We now come to the sieges undergone by one of the most interesting
cities of antiquity. How many of our youthful associations are
connected with this great commercial city--the birthplace of Dido,
the city in the labours of whose siege we have accompanied Alexander!
And yet it appears to us that there is one reflection belonging to
Tyre which should strike an Englishman more forcibly than even his
schoolday remembrances of it. Tyre was the greatest commercial city
of antiquity, as England is the greatest commercial nation of modern
times. It was, as England is, a great entrepôt between two divisions of
the world, a situation, whether of Tyre, Thebes, Palmyra, Alexandria,
Venice, or England, which more than compensates for barrenness of
soil, inconveniences of climate, or many of the evils from which other
fortunate countries are exempt. If wealth be man’s principal object, a
great “_carrying_” country is the place where industry and enterprise
are most likely to meet with a reward. But in the extract we are
about to make, our readers will see, what all history tells, that no
countries are so likely to become luxurious, sensual, and corrupt, as
those states which commerce has gorged with wealth. The fate of Tyre is
an eloquent lesson to England.
Tyre was built by the Sidonians, two hundred and forty years before
the temple of Jerusalem; for this reason it is called by Isaiah “the
daughter of Sidon.” It soon surpassed its mother city in extent,
power, and riches. It was besieged by Shalmaneser, and alone resisted
the united fleets of the Assyrians and the Phœnicians, which greatly
heightened its pride. Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Tyre, at the time
that Ithobalous was king of that city, but did not take it till
thirteen years after. But before it was conquered the inhabitants had
retired, with most of their effects, into a neighbouring island, where
they built a new city. The old one was razed to the very foundation,
and has since been no more than a village, known by the name of “Palæ
Tyrus,” or ancient Tyre; but the new city rose to greater power than
the former.
Tyre was in the most flourishing condition at the time of Alexander
the Great. That city boasted of being the inventor of navigation. The
inhabitants, by their skill and industry, made their port the great
mart of commerce, and by their courtesy conciliated all who came to
it: it was deemed the common city of all nations, and the centre of
commerce.
With the exception of Tyre, Syria and Palestine were already subdued
by the Macedonians. Upon Alexander’s advancing towards it, the Tyrians
sent him an embassy, with presents for himself and refreshments for his
army. They were willing to have him for their friend, but not for their
master; so that when he expressed a wish to enter the city, in order
to offer a sacrifice to Hercules, its tutelar god, they refused him
admission. This ill suited the haughty spirit of the young conqueror,
and he resolved to obtain by force what was refused as a courtesy.
The Tyrians, on their side, confident in their wealth and strength,
resolved to maintain the position they had assumed. Tyre was at that
time situated on an island, about a quarter of a league from the
continent; it was surrounded by a strong wall a hundred and fifty feet
high, which was washed by the sea. The Carthaginians, who were a colony
from Tyre, promised to assist in the contest, which greatly increased
the confidence of the Tyrians. The island resounded with warlike
preparations; machines were fixed on the ramparts and towers, the young
men were armed, and workshops were built for the artificers, of whom
there were great numbers in the city. They likewise made great store
of iron grapples, to throw on the enemy’s works and tear them away; as
also cramp-irons, and other instruments invented for the defence of
cities.
Alexander had strong reasons for wishing to subdue Tyre. He could
not invade Egypt with safety whilst the Persians were masters of
the sea; and he could not think of leaving behind a large extent of
country, whose inhabitants were but doubtful friends. He likewise
was apprehensive of commotions and intrigues at home whilst he was
pursuing Darius. The conquest of Tyre would make the whole of Phœnicia
safe, would dispossess Persia of half its navy, and would lay open to
him the isle of Cyprus and all Egypt.
It was impossible to approach the city near enough to storm it, without
making a causeway from the mainland to the island, and this seemed to
be attended with insurmountable difficulties. The little arm of the sea
was exposed to the west winds, which sometimes raised such storms as
must sweep away any works of art. Besides, the city being surrounded
by the waves, and the wall projecting into the sea at the lower part,
scaling-ladders or batteries could only be fixed in the ships; and
the machines could not be expected to do much execution from unsteady
galleys upon tumultuous waves.
Obstacles, however, only increased the determination of Alexander. But
as his ships were few and at a distance, he at first attempted to come
to an accommodation. He sent heralds to propose a peace; but these
the Tyrians killed, contrary to the laws of nations, and threw them
from the top of the walls into the sea. Alexander, highly exasperated,
immediately set about making a dyke. He found materials in the stones
and rubbish of old Tyre; and Mount Libanus, so famous for its cedars,
furnished him with piles and other timbers.
No general excelled Alexander in the art of urging his soldiers to
any undertaking he wished to be executed, and, under his own personal
supervision, the dyke advanced rapidly; the piles were driven with ease
into the slime, which served as mortar to the stones, and they were
too far from the city to meet with interruption. But as they advanced
into deep water, the difficulties of operation became greater, and the
workmen were constantly annoyed by the darts and arrows from the walls.
Being masters of the sea, the Tyrians attacked the people and injured
the works in boats, jeering them with crying, “See what capital beasts
of burden these conquering heroes make!” and then asking “whether their
master thought himself greater than Neptune; and whether he thought he
could prevail over that god?”
But these taunts only inflamed the soldiers; the work went on without
delay, and the Tyrians were at length alarmed at discovering what
a vast undertaking the sea had concealed from them: the bold and
level surface appeared above the waves, and approached the city. The
inhabitants then came in shoals of barks, to annoy the workmen with
darts, javelins, and even fire; and the Greeks were forced to stay
their labour to defend themselves from the missiles cast from the
swiftly-moving boats. Skins and sails were then had recourse to screen
them, and two wooden towers were raised at the head of the bank, to
prevent the approach of the enemy.
On the other side the Tyrians made a descent upon the shore, out of
view of the camp, landed some soldiers, and cut to pieces the men
engaged in carrying the stones; some Arabian peasants likewise killed
about thirty Macedonians on Mount Libanus, and took several prisoners.
These small losses induced Alexander to divide his troops into separate
bodies.
The besieged were not backward in either exertions, inventions,
or stratagems. They took a transport vessel, and filling it with
vine-branches and other dry materials, they made a large inclosure near
the prow, which they filled with sulphur, pitch, and other combustible
matters. In the middle of this inclosure they set up two masts, to each
of which they fixed two sailyards, whence hung kettles full of oil and
other unctuous substances. To raise the prow, they loaded the latter
part of the vessel with stones and sand, and putting it out to sea, by
means of their galleys towed it towards the towers. They then ignited
this ancient fire-ship, the sailors who were in it leaping into the sea
and swimming away. The fire quickly caught the towers and the works at
the head of the causeway, and the sails, flapping about, threw oil upon
the fire, and increased its violence. To prevent the Macedonians from
extinguishing the flames, the Tyrians, from their galleys and boats,
kept up a continual discharge of darts and burning torches. Several
Macedonians were either shot or burnt to death on the causeway, whilst
others, throwing down their arms or tools, leaped into the sea. But as
they swam, the Tyrians, preferring to have them as prisoners, maimed
their hands with clubs and stones, and, after disabling them, carried
them off. At the same time the besieged, in their small boats, beat
down the edges of the causeway, tore up the stakes, and burnt the rest
of the engines.
But Alexander, unlike Buonaparte, was never discouraged by apparent
failures. His exertions to repair the causeway and construct fresh
machines quite astonished the enemy. As every general should be during
great operations, Alexander was present and superintended every part of
the works. The dyke was nearly completed, when an impetuous wind drove
the waves with such fury against it, that the cement and all gave way,
and the water, rushing between the stones, broke it in the middle. As
soon as the great heap of stones which supported the earth was thrown
down, the whole sunk at once as into an abyss.
Even Alexander for a moment debated whether he should abandon his
enterprise or not; but his indomitable genius prevailed, and the
soldiers began a new mole with as much alacrity as if they had but that
moment arrived before the city.
Alexander became aware that he could neither complete the causeway nor
take the city whilst the Tyrians were masters at sea. He therefore
assembled all his galleys before Sidon. The fame of his victory at
Issus brought him a considerable accession of naval force; several
Asiatic monarchs hastening to pay their court to the conqueror, by
supplying him with that of which he stood most in need.
The king, whilst his soldiers were preparing the ships and engines,
took some troops of horse and his own regiment of guards, and marched
towards a mountain of Arabia, called Antilibanus. His affection for
his old tutor Lysimachus, who followed him in this expedition, exposed
him to one of those dangers which we often find great men, as well as
heroes of romance, running into. Lysimachus was evidently a courtier as
well as an able tutor, for he knew his pupil’s weak point, and called
him Achilles and himself Phœnix. When the king arrived at the foot of
the mountain, he leaped from his horse and began to walk. His troops
got a considerable distance in advance of him. It became late, but
Alexander would not leave his tutor, who was corpulent and short of
breath, and was soon, with the exception of a few soldiers, separated
from his little army. He was compelled to spend the whole night in this
unguarded state very near to a numerous body of the enemy. His good
fortune, however, prevailed,--he passed the night in safety, and coming
up with his troops in the morning, he advanced into the country, took
all the strong places, either by force or capitulation, and, on the
eleventh day returned to Sidon, where he found a welcome reinforcement
of four thousand Greeks from Peloponnesus.
The fleet being ready, Alexander, with some chosen soldiers of his
guard, embarked and sailed towards Tyre, in order of battle. He himself
was on the extremity of the right wing, which extended towards the
main ocean, accompanied by the kings of Cyprus and Phœnicia; the left
was commanded by Craterus. The Tyrians were at first inclined to give
battle, but on beholding the strength of the Grecian line, they thought
it best to keep their fleet in port and endeavour to prevent the enemy
from entering. When Alexander saw this, he advanced nearer the city,
and, finding it impossible to force the port towards Sidon, on account
of the narrowness of the entrance and the number of galleys there
posted with their prows turned towards the main ocean, he only sunk
three of them which lay without, and afterwards came to an anchor with
his whole fleet pretty near the mole, where his ships rode in safety.
While all these things were going on, the construction of the mole was
prosecuted with great vigour. The workmen threw in whole trees, with
all their branches on them, and laid great stones over them; upon these
they placed other trees, covering the latter with a kind of unctuous
earth, which served instead of mortar. Heaping more trees and stones
upon these in the same manner, the whole formed one entire body. This
causeway was made wider than the former, so that the towers which were
built in the middle would be out of the reach of the darts and arrows
discharged by the boats from the sides. The besieged, on the other
hand, did all in their power to stop the progress of the work. But
nothing was more useful to them than the operations of their divers,
who, swimming under water, came unperceived quite up to the bank, and
with hooks, drew such branches to them as projected beyond the work,
and pulling forward with great strength, forced away everything that
was over them. But, notwithstanding all obstacles, the Macedonian
perseverance prevailed, and the dyke was brought to perfection.
Military engines of all kinds were placed upon the causeway, in order
to shake the walls; and showers of darts, arrows, stones, and burning
torches were poured upon the besieged.
Alexander ordered the Cyprian fleet to take its station before the
harbour which lay towards Sidon, and that of Phœnicia before the
harbour on the side of the causeway facing Egypt, towards the part
where his own tent was pitched, and then made preparations for
attacking the city on every side. The Tyrians on their part prepared
for a vigorous defence. They had erected towers on the parts of the
walls next the causeway, of prodigious height and proportionate width,
composed of large stones cemented with mortar. The access to any other
part was almost as difficult, immense stones being placed along the
foot of the wall, to keep the enemy from approaching it. These must
be removed; and the Macedonians found the task the more difficult
from being unable to stand firmly upon their legs on board the ships.
Besides, the Tyrians advanced with covered galleys, and cut the ropes
which held the Grecian ships at anchor; so that Alexander was obliged
to cover in like manner several vessels of thirty rowers each, and to
station these across, to secure the anchors from the attacks of the
Tyrian galleys; but the divers cutting the cables of these, the king
ordered the anchors to be secured by iron chains. After this, the large
stones were drawn away into deep water by cable ropes, where they could
do no harm. The foot of the wall being thus cleared, the vessels had
very easy access to it, so that the Tyrians were invested on all sides,
and attacked by sea and land.
The Macedonians had joined (two-and-two) galleys of four banks of oars,
in such a manner that the prows were fastened, and the sterns so far
distant from one another as was necessary for the pieces of timber
between them to be of proper length. After this, they threw from one
stern to the other sailyards, which were fastened together by planks
laid across, that the soldiers might stand firmly on that space. The
galleys being thus equipped, they rowed towards the city, and shot,
under cover, against those who defended the walls, the prows serving
them as so many battlements. The king ordered them to advance about
midnight, in order to surround the walls and make a general assault.
The Tyrians now gave themselves up for lost, when on a sudden the sky
was overspread with such thick clouds as quite took away the faint
glimmerings of light which before darted through the gloom. The sea
rose by insensible degrees, and the billows, being swelled by the fury
of the winds, raised a dreadful storm. The vessels dashed against
each other with so much violence, that the cables which fastened
them together were either loosened or broken to pieces; the planks,
splitting with a horrible crash, carried off the soldiers with them;
the tempest was so furious, that it became impossible to steer or
manage galleys thus fastened together. The soldier was a hinderance to
the sailor, and the sailor to the soldier; and, as frequently happens
on such occasions, those took the command whose business it was to
obey; fear and anxiety throwing all things into confusion. But the
rowers exerted themselves with such vigour, that they succeeded in
getting the ships ashore, although in a shattered condition.
At this critical minute, thirty ambassadors arrived from Carthage
without bringing any of the succour that had been so boastingly
promised by that state. There was, however, some validity in their
excuse: they had war at home; the Syracusans were laying waste all
Africa, and had pitched their camp not far from the walls of Carthage.
The Tyrians, though their hopes were thus frustrated, were not
dejected; they only took the wise precaution to send their women and
children to Carthage, that they might be in a condition to defend
themselves to the last extremity, and bear courageously the worst
calamities that could befall them, when they had placed in security
that which they held dearest in the world.
There was in the city a brazen statue of Apollo, of enormous size:
this colossus had formerly stood in the city of Gela, in Sicily.
The Carthaginians having taken it about the year 412 before Christ,
had given it by way of present to the city of Tyre, which they
always considered as the mother of Carthage. The Tyrians had set it
up in their city, and worship was paid to it. During the siege, in
consequence of a dream which one of the citizens had, the Tyrians
imagined that Apollo was determined to leave them, and go over to
Alexander. Immediately they fastened with a gold chain his statue to
the altar of Hercules, to prevent the deity from leaving them.
Some of the Tyrians proposed the restoring of an old sacrifice which
had been discontinued many years; this was, that of a child of
free-born parents to Saturn. The Carthaginians, who had borrowed their
superstitions from the Tyrians, preserved it till the destruction
of their city; and had not the old men, who were invested with much
authority in Tyre, opposed the design, this cruel custom would have
prevailed over every sentiment of humanity.
The Tyrians, finding their city every moment exposed to be taken by
storm, resolved to fall upon the Cyprian fleet, which lay at anchor on
the side towards Sidon. They took the opportunity to do this when the
seamen of Alexander’s fleet were dispersed in various directions, and
when he himself was withdrawn to his tent pitched on the sea-shore.
Accordingly, they came out about noon, with thirteen galleys, all
manned with choice soldiers accustomed to sea-fights, and, rowing with
all their might, came thundering on the enemy’s vessels. Part of them
they found empty, and the rest had been manned in great haste. Some
of these they sunk, and drove several against the shore, where they
were dashed to pieces. The loss would have been still greater, had not
Alexander, the instant he heard of the sally, advanced at the head of
the whole fleet, with all imaginable despatch, against the Tyrians.
They did not, however, await his coming, but withdrew into the harbour,
after having lost some of their ships.
And now, the engines being in full play, the city was warmly attacked,
and as vigorously defended. The besieged, taught and animated by the
imminent danger and the extreme necessity to which they were reduced,
invented daily new arts to defend themselves and repulse the enemy.
They warded off all the darts discharged from the balistas, by the
assistance of turning-wheels, which either broke them to pieces or
carried them another away. They deadened the violence of the stones
that were hurled at them, by setting up sails and curtains made of
soft substances, which easily gave way. To annoy the ships which
advanced against the walls, they fixed cranes, grappling-irons, and
scythes to joists or beams; then, straining their catapultas (enormous
cross-bows), they laid these great pieces of timber upon them instead
of arrows, and shot them off on a sudden at the enemy. These crushed
some by their great weight, and the hooks, or pensile scythes, with
which they were armed, tore others to pieces, and did considerable
damage to the ships. They also had brazen shields, which they drew
red-hot out of the fire, and filling them with burning sand, hurled
them from the top of the wall upon the enemy. There was nothing the
Macedonians so much dreaded as this last invention; for the moment the
burning sand got to the flesh through the crevices in the armour, it
pierced to the very bone, and stuck so close that there was no pulling
it off; so that the soldiers, throwing down their arms, and tearing
their clothes to pieces, were exposed naked and defenceless to the shot
of the enemy.
Discouraged by this vigorous defence, Alexander debated whether he had
not better raise the siege and go into Egypt. His conquests had been
obtained quickly, and we can suppose nothing more annoying to a man
like “Macedonia’s madman” than a protracted siege. We cannot even fancy
Buonaparte a good captain at a siege; ambitious men, with views always
in advance of their present position, must think every moment lost that
detains them before the walls of a fortification. On the other side,
Alexander considered it would be a blemish to his reputation, which had
done him greater service than his arms, should he leave Tyre behind him
as a proof that he was not invincible. He therefore resolved to make a
last effort, with a greater number of ships, which he manned with the
flower of his army. Accordingly, a second naval engagement was fought,
in which the Tyrians, after a contest of great spirit, were obliged
to draw off their whole fleet towards the city. The king pursued
their rear very closely, but was not able to enter the harbour, being
repulsed by arrows shot from the walls: however, he either took or sunk
a great number of their ships.
Alexander, after giving both army and fleet two days’ rest, made
another assault. Both attack and defence were now more vigorous than
ever. The courage of the combatants increased with the danger; and
each side, animated by the most powerful motives, fought like lions.
Wherever the battering-rams had beaten down any part of the wall,
and the bridges were thrown out, instantly the Argyraspides mounted
the breach with the utmost valour, being headed by Admetus, one of
the bravest officers in the army, who was killed by the thrust of a
partisan, as he was encouraging his soldiers. The presence of the
king, and especially the example he set, fired his troops with more
even than their usual bravery. He himself ascended one of the towers,
which was of a prodigious height, and there was exposed to the greatest
danger his courage had ever made him hazard: for, being immediately
known by his insignia and the richness of his armour, he served as a
mark for all the arrows of the enemy. On this occasion he performed
wonders; killing with javelins several of those who defended the wall;
then advancing nearer to them, he forced some with his sword, and
others with his shield, either into the city or the sea; the tower
where he fought almost touching the wall. He soon passed on to it, by
the assistance of floating bridges; and, followed by his principal
officers, possessed himself of two towers, and the space between them.
The battering-rams had already made several breaches; the fleet had
forced the harbour, and some of the Macedonians had seized the towers
that were abandoned. The Tyrians, seeing the enemy masters of their
rampart, retired towards an open place called the Square of Agenor, and
there stood their ground; but Alexander, marching up with his regiment
of body-guards, killed part of them, and obliged the rest to fly. At
the same time, the city being taken on the side which lay towards the
harbour, the Macedonians made great slaughter, being highly exasperated
at the long resistance of the besieged, and the barbarities that had
been exercised upon some of their comrades.
The Tyrians, finding themselves overpowered in all quarters, acted as
men generally do on such occasions: some ran to the temples, to implore
the assistance of their gods; others, shutting themselves up in their
houses, escaped the sword of the victor by a voluntary death; whilst
the brave remainder rushed upon the enemy, resolved to sell their lives
at the dearest rate. At first, the citizens resorted to the customary
defence of assaulted cities, and threw stones, bricks, tiles, and
everything that came to hand upon the advancing Greeks. The king gave
orders to kill all the inhabitants except such as had taken refuge
in the temples, and to set fire to every part of Tyre. Although this
order was published by sound of trumpet, scarcely a person bearing arms
availed himself of the asylum pointed out. The temples were principally
filled by the young women and children who had not gone to Carthage:
the old men calmly awaited at the doors of their houses the swords of
the exasperated soldiery. The Sidonians in Alexander’s army, or rather
fleet, saved great numbers; for, remembering their common origin,
Agenor having founded both Tyre and Sidon, they had been accustomed to
consider the Tyrians as compatriots, and did not desert them in their
hour of need, though policy had compelled them to assist in bringing it
on. They conveyed them privately on board their ships, and gave them
a home in Sidon. The extent of the slaughter may be imagined, when we
learn that six thousand soldiers were cut to pieces on the ramparts. Of
all great conquerors, we are disposed to like Alexander the best; he
had so many fine redeeming qualities, and was such a rare combination
of the high gifts of valour and wisdom; therefore we write with regret,
that on this occasion the savage warrior prevailed over the civilized
Greek, and he immolated, by having them nailed to crosses, two thousand
men who were left after the soldiers had glutted their revenge. He
pardoned the Carthaginian ambassadors, who had come to their ancient
metropolis to offer up their annual sacrifice to Hercules. The number
of prisoners, who were all sold into slavery, amounted to thirty
thousand. Notwithstanding the length and obstinacy of the siege, the
loss of the Macedonians was trifling.
Alexander offered a sacrifice to Hercules, and celebrated gymnastic
games in honour of the great demigod. He had the golden chains
removed from the statue of Apollo, and ordered that worship should
thenceforward be offered to him under the name of Philoalexander.
The city of Tyre was taken about the end of September, after a seven
months’ siege.
The fate of Tyre is said to be intimately associated with the
prophecies of Isaiah, and a great historian makes the following
remarks, which we are much afraid find illustration in the histories of
most great commercial states:--
“One of God’s designs, in the prophecies just now cited, is to give us
a just idea of a traffic whose only motive is avarice, and whose fruits
are pleasures, vanity, and the corruption of morals. Mankind look upon
cities enriched by commerce like that of Tyre (and it is the same by
private persons) as happier than any other; as worthy of envy, and as
fit, from their liberty, labour, and the success of their application
and conduct, as to be proposed as models for the rest to copy after;
but God, on the other hand, exhibits them to us under the shameful
image of a woman lost to all sense of virtue, whose only view is to
seduce and corrupt youth; who only soothes the passions and flatters
the senses; who abhors modesty and every sentiment of honour; and who,
banishing from her countenance every indication of shame, glories in
her ignominy. We are not to infer from this that traffic is sinful
in itself; but we should separate from the essential foundation of
trade, which is just and lawful, when rightly used, the passions and
extravagantly ambitious and selfish views of men, which intermix with
it, and pervert the order and the end of it.”