The class of moveable articulations is the most important to be
considered, because their mechanism is the most complicated of the two
orders composing this class, as we have seen. The latter, or that of
the articulations with continuous surfaces, will not be considered in
our general observations, as it embraces only one species of motion,
that of the vertebræ, this motion will be noticed in the examination
of the spine. The order of the moveable articulations with contiguous
surfaces, comprises, as we have said, five genera characterized by
their respective motions.
_First Genus._
Extensive opposition, circumduction and rotation characterize this
genus. The first by the extent and number of its motions. The
articulations of the humerus with the scapula and the femur with the
ilium are examples of it; they even exclusively compose it.
We see why it is at the superior part of the limbs that nature has
placed this genus. A double advantage results from this situation. On
the one hand, very far from the part of the limb immediately exposed
to the action of external bodies, it more easily escapes luxations to
which its want of solidity renders it liable. On the other hand, it
can by this situation give to the limb the motions of a whole which
compensate for those of the inferior articulations, the solidity of
which prevents the power of motion in all directions. For example,
the two articulations of which I have just spoken, are not only the
articulations of the bones that form them, of the humerus and the
femur, but also the articulations of the whole limb, which they direct
in different directions; thus the anchylosis of these articulations
renders the limb completely useless, whilst that of the inferior
articulations only destroys partial motions.
The kind of motion of this genus of articulation requires a rounded
form in the articular surfaces, whether they be concave that receive
and convex that are received. This form is in fact the only one
that can accommodate itself to extensive opposition, rotation and
circumduction united; this is the form of the superior parts of the
humerus with the scapula, and the femur with the os innominatum. The
bone which moves has a convex surface, that which serves for support a
concave one. There are in animals examples of an opposite arrangement:
that is to say that a concavity is moved in all directions upon a
convexity; but this is not found in man.
Though the two limbs have between them the greatest analogy in their
motions, yet there are some differences relative especially to their
respective uses, which in the one are for seizing and repelling bodies,
in the other destined to locomotion. The principal of these differences
is, that rotation and circumduction are found in them in an exactly
inverse ratio. The mechanical reason and advantages of this arrangement
are easily understood.
In the femur the length of the neck which is the lever of rotation,
gives much extent to this motion, which supplies the pronation and
supination that are wanting in the leg; so that every rotation of
the foot is a motion of the whole of the limb. In the humerus on the
contrary, the neck being very short and bringing the axis of the bone
near the centre of the motion, limits rotation, which is less necessary
on account of that of the fore-arm; the motion of the hand without or
within is never communicated but by a part of the limb.
As to circumduction, the length of the neck of the thigh is an obstacle
to it. In fact, let us remark that this motion is much the more easy,
when it is performed by a rectilinear lever, because then the axis of
the motion is the axis of the lever; that on the contrary, if the lever
is angular, the motion becomes so much the more difficult because the
axis of the motion is not that of the lever; and in general we can
say, that the difficulty of the motion is in the direct ratio of the
distance of the two axes.
This being settled, let us observe that the axis of the motion of
circumduction of the thigh is evidently a straight line, obliquely
directed from the head to the condyles, and distant consequently
above from the axis of the bone, the whole length of the neck. Now,
from what has just been said, it is evident, that the difficulty of
circumduction will be in the direct ratio of the length of the neck,
and consequently very great. In the humerus, on the contrary, the neck
being very short, the axis of the bone and that of the motion are
almost the same; hence the facility and extent of the circumduction. We
might fix precisely the relation of these motions by this proportion;
the circumduction of the humerus is to that of the femur, as the length
of the neck of the humerus is to the length of the neck of the femur;
which shows us how much more difficult the circumduction of the femur
is than that of the humerus. To know this, it is sufficient in fact to
know the excess of the length of the neck of the first over that of the
second.
It is easy to perceive the advantages of this very great extent in
the circumduction of the superior limbs destined to seize, and of the
limits placed by nature to that of the inferior limbs destined to
standing and locomotion. We understand also why luxations are more easy
in the first than in the second. The displacement almost always takes
place in fact, in one of the simple motions, the succession of which
forms the compound motion of circumduction, for example, in elevation
or depression, in adduction or abduction, &c. Now all these motions
being carried much further in the humerus than in the femur, the
surfaces are more easily separated.
_Second Genus._
This genus differs from the first by the absence of the motion of
rotation. Opposition and circumduction are alone met with in it. We
find examples of it in the temporal maxillary, sterno-clavicular,
radio-carpal, meta-carpo-phalangeal articulations, &c.
The want of rotation evidently supposes, from what has been said above,
the absence of an osseous head, the axis of which would make, as in the
preceding genus, an angle with the axis of the body of the bone. Thus
in all the bones of the articulations that I have just mentioned, the
articular surface is at the extremity even of the bone, and not upon
the side; the axis is the same in both cases. They form a rectilinear
lever, instead of an angular one.
The articular surfaces are in general, as in the preceding case,
uniform, without eminences and reciprocal depressions; which would
embarrass and even prevent circumduction. In the bone which serves
for support, there is a cavity more or less deep; in the bone which
is moved, there is an analogous convexity. The corresponding surfaces
of the temporal and the inferior maxillary bone, of the bones of the
metacarpus and the first phalanges, are examples of this arrangement.
This articular mode is the most favourably disposed for circumduction,
which is, as we have seen, constantly in the inverse ratio of rotation,
and which consequently has the greatest possible facility when the
lever is rectilinear, a circumstance that destroys rotation. Yet in
many articulations of this genus, circumduction is evidently less
extensive than in the humerus and the femur; but this arises from the
arrangement of the moving powers which being in much greater number
in the articulations of these two bones, compensate for the bad
arrangement of the articular surfaces for circumduction.
In the genus of articulations of which we are treating, there is
always one direction in which the motion of opposition is more easy
than in the others; for example, it is elevation and depression in
the jaw, flexion and extension in the first phalanges, in the wrist,
&c. In general there are two lateral ligaments and the capsule in the
direction in which the motions are most limited, the capsule only in
that in which they are the most extensive.
_Third Genus._
As we advance in the examination of these articular genera, the
extent of their motion diminishes. This has less opposition in many
directions than the preceding, and less circumduction which always
supposes an extensive opposition. Here this opposition is always
limited to one direction only, to that of flexion and extension, for
example.
We find this articular genus especially in the middle of the limbs, as
at the elbow, the knee, the middle of the fingers in the articulations
of the phalanges. Though the bone which composes them, inferiorly can
move by itself but in one direction, yet it borrows from the loose
motions of the superior articulation of the limb, so as to be able to
be turned in every way.
The articular surfaces are found here as in the preceding genus, at
the extremity of the bone, having the same axis as the bone; but they
differ, 1st, in this that there are many eminences and cavities fitted
to each other, an arrangement, which, by permitting the motion in one
direction, prevents it in the others. Very commonly there are two kinds
of round prominences, called condyles, which roll from before behind,
or from without within, &c. upon two analogous cavities, that are
separated by an eminence, which is received in the space between the
condyles, as we see in the femoro-tibial, phalangeal articulations, &c.
2d. The breadth of the surfaces also distinguishes this genus from the
preceding; this breadth insures its solidity, and prevents luxations,
which besides are more to be feared when they happen here where more
ligaments must be broken than elsewhere.
There is always in this genus greater extent of motion on one side,
than on the opposite. In general flexion has always more extended
limits than extension; observe in fact the condyles of the femur, of
the phalanges, &c. they are extended much further in the first than the
second direction; why? because all our principal motions are those of
flexion, and the motions of extension are as it were but to moderate
the first, and have for their object only to bring back the limb to
the position from which it can be bent again. Hence why the number,
and the strength of the fibres are much greater in the flexors than in
the extensors; why the great vascular and nervous trunks are always on
the side of flexion, as we see in the thigh, the leg, the fore-arm,
the phalanges, &c. There is always something which limits the motion
of extension, as the olecranon in the humero-cubital articulation, the
crucial ligaments in the femoro-tibial articulation.
Though in the genus which we are describing, there is no well marked
motion of circumduction, yet when the leg or the fore-arm are in
flexion, they can move laterally and even in the form of a cone, but
not in a very evident manner. In extension this is impossible, because
the lateral ligaments being much stretched, do not yield enough to
allow the bone to incline from one side to the other.
_Fourth Genus._
Every kind of opposition and circumduction is wanting in this genus,
which presents rotation alone, as we see in the articulations of
the ulna with the radius, and the atlas with the odontoid process.
Sometimes it is a concave surface rolling upon a convex one, as at the
lower end of the radius, and at the odontoid process; sometimes it is a
convex surface moving upon a concave one, as at the head of the radius;
there is always a kind of ligament which completes the concave surface,
and which thus forms a ring turning upon the bone, or in which the bone
turns.
Luxations are here very difficult, because the rotation being made upon
the axis of the bone, the ligaments are hardly more distended on one
side than the other, and are hence broken with difficulty, whatever may
be the extent of the motion. The inferior part of the radius forms a
slight exception to this rule, because it is upon the ulna, and not
exactly upon its own axis, that the bone turns in this place.
There is no rotation in the leg as in the fore-arm, because, as we have
seen, that of the thigh which is very extensive, supplies the place of
it; which the humerus could hardly do for the fore-arm, as we know when
this last is anchylosed.
_Fifth Genus._
Every kind of rotation, opposition and circumduction are wanting
in this genus, which is the most numerous, and which embraces the
articulations of the carpus, the metacarpus, the tarsus and metatarsus,
of the vertebræ between themselves by their articular processes, of
the atlas with the occiput, of the humeral extremity of the clavicle,
the sternal of the ribs, and the superior of the fibula. There is only
a kind of slipping more or less obscure, and in which the osseous
surfaces hardly ever leave each other. These surfaces are almost
all plain, very close together, united by a considerable number of
ligaments, and so strong in their connexion, that luxations hardly ever
happen to them. Another reason moreover which renders them difficult,
is that all this genus of articulations belongs almost wholly to short
bones; now we know, that the motion imparted to a bone has a power
of action which is in direct ratio of its length, and in the inverse
of its smallness; for example, the same power applied to the tibial
extremity of the femur, would luxate much more easily the ischiatic
extremity, than if it acted upon the middle of this bone.
As the separate motion of each of the articulations of the fifth genus
is almost nothing, nature usually unites several at the same place, for
the purpose of producing a sensible, general motion, as we see in the
carpus, the tarsus, the vertebræ, &c.; this is also a reason of the
difficulty there is in luxating this genus of articulations. In fact,
how great the general motions may be, two bones, taken separately,
move but little upon each other; now it is only the extent of the
motion of the two separate bones from each other, that can produce the
displacement.