various
school bells. Most of these clangs do not move them, and they continue
to attend to their affairs without paying attention. Their attention
is only attracted by the ringing which marks the beginning and the end
of recreation time. At the sound of the first they all flee and
abandon the courts before even a single pupil has yet appeared. The
bell, on the contrary, which marks the end of recreation time invites
them to descend in a band to collect the crumbs of lunch. They arrive
in a hurry, so as to be the first to profit by the repast, not waiting
even until the place is abandoned; they know very well that the young
people still there are not to be feared, having no time now to be
occupied with them.
In this class of facts, there are a certain number which may be
considered as more marked by custom and perhaps less marked by
spontaneous reflection. Such, for example, is the custom of Sharks and
Seagulls to follow ships.
In the seas where Dog-fish are abundant, one or more of them become
attached to a ship, and quit it neither night nor day. One may believe
sometimes that they are not there; but if any object is thrown into
the sea, the fin of one of these monsters appears at the surface;
everything which is thrown overboard disappears in their large
jaws--kitchen refuse, bottles, etc. When a dead body is thrown into
the sea it is soon seized by the shark, while living men who fall into
the water have great difficulty in escaping, and are often drawn up
horribly mutilated and half dead.
Sea-gulls also follow vessels when they approach the coast. It is a
pleasant sight to see the noisy band animating the monotonous
splendour of the ocean; they arrive as soon as a vessel is one or two
days' journey from land. Henceforth they do not leave her, flying
behind and plunging in her wake; they profit by the disturbance
produced by the gigantic machine to capture the stunned fishes.
On land exactly the same kind of chase is carried on by Rooks, Crows,
and Magpies, who follow the plough to seize the worms which the
ploughshare turns up in the open earth. In autumn they cover the
fields, animated and active, pilfering as the furrow is hollowed out.
Certain rapacious birds who are awkward in hunting, especially Kites,
make up for their lack of skill by audacious impudence. Constantly on
the watch for better hunters like the Falcon, they throw themselves on
him as soon as he has seized his prey. The proud bird, though much
more courageous, stronger, and more skilful than these thieves,
usually abandons the prey either because the burden embarrasses him in
the struggle, or else because he knows that he can easily find
another. These highway robbers of the air often unite to gain
possession of a prey already taken and killed, and ready to be eaten.
A handsome Falcon of the Southern States of North America, the
Caracara Eagle (_Polyborus cheriway_), frequently steals fish from the
Brown Pelicans on the coast of Texas. When the Pelicans are returning
from their expeditions with pouches filled with fish, the Caracaras
attack them until they disgorge, and then alight to devour the stolen
prey. They do not attack the outgoing birds, but only the incoming
ones, and they wait until they reach the land (so that the contents of
the pouches may not fall into the water) before pouncing on them.[25]
[25] Bendire, _Life Histories of North American Birds_,
p. 315.
Among other animals a habit has been formed from some special
circumstance. As an extreme case in this group we meet with parasites
of whom some cannot live outside a particular nest, and are even
absolutely transformed by this kind of life. But between these and
independent hunters there are an extreme number of intermediate
stages, of which it is sufficient to mention a few.[26]
[26] For a discussion of this subject, see P. van Beneden,
_Commensaux et Parasites_, Paris, 1875.
The _Fierasfer_, a little fish of the Mediterranean, installs himself
in the respiratory cavity of a Holothurian; he does not live at the
expense of his host's flesh, but contents himself with levying a tax
on the foods which enter the cavity. It is a case of commensalism of
which there are very numerous examples. Other cases may be mentioned
which are still further removed from parasitism. Among these may be
mentioned the birds who relieve large mammals of their vermin.
One of them, the Red-beaked Buffalo bird (_Buphaga erythrorhyncha_),
lives in Abyssinia. This bird is insectivorous. He has remarked that
the ruminants constitute baits for flies; therefore he never leaves
these animals, hops about on their backs and delivers them from
annoying parasites; the buffaloes, who recognise this service, allow
the bird to wander quietly over their hide. The _Buphaga_, who gives
himself up entirely to this kind of chase, is often called the
Beef-eater. He is only found in the society of flocks, of camels,
buffaloes, or oxen. He settles on the back, legs, and snouts of these
living baits. They remain passive even when he opens the skin in order
to draw out the flies' larva; they know the benefit of this little
operation. The patience of the oxen is certainly due to custom, for it
is observed that herds which are not used to this bird manifest great
terror when he prepares to alight on them, so that they even take
flight from this small aggressor.
Sometimes it is not easy to understand the advantages derived by the
animal from the conditions in which he is usually found. Thus, for
example, there is a fish, the _Polyprion cernium_, which accompanies
driftwood on which Barnacles have fixed themselves. Yet the remains of
these Crustaceans are never found in his stomach, and it is known on
the contrary that he lives exclusively on other small fish. It is
possible that these find their food in fragments of wood at the
expense of the barnacles, and that therefore the _Polyprion_ which
hunts them is always near driftwood thus garnished.
_Methods of utilising the captured game._--Frequently it is not enough
for the animal to obtain possession of his prey. Before making his
meal it is still necessary to find a method of making use of it,
either because the eatable parts are buried in a thick shell which he
is unable to break, or because he has captured a creature which rolls
itself into a ball and bristles its plumes. Here are some of the more
curious practices followed in such cases.
Sometimes it is a question of carrying off a round fruit which offers
no prominence to take hold of. The Red-headed Melanerpes (_Melanerpes
erythrocephalus_) of North America is very greedy with regard to
apples, and feeds on them as well as on cherries. It takes him a
considerable time to consume an apple, and as he is well aware of the
danger he runs by prolonging his stay in an orchard, he wishes to
carry away his booty to a safe and sheltered spot. He vigorously
plunges his open beak into the apple; the two mandibles enter
separately, and the fruit is well fixed; he detaches it and flies away
to the chosen retreat. Apes are very skilful in utilising their booty.
Cocoa-nuts are rather hard to open, but Apes do not lose any part of
them; they first tear off the fibrous envelope with their teeth, then
they enlarge the natural holes with their fingers, and drink the milk.
Finally, in order to reach the kernel they strike the nut on some hard
object exactly as Man would do. The Baboons (_Cynocephali_), whose
courage is prodigious, since they will fight in a band against a pack
of dogs or even against a leopard, are also very prudent and very
skilful. They know that courage is no use against the sting of a
venomous snake, and that the best thing is to avoid being bitten. The
scorpion, whose dart is perfidious, also inspires their distrust, but
as they like eating him they endeavour to catch him. This is not
indeed very difficult if one carefully observes his movements, and it
is possible to seize him suddenly by the tail, as I have often done,
without being stung. Apes employ this method, pull out his sting, and
crunch the now inoffensive Arachnid. They also like ants, but fear
being bitten by them; when they wish to enjoy them, they place an open
hand on an ant-hill and remain motionless until it is covered by
insects. They can then absorb them at one stroke without fear.
One would not think that an animal so well defended as the Hedgehog
need fear becoming the prey of the Fox. Rolled in a ball, bristling
with hard prickles which cruelly wound an assailant's mouth, nothing
will induce him to unroll so long as he supposes the enemy still in
the neighbourhood. It is vain to strike him or to rub him on the
earth; he remains on the armed defensive. Only one circumstance
disturbs him to the point of making him quit his prudent posture; it
is to feel himself in the water, or even simply to be moist. The fox
is acquainted with this weakness, therefore as soon as he has captured
a hedgehog he rolls him in the nearest marsh to strangle him as soon
as his head appears. It may happen that there is no puddle in the
neighbourhood suitable for this bath; it is said that in this case the
fox is not embarrassed for so small a matter, and provides from his
own body the wherewithal to moisten the hedgehog.
The combination is complicated, and approaches more nearly the methods
employed by Man when the animal makes use of a foreign body, as a tool
or as a fulcrum, to achieve his objects. A snake is very embarrassed
when he has swallowed an entire egg with the shell; he cannot digest
it in that condition, and the muscles of his stomach are not strong
enough to break it. The snake often finds himself in this condition,
and is then accustomed either to strike his body against hard objects
or to coil himself around them until he has broken the envelope of the
eggs he contains.
The Snake himself is treated in this way in South America. The Sulphur
Tyrant-bird picks up a young snake by the tail, and, flying to a
branch or stone, uses it like a flail until its life is battered
out.[27]
[27] W. H. Hudson, _Naturalist in La Plata_, p. 73.
It would be a paradox to attribute great intelligence to Batrachians;
yet certain facts are recorded which show them to be capable of
reflection. Among others the case is quoted of a green frog who
obtained possession of a small red frog, and who proposed to swallow
him. The other was naturally opposed to the realisation of this scheme
and struggled with energy. Seeing that he would not succeed, the green
frog went towards the trunk of a tree and, still holding his victim,
struck him many times vigorously against it. At last the red frog was
stunned, and could then be swallowed at leisure.
Gasteropods are not always protected by their calcareous shells any
more than tortoises are by their carapaces; for certain birds know
very well how to break them. Ravens drop snails from a height, and
thus get possession of the contents of the shell.
The most celebrated breaker of shells is the Bearded Vulture or
Lammergeyer (_Gypaeetos barbatus_). This rapacious bird is very common
in Greece, where he does not usually live on large prey. If he
sometimes carries away a fowl, it is exceptional; he prefers to live
on carrion or bones, the remains of the feasts of man or of the true
vulture. He rises very high carrying these bones in his talons and
allows them to fall on a stone, swallowing the fragments after having
sucked out the marrow. He is also greedy of tortoises, and uses the
same method to break their carapaces, eating the soft parts. These
facts have been many times observed by Brehm and other trustworthy
naturalists. It is even said that in Greece every Lammergeyer chooses
a rock on which he always comes to execute the tortoises he has
captured. It was no doubt beneath one of these birds so occupied that,
according to the story, mischance conducted AEschylus.
Neither the beak nor the claws of the Shrike or Butcher-bird (_Lanius
excubitor_) are strong enough to enable him to tear his prey easily.
When he is not too driven by hunger he installs himself in a
comfortable fashion for this carving process, places on a thorn or on
a pointed branch the victim he has made, and when it is thus fixed
easily devours it in threads.
The _Lanius collurio_, an allied bird, uses this method still more
frequently. He even prepares a small larder before feasting. One may
thus see on a thorny branch spitted side by side Coleoptera, crickets,
grasshoppers, frogs, and even young birds, which he has seized when
they were in flight.[28] (Fig. 6.)
[28] Naumann, _Naturgeschichte der Voegel Deutschlands,
etc._, Stuttgart, 1846-53.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
Of all these well-attested facts that which perhaps best shows how
animals in certain circumstances may take advantage of a foreign body
to utilise the product of the chase, is the following, the observation
of which is due to Parseval-Deschenes.[29] He followed during several
hours an ant bearing a heavy burden. On arriving at the foot of a
little hillock the animal was unable to mount with his load, and
abandoned it--a very extraordinary fact for one who knows the
inconceivable tenacity of insects. The abandonment therefore left hope
of return. The ant at last met one of his companions, who was also
carrying a burden. They stopped, took counsel for an instant, bringing
their antennae together, and started for the hillock. The second ant
then left his burden, and both together then seized a twig and
introduced its end beneath the first load which had been abandoned
because of its weight. By acting on the free extremity of the twig
they were able to use it exactly as a lever, and succeeded almost
without trouble in passing their booty on to the other side of the
little hillock. It seems to me that these ants who invented the lever
are worthy of admiration, and that their ingenuity does not yield to
our own.
[29] Gratien de Semur, _Traite des erreurs et des
prejuges_, Paris, 1848, p. 70.
I will, finally, give an example of the methods of surmounting a
difficulty of another order in utilising captured prey. It is not
enough to capture prey, or even to possess the means of utilising the
prey when captured. It is sometimes also necessary to prevent the
booty being taken possession of by some other member of the same
species as the hunter. Spiders are specially liable to this danger,
because their victims are noisy when caught. Hudson has described an
ingenious device made use of by a species of _Pholcus_--a quiet
inoffensive Spider found in Buenos Ayres--to escape this risk. This
spider, though large, is a weak creature, and possesses little venom
to despatch a fly quickly. The task of killing it is therefore long
and laborious, and the loud outcries of the victim may be heard for a
long time, sometimes for ten or twelve minutes. The other spiders in
the vicinity are naturally excited by this noise, and hurry out from
their webs to the scene of conflict, and the strongest or most daring
sometimes succeeds in carrying away the fly from its rightful captor.
Where, however, a large colony have been long in undisturbed
possession of a ceiling, when one has caught a fly he rapidly throws a
covering of web over it, cuts it away, and drops it down to hang
suspended by a line at a distance of two or three feet from the
ceiling. The other spiders arrive on the scene, but not finding the
cause of the disturbance retire to their own webs again. When the
coast is thus clear, our spider proceeds to draw up the captive fly,
now exhausted by its struggles.[30]
[30] W. H. Hudson, _Naturalist in La Plata_, 1892, p. 189.
_War and brigandage._--When Man attacks animals of another species,
either to kill them and feed on their flesh, or to steal the
provisions which they have amassed for themselves or their young, this
is called "hunting," and is considered as perfectly legitimate. When
men turn to beings of their own species either to kill them or to rob
them, several different cases are distinguished. If the assailants are
few in number, it is called "brigandage," and is altogether
reprehensible; but if both assailant and assailed are considerable in
number, the action is called "war," and receives no reprobation.
There are hunters among animals as well as among ourselves, and we
have seen their various methods of procedure; but there are also
brigands and warriors, and our superiority even in this department is
not so absolute as might be imagined.
Independently of ordinary brigandage, which is a brutal and simple
form of the struggle for life, manifested every time the animals find
themselves before a single repast, there are interesting facts to be
noted concerning robbers who act in a manner that Man himself would
not disavow. It is worthy of remark that it is the most sociable
animals who furnish us with the most characteristic examples.
Bees have a just renown as honest and laborious insects; there are,
however, some who depart from the right road, and they do not do it by
halves.[31] Among Hymenoptera the lazy profess the theory that pollen
belongs to all bees, and that stored-up honey does not constitute
private property. Therefore, to protest against work and economy, sly
methods are employed by a few to utilise as their own private property
the resources which Nature has made for all; they adopt the plan of
plundering the working insects, and carrying away for themselves the
pollen which the others had had the audacity to seek among the
flowers.
[31] L. Buechner, _Aus d. Geistesleben d. Thiere_, Berlin, 1879.
To arrive at these ends these clever Hymenoptera employ cunning, and
endeavour to pose as workers. They place themselves at the approaches
to a hive, and when a worker arrives laden with its burden they
advance towards it, caress it with their antennae, take possession of
its pollen as if to relieve it of a burden, and then fly away to their
own hive.
Others adopt less diplomatic proceedings. Some unite to intrude in a
badly-guarded hive, and gorge themselves with the honey to which they
have no right. Following up this success, they bring accomplices; a
veritable band of brigands is organised, who have no other industry
than to seize honey already manufactured in order to fill their own
cells. Their audacious enterprises are not always crowned with
success; they are repulsed in populous and well-organised hives, but
they are successful in the weaker ones. Sometimes they act with
violence, and to reduce a swarm they first fall on the queen and kill
her with their stings. Disconcerted by her death, the bees allow the
pillage of their dwelling, and the cells are robbed from top to
bottom. In some cases the deprived proprietors, in their turn carried
away by this insanity of rapine, even go over themselves to the
assailing party, and carry their own honey to the house of the
bandits. Henceforth they unite their fortune to that of the others,
and share in their easy and adventurous life.[32]
[32] P. Huber, _Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis
indigenes_, Paris and Geneve, 1810, chap. ix.
Bates has given a vivid description of the armies of the South
American Foraging Ants (_Eciton_). They are carnivorous hunters who
march in large armies, and are found on the banks of the Amazon,
especially in the open campos of Santarem. The _Eciton legionis_
chiefly carry off the mangled larvae and pupae of other ants. They will
attack the nests of a bulky species of the genus _Formica_; they lift
out the bodies of these ants and tear them in pieces, as they are too
large for a single _Eciton_ to carry off, a number of carriers seizing
each fragment. They seem to divide into parties, one party excavating
and the other carrying away the grains of earth to a distance from the
hole just sufficient to prevent them rolling back into it. There is,
however, no rigid distribution of labour, the miners sometimes
becoming carriers, and then again assuming the office of carrying off
the prey. In marching off they form a broad and compact column, sixty
or seventy yards in length, those who may be empty-handed assisting
heavily-laden comrades. The _Eciton drepanophora_ attacks and carries
off all kinds of insects, especially wingless species, such as
maggots, caterpillars, larvae of cockroaches, etc. An eyeless
species,[33] the _Eciton erratica_, rapidly forms covered passages
under which to advance, and shows great skill in fitting the keystone
to these convex arcades.[34]
[33] Belt points out that blindness is an advantage in the
particular mode of hunting adopted by these ants, enabling
them to keep together. Those species of _Eciton_ which hunt
singly have very well developed eyes.
[34] Bates, _Naturalist on the Amazons_ (edition of 1892),
pp. 355-363.
Belt has also made some extremely interesting observations on the
_Ecitons_, whom for intelligence he places first among the ants of
Central America, and as such at the head of the Articulata.[35]
[35] See _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, 1888, pp. 17-29.
_Expeditions to acquire slaves._--In order to reduce one's own species
to slavery, it seems at first that an intelligence is required as
developed as that of Man. It is necessary in fact to attack beings
nearly equally well endowed from an intellectual and physical point of
view. The enterprise evidently presents every possible difficulty; but
in case of success, the result more than compensates for the effort.
The master in future need not trouble to work, for he possesses a tool
capable of doing everything as well as himself, since by means of
language he can easily impress his will on the acts of the other; a
domestic animal is only an auxiliary, the slave entirely replaces his
owner in every labour.
Several species of ants thus obtain slaves. The best known of these is
the _Polyergus rufescens_. We shall see in another chapter in what way
they take advantage of slaves, and what relations they have with them.
At present it is only necessary to say how the slaves are obtained.
The expeditions organised for this purpose are simply a perfected
chase, both by the way in which they are conducted, and by the result
to which they are to lead. It is not a question of brutally seizing a
prey to be devoured immediately. The captured animal must be carefully
managed, carried away alive and in such a condition that it has not
yet known a free life, and can accustom itself to new conditions. When
the _Polyergus_ or Amazon ants desire to increase their band of
slaves, one first remarks extreme excitement in the neighbourhood of
the nest. They all come out helter-skelter, but this disorder lasts
only for a short time; they soon form in line, and a regular serried
column is formed, longer or shorter according to the swarm; it has
been found to measure more than five metres long by fifteen
centimetres broad. The Amazons advance, often changing their direction
like a dog who is seeking a scent: this is exactly what they are
doing, they smell the ground with their antennae in order to recognise
traces of the _Formica fusca_. In this march the eminently republican
instinct of the ants comes out. The band has no chief; those who are
at the head go forward smelling the ground; this slackens their pace,
so that they are passed by those in the ranks behind. Little by little
they fall into single file, and this continuing during the whole
course of the march, a particular ant may sometimes be at the head of
the column, sometimes in the middle, sometimes in the rear. At the end
of a longer or shorter period the expedition discovers a scent, which
it follows up to the nest of the _Formica fusca_. The alarm is
immediately given in the threatened ant-hill; the approach is
announced of a band of slavers, and they all rush out, some to face
their terrible adversaries while the others take up the nymphs and
eggs in their mandibles and flee in all directions to save as many as
possible of their offspring. The small ants endeavour with their
burdens to climb to the summits of blades of grass; those who succeed
are in safety with the eggs that they carry, for the Amazons do not
climb. In the meanwhile a fierce battle is going on in the
neighbourhood of the nest between the _Formica fusca_, who have made a
sortie, and the slavers. It is an unequal struggle, because the latter
are armed with formidable jaws, strong and sharp, borne by a large
head with powerful muscles. The defenders of the nest are seized and
placed _hors de combat_. They flee discouraged, and the assailants
force the entry of the dwelling. They then take possession of the
larvae and nymphs and come out again holding them in their mandibles.
The _Polyergus_ thus laden flee as fast as possible, escaping as well
as they can from the bereaved parents, who endeavour to save their
offspring. The band returns to the nest by the same road that it came,
although not the shortest, for these insects seem to lack the sense of
direction and are guided by smell, so that they have to retrace all
the windings of the road. The march is slackened by the weight of the
booty (Fig. 7), and each travels according to his fancy, without
following the regular order of the departure. At last the ants regain
their household. The slaves, warned of the return of the victorious
army, rush out to meet it and relieve the arrivals of their burdens,
some in their zeal even carrying at the same time both the master and
his burden. The nymphs transported into the ant-hill are henceforth
cared for by their fellow-slaves; the _Polyergus_ do not trouble
themselves further.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
_Wars of the ants._--As sociable as man, the manners of ants present
more than one resemblance to his. Slave-hunting expeditions are among
these; the wars that these insects undertake also resemble human wars.
The causes of the quarrel are of various nature, most often they
result from the close proximity of two ant swarms. The rival colonies
are always meeting in the same regions and seeking the same material;
their mutual rivalry strains their relations. A moment comes when one
of them is decidedly in the way of the other. At such a period, which
is almost a diplomatic crisis, great excitement is observed in the two
camps; there is a continual coming and going. One fine day, as the
result of some unknown act,--some mysterious _casus belli_ or
declaration of war,--two armies place themselves on the march against
each other. They advance in serried ranks. All ants do not follow the
same tactics; some throw themselves out in a thicker line, while
others form in squares. But as soon as action commences the individual
regains his rights. It is a series of duels, of fierce hand-to-hand
struggles. Legs are torn away, heads are cut off by strokes of the
jaws, abdomens are disembowelled; a terrible fury animates the
combatants, and nothing will disturb them from the battle. (Fig. 8.)
By-and-by victory remains with the fiercest or the strongest; the
vanquished draw in, carrying away as far as possible their wounded and
their dead. Nothing more is seen on the field of carnage but separated
limbs or heads which strew the ground like a multitude of small black
points. Often the enmity is not extinguished after a battle, and
several defeats are necessary before the weaker swarm is destroyed or
forced to emigrate.[36]
[36] P. Huber, _Moeurs des Fourmis indigenes_, chap. ix.
Many of the chief observations--given in the words of the
original observers--as well as a summary of the facts known
regarding the social activities of ants generally, will be
found in the useful volume by Romanes in the International
Scientific Series, _Animal Intelligence_, 1882.