Palmyra, with its transitory splendour, and its total annihilation,
its association with two extraordinary men,--Longinus and Odenathus,
and perhaps a still more extraordinary woman,--Zenobia, has been the
subject of the poet’s song, the theme of the historian, and a source
of deep reflection for the statesman or the philosopher. The history
of Palmyra is a short but highly interesting episode in the annals
of mankind, illustrated, in the course of a very few years, by the
valour and ability of Odenathus, the wisdom and cultivated taste of
Longinus, and the splendid beauty, great talents, and masculine mind of
Zenobia. As it is said the sun of the glory of Thebes rose and set with
Epaminondas, so the splendour of Palmyra is so connected with the name
of Zenobia, that they seem to us to have been entirely co-existent;
we look at the nascent prosperity of Palmyra before her birth, as a
preparation for her future fortune; and we contemplate the vast ruins
of the city as so many monuments remaining undestroyed to perpetuate
her memory. No great city was ever so completely identified with a
person as Palmyra with Zenobia.
Of the siege itself, even Gibbon has given but a meagre account; and
yet, what reader would have pardoned us, if we had neglected to notice
the fall of the gorgeous capital of the Queen of the East?
Palmyra was one of those great commercial entrepôts which became
important by natural position. Before the great maritime discoveries,
an oasis in the deserts which divided the East from the West, as soon
as commerce began to flourish, or the power of the West to desire the
luxuries of the East, was certain to be wealthy if the industry of the
inhabitants responded to its natural advantages. The destruction of the
temples of Palmyra might be due to the cruel vengeance of Aurelian;
but the neglect of the commercial position is owing to the rise of
Venice and other trading nations, in the middle ages, and the great
maritime and scientific discoveries of modern times.
As we cannot hope to improve upon the great author of “The Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire,” we shall give most of this short siege in
his own words.
“After the victories of Trajan, the little republic, grown wealthy by
its commerce, sunk peaceably into the bosom of Rome, and flourished
more than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate, though
honourable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful period, if
we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the wealthy
Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and porticos of
Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several
miles, have deserved the curiosity of our travellers. The elevation
of Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to reflect new splendour on their
country, and Palmyra, for a while, stood forth the rival of Rome; but
the competition was fatal, and ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a
moment of glory.
“Modern Europe has produced several women who have sustained with glory
the weight of empire; but if we except the doubtful achievements of
Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior genius
broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by the climate
and manners of Asia. She claimed her descent from the Macedonian
kings of Egypt, equalled in beauty her ancestor Cleopatra, and far
surpassed that princess in chastity and valour. Zenobia was esteemed
the most lovely as well as the most heroic of her sex. She was of dark
complexion (for in speaking of ladies, such things are not trifles),
her teeth were of pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled
with uncommon fire, tempered with the most attractive sweetness. Her
voice was strong and harmonious; her understanding was strengthened
and adorned by study; she was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but
possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the Egyptian
languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome of Oriental
history, and familiarly compared the beauties of Homer and Plato, under
the tuition of the sublime Longinus.
“This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from a
private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. She soon
became the friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals of war,
Odenathus passionately delighted in the exercise of hunting; he pursued
with ardour the wild beasts of the desert--lions, panthers, and bears;
and the ardour of Zenobia in that dangerous amusement was not inferior
to his own. She had inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained
the use of a covered carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a
military habit, and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head
of the troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed
to her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their splendid victories
over the Great King, whom they twice pursued as far as the gates of
Ctesiphon, laid the foundation of their united fame and power. The
armies which they commanded, and the provinces which they had saved,
acknowledged not any other sovereigns than their invincible chiefs.
The senate and people of Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their
captive emperor; and even the insensible son of Valerian accepted
Odenathus for his legitimate colleague.
“After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of
Asia, the Palmyrenian prince returned to the city Emessa, in Syria.
Invincible in war, he was there cut off by domestic treason, and his
favourite amusement of hunting was the cause, or at least the occasion,
of his death. His nephew Mæonius presumed to dart his javelin before
that of his uncle; and, though admonished of his error, repeated the
same freedom. As a monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked,
took away his horse, a mark of ignominy, and chastised the rash youth
by a short confinement.
“The offence was soon forgotten, but the punishment was remembered; and
Mæonius, with a few daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the
midst of a great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not
of Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, was killed
with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of revenge by
this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to assume the title of Augustus,
before he was sacrificed by Zenobia to the memory of her husband.
“With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately
filled the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels, Palmyra,
Syria, and the East, above five years. By the death of Odenathus,
the authority was at an end which the senate had granted him only as
a personal distinction; but his martial widow, disdaining both the
senate and Gallienus, obliged one of the Roman generals who was sent
against her, to retreat into Europe, with the loss of his army and his
reputation. Instead of the petty passions which so frequently perplex
a female reign, the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the
most judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she
could calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she could
impose silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was accused of
avarice; yet, on every proper occasion, she appeared magnificent and
liberal. The neighbouring states of Arabia, Armenia, and Persia dreaded
her enmity and solicited her alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus,
which extended from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his
widow added the inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile
kingdom of Egypt. The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was
content that, while _he_ pursued the Gothic war, _she_ should assert
the dignity of the empire in the East. The conduct, however, of Zenobia
was attended with some ambiguity; nor is it unlikely that she had
conceived the design of erecting an independent and hostile monarchy.
She blended with the popular manners of Roman princes the stately pomp
of the courts of Asia, and exacted from her subjects the same adoration
that was paid to the successors of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three
sons a Latin education, and often showed them to the troops adorned
with the imperial purple. For herself she reserved the diadem, with the
splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the East.
“When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose sex
alone could render her an object of contempt, his presence restored
obedience to the provinces of Bithynia, already shaken by the arms
and intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his legions, he
accepted the submission of Aucyra, and was admitted into Tyana, after
an obstinate siege, by the help of a treacherous citizen. The generous
though fierce temper of Aurelian abandoned the traitor to the rage
of the soldiers: a superstitious reverence induced him to treat with
lenity the countrymen of Apollonius, the philosopher. Antioch was
deserted on his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts,
recalled the fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all who, from
necessity rather than choice, had been engaged in the service of the
Palmyrenian queen. The unexpected mildness of such a conduct reconciled
the minds of the Syrians, and, as far as the gates of Emessa, the
wishes of the people seconded the terror of his arms.
“Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently
permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a hundred miles of
her capital. The fate of the East was decided in two great battles; so
similar in almost every circumstance, that we can scarcely distinguish
them from each other, except by observing that the first was fought
near Antioch, and the second near Emessa. In both, the queen of Palmyra
animated the armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of
her orders on Zabdas, who had already signalized his military talents
by the conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted,
for the most part, of light archers and of heavy cavalry, clothed in
complete steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable
to sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in
real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious
pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at length discomfited
this impenetrable but unwieldy body of cavalry. The light infantry,
in the mean time, when they had exhausted their quivers, remaining
without protection against a closer onset, exposed their naked sides to
the swords of the legions. Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops,
who were usually stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose valour had
been severely tried in the Alemannic war. After the defeat of Emessa,
Zenobia found it impossible to collect another army. As far as the
frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire had joined the
standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the bravest of his
generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the
last resource of the widow of Odenathus. She retired within the walls
of her capital, made every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and
declared with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her
reign and her life should be the same.
“In his march over the sandy desert between Emessa and Palmyra, the
emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could
he always defend his army, and especially his baggage, from those
flying troops of active and daring robbers, who watched the moment
of surprise, and eluded the slow pursuit of the legions. The siege
of Palmyra was an object far more difficult and important, and the
emperor, who with incessant vigour pressed the attacks in person, was
himself wounded with a dart. ‘The Roman people,’ says Aurelian, in an
original letter, speak ‘with contempt of the war which I am waging
against a woman. They are ignorant both of the character and the power
of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations,
of stones, of arrows, and of every species of missile weapons. Every
part of the walls is provided with two or three balistæ, and artificial
fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear of punishment
has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I trust in the
protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been favourable to all my
undertakings.’ Doubtful, however, of the protection of the gods and of
the events of the siege, Aurelian judged it more prudent to offer terms
of an advantageous capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to
the citizens, their ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately
rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult.
“The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope that famine would
soon compel the emperor to repass the desert; and by the reasonable
expectation that the kings of the East, and particularly the Persian
monarch, would arm in defence of their most natural ally. But fortune,
and the perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The death
of Sapor, which happened about this time, distracted the councils of
Persia, and the inconsiderable succours that attempted to relieve
Palmyra, were easily intercepted, either by the arms or the liberality
of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a succession of convoys
safely arrived in the camp, which was increased by the return of
Probus, with his victorious troops, from the conquest of Egypt. It
was then that Zenobia resolved to fly. She mounted the fleetest of
her dromedaries, and had already reached the banks of the Euphrates,
about sixty miles from Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the pursuit
of Aurelian’s light horse, seized, and brought back a captive to the
feet of the emperor. Her capital soon after surrendered, and was
treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, with an
immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious stones, were all
delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a garrison of six hundred
archers, returned to Emessa, and employed some time in the distribution
of rewards and punishments at the end of so memorable a war, which
restored to the obedience of Rome those provinces that had renounced
their allegiance since the captivity of Valerian.
“When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian,
he sternly asked her how she had presumed to rise in arms against
the emperors of Rome? The answer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture
of respect and firmness. ‘Because I disdained to consider as Roman
emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I acknowledge as my
conqueror and my sovereign.’ But as female fortitude is commonly
artificial, so it is seldom steady or consistent. The courage of
Zenobia deserted her in the hour of trial; she trembled at the angry
clamours of the soldiers, who called aloud for her immediate execution;
she forgot the generous despair of Cleopatra, which she had proposed
as her model; and ignominiously purchased life by the sacrifice of
her fame and her friends. It was to their counsels, which governed
the weakness of her sex, that she imputed the guilt of her obstinate
resistance; it was on their heads she directed the vengeance of the
cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was included amongst the
perhaps innocent victims of her fear, will survive that of the queen
who betrayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. Genius and learning
were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered soldier, but they had
served to elevate and harmonize the soul of Longinus. Without uttering
a complaint, he calmly followed the executioner, pitying his unhappy
mistress and bestowing comfort on his afflicted friends.
“Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already crossed
the straits which divide Europe from Asia, when he was provoked by
the intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred the governor and
garrison which he had left among them, and again erected the standard
of revolt. Without a moment’s deliberation, he once more turned
his face towards Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach,
and the helpless city of Palmyra felt the irresistible weight of
his resentment. We have a letter of Aurelian himself, in which he
acknowledges that old men, women, children, and peasants had been
involved in that dreadful execution, which should have been confined
to armed rebellion; and although his principal concern seems directed
to the re-establishment of a temple of the Sun, he discovers some pity
for the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the permission of rebuilding
and inhabiting their city. But it is easier to destroy than to restore.
The seat of commerce, of arts, and of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an
obscure town, a trifling fortress, and at length a miserable village.
The present citizens of Palmyra, consisting of thirty or forty
families, have erected their mud cottages within the spacious court of
a magnificent temple.
“Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved a
triumph than Aurelian, nor was a triumph ever celebrated with superior
pride and magnificence. The pomp was opened by twenty elephants,
four royal tigers, and above two hundred of the most curious animals
from every climate of the North, the East, and the South. They were
followed by sixteen hundred gladiators, devoted to the cruel amusements
of the amphitheatre. The wealth of Asia, the arms and ensigns of so
many conquered nations, and the magnificent plate and wardrobe of
the Syrian queen, were exposed in exact symmetry or artful disorder.
The ambassadors of the most remote parts of the earth,--of Ethiopia,
Arabia, Persia, Bactriana, India, and China, all remarkable by their
rich or singular dresses, displayed the fame and power of the Roman
emperor, who exposed likewise to the public view the presents that
he had received, and particularly a great number of crowns of gold,
the offerings of grateful cities. The victories of Aurelian were
attested by the long train of captives who reluctantly attended
his triumph,--Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls,
Syrians, and Egyptians. Each people was distinguished by its peculiar
inscription, and the title of Amazons was bestowed on ten martial
heroines of the Gothic nation who had been taken in arms. But every
eye, disregarding the crowds of captives, was fixed upon the Queen
of the East and the emperor Tetricus. The latter, as well as his
son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed in Gallic trousers, a
saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous figure of Zenobia
was confined by fetters of gold; a slave supported the gold chain
which encircled her neck, and she almost fainted under the intolerable
weight of jewels. She preceded, on foot, the magnificent chariot in
which she once hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It was followed by two
other chariots, still more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of the Persian
monarch. The triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly been used by a
Gothic king) was drawn on this memorable occasion either by four stags
or by four elephants. The most illustrious of the senate, the people,
and the army closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned joy, wonder,
and gratitude swelled the acclamations of the multitude; but the
satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the appearance of Tetricus;
nor could they suppress a rising murmur that the haughty emperor should
thus expose to public ignominy the person of a Roman and a magistrate.
“The triumph over, Aurelian behaved generously to his beautiful and
royal captive. He presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur
or Tivoli, above twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen
insensibly sunk into a Roman matron, her daughters married into noble
families, and her race was not extinct in the fifth century.”