we owe to M. Agassiz’s observation, can be explained by the theory
of floating ice: and the theory, I may add, if applicable to this
case, solves that which presents far greater difficulties, than any
other of the kind in Europe. I should first state that I make two
_assumptions_, and if these be rejected, the theory is not applicable
to the case of the erratic blocks of the Alps:--first, that an arm
of the sea extended between the Jura and the Alps, during that
period in which, as I have before shown, it is probable, that the
proportional area of water in Europe was greater, and certain, that
the productions of the land and water had a more tropical character,
at the same time that the snow-line descended lower. The age of the
Molasse, which occupies this area, between the Jura and Alps, has not
been accurately determined; but it is supposed to be miocene, and is
said to contain leaves of the Chamærops, a genus of palms, at present
found further from the equator than any other kind. It is not,
however, evident that the Molasse was deposited by the sea during the
latest period, when it occupied a confined limit between the Alps and
Jura; but even if this should be found to be the case, it would be
rash in any one positively to conclude that glaciers could not have
descended to the shores of a sea, on which the Chamærops flourished,
after that we know they descend in the southern hemisphere so near
the limits of several tropical forms.
My second _assumption_ is, that the elevation of this much of
Switzerland, whenever it took place, was slow and gradual: this is
supported by the strongest analogies of South America, Scandinavia,
and other parts of the world; whilst on the other hand, the
_assumption_ that it had been sudden, would be unsupported by a
single ascertained fact in nature. Now, as the numerous masses of
ice, which fall from the glaciers at the head of the sounds on the
South American coast, are slowly drifted outwards (owing to the fresh
water flowing in from the foot of the glaciers), and in the more
open channels are left to be acted on by the winds and currents;
so must it have been with the icebergs from the glaciers of the
Alps, situated in the same latitude, and under similar conditions.
These icebergs would in most cases be driven on some part of the
surrounding shore; but from floating deep they would ground a little
way from the beach, and then being packed together, and driven to
and fro, as the winds changed, and as the tides rose and fell, would
they not, like a glacier on the land, though in a lesser degree,
“bruise and grind down every thing and polish the solid surface, on
which they reposed?” In the rapids of the North American rivers, over
which large bodies of ice are driven, carrying with them pebbles
and fragments of rocks, I am informed by Dr. Richardson, that the
primitive rocks are scooped and hollowed, and have their surfaces
polished and glossy. Dr. Richardson, however, is not prepared to
say, whether this is caused by the passage of the ice or of the
pebbles.[4] Although the icebergs might be drifted from side to side
of the sound, if they were moved after having grounded, it would
be along the shore by the set of the currents or wind, and perhaps
slightly up and down by the tidal changes. Would not the necessary
effect of this be, that the scratches formed by the sand grating
between the rocks and the bottom of the icebergs should be, with
some irregularities, longitudinal, or (from the effect of the tidal
movement) oblique? And as the mountains slowly emerged during ages,
every part would be thus acted on; and consequently the whole surface
would be marked by longitudinal scratches.
The icebergs on the South American coast sometimes transport angular
fragments of rock, to the distance of many miles from the glacier
whence they were detached; and as the winds and currents generally
have sufficient steadiness to drive any floating object soon on
shore, (as is known to be the case with a capsized boat, a barrel, or
floating carcass, &c.), so the blocks of rock would be _generally_[5]
landed on the shores of the channels between the Alpine ranges, and
not dropped in the intervening spaces. If any pointed rock came so
near the surface that a floating mass of ice, thus charged, grounded
on it, the block would, when the ice melted, be there left. But it
may be asked, would the blocks usually be deposited on the bare
surface of the rocky bottom off the shore, or on an intervening layer
of gravel or sediment? From what I have observed when passing in
boats through the channels of Tierra del Fuego, and from frequent
examinations of the armings of the lead used in sounding, I feel
nearly sure that _absolutely bare_ submarine rock is not very common.
Moreover, where matter is depositing near a shore, the finer the
particles are, the further they are drifted: in approaching a coast I
have actually traced _every step in the series_, from the finest sand
to large pebbles. But as the land in any case is slowly elevated, the
same forces which carried the large pebbles to a certain distance
from the beach, and the smaller ones to a still further distance,
will, after each little elevation, carry them somewhat further:--a
layer of little pebbles thus covering the sand, and a layer of large
pebbles the smaller ones. Hence, when the part near the shore is
converted into dry land, a section of the bed which was originally
the bottom of the sea will necessarily show solid rock covered by
sand, this by fine pebbles, and these again by others, gradually
increasing in size. Such then, I conclude, must have been the nature
of the sub-littoral deposits of the Alps, during their assumed slow
elevation. Finally, as icebergs of large size would seldom be driven
up on the beach of a sheet of water, if, like the channel between
the Jura and the Alps, it were protected from the open sea, any
fragments of rock transported by them would have been dropped some
way outside, and therefore when upraised with the whole country, they
would be found in most cases reposing on beds (where the loose matter
had not been subsequently removed), characterized by the order of
superposition just described.
Such is the explanation I would suggest of the very curious facts
observed by M. Agassiz. I make no assumptions which are not supported
by strong analogies and the foundation of the theory--namely, a
change of climate of a peculiar kind--can be shown by reasoning,
independent of the existence of erratic blocks, to be probable in a
high degree: whether this is the case with the theory of M. Agassiz,
I leave the reader to decide.
Having said thus much on the scratched rocks of the Alps, I am
tempted to make a few remarks on those of Scotland, described by Sir
James Hall[6] in his celebrated paper (_Edinburgh Phil. Transact._,
vol. vii.) on the Revolutions of the Earth’s Surface:--a case which
has always appeared to me to be the strongest ever adduced in favour
of the theory of an overwhelming debacle having rushed, at least in
that country, over hill and valley. The furrows and scratches in the
same district are parallel to each other, and hence run in the same
direction:--thus, near Edinburgh, they extend in a line a little
north of west and south of east, that is parallel to the valley of
the estuary; but both to the eastward and westward they deviate from
this line by more than half a right angle; and on the south-west
part of Scotland they have no uniform direction. In the north of
Scotland, however, near Brora, Mr. Murchison (_Geolog. Transact. 2d
Series_, vol. ii., p. 357) found the hills marked in parallel lines,
directed north-west and south-east. The furrows and scratches near
Edinburgh seem generally to traverse the less inclined surfaces,
but Sir James, speaking of one part, says “the _perpendicular_ face
as well as the rest is covered with lines, which are horizontal, or
nearly so.” In these respects the case appears very similar to that
of the Alps: the rocks, however, are not polished;[7] but this may be
owing to their nature, sandstone and trap, and not to any difference
in the cause; for Dr. Richardson tells me that in the same rivers in
North America, in which the granitic rocks are much polished, those
of laminated limestone are not at all so. Near Edinburgh, where the
lines extend west and east, the western face of the hills (of which
the highest mentioned is four hundred and seventy feet above the
sea) is chiefly marked, whilst on the opposite or protected side, a
long tail of (so called) _diluvium_ extends, which consists of blue
clay, with large erratic boulders embedded in it. These boulders, as
I am informed by Mr. James Hall, and by Mr. Smith of Jordanhill, are
themselves marked with parallel lines, having one direction, which
shows that they were held fast whilst drifted across the country, and
not rolled over and over, like a pebble in a stream. It is admitted
by all that the grooves on the solid rock were formed by the passage
of these boulders over it. Although the minor inequalities of the
surface of the land appear to have had no influence whatever on the
action which produced the scratches, yet the larger features, as the
general bearing of the main valleys, appear to have determined their
direction. Sir James distinctly states that the scoopings and furrows
have precisely that form which the long action of torrents tends
to produce on a solid rock; but he adds, and I believe most truly,
that the furrowed surface produced by such means is smooth, and not
deeply scored and scratched. It is indeed utterly inconceivable that
large stones should be carried along as if “_independently of their
gravity_” by any ordinary means, with such velocity, as to mark with
horizontal lines the _perpendicular_ face of a rock. From these
facts,--from the presence of great erratic blocks, from the steepness
of one face of the grooved hills, and the tail of sediment stretching
out from the other, Sir James Hall, having in his mind the recorded
cases of the great waves consequent on earthquakes, inferred that a
vast deluge had burst over the country from the westward.
M. Brongniart, and lately M. Sefström (_L’Institut, February_ 22d,
1837), have described phenomena in Sweden almost identical with
those of Scotland. The rocks are there grooved and scratched,[8]
even to the height of 1500 feet, in north and south lines, parallel
to the valley of the Baltic and of the Gulf of Bothnia; but they are
considerably deflected by the larger inequalities of surface. The
north side of the hills are most affected, whilst from the southern
side, long ridges, called _oasars_, stretch out; they are composed
of sand and water-worn materials, and appear to be similar, but on a
much larger scale, to the _tails of diluvium_ in Scotland. In Sweden,
however, the erratic blocks always lie on the surface of these
ridges, and are not embedded within them: but M. Sefström says, that
at the time when the grooves were formed, enormous masses of rock
were torn from the mountains. In the United States, the phenomenon of
the grooved rocks appears to be developed in an extraordinary manner.
Professor Hitchcock (_Report on the Geolog. of Massachusetts_,
p. 167) describes a tract about two hundred miles in width, over
which nearly all the bare rock on the hills, even to the height of
three thousand feet, is scored by parallel lines. In some parts
boulders, weighing from fifty to one hundred tons, are yet lying on
the surfaces, which bear the marks of their passage. The furrows are
generally directed a little west of north, but in the western part
of Massachusetts, and in the eastern of New York, they extend in a
north-west and south-east line, and in one part even to W. 20° N. M.
Sefström and Professor Hitchcock explain these appearances in their
respective countries by the same agency, as Sir James Hall does in
Scotland.
The theory of a great debacle is in these cases based on the united
presence of erratic boulders, ridges of water-worn materials, forming
tails to scarped hills, and parallel furrows and scratches on the
surface of the rocks. 1st. With respect to the boulders, it would
be superfluous to repeat the arguments in favour of the idea of
their transportation by ice: and in the case of Sweden, it would be
pre-eminently superfluous, as we know (see _Lyell on the Rising of
the Land in Sweden, Phil. Transact._, 1835) that blocks are there
transported yearly by this means. 2d. Every one who has examined
a great estuary, or a channel where the tides run strongly, is
aware that linear banks are formed behind any obstacle. Therefore
these tails of diluvium might have been formed, as far as regards
their external form, by ordinary means; and with respect to their
internal structure, which appears extremely irregular, and without
any stratification, it must be difficult for any one to speak with
certainty, until the joint effects of ice transporting coarse
fragments and gentle currents of water, fine mud, are better known.
Mr. Lyell, indeed (_Phil. Transact._, 1835, p. 15) has advanced
strong reasons, showing from the structure and composition of the
_oasars_ that they could not have been formed by any sudden debacle.
Whilst such linear banks were depositing on one side of the hills,
the other, or exposed front, would almost necessarily become scarped.
3d. We have the admission of Sir James Hall, that the scoopings and
grooves resemble those produced by the slow action of running water:
therefore the scratches appear to be the only part of the phenomenon
which remains unexplained.
In the Alps, we are told, that scratches are formed on rocks by
glaciers grinding over them. According to the theory of floating
ice, we have evidence in the erratic blocks near Edinburgh, that
ice was formerly in action there; and, from the analogies given in
this volume, it might well have been so, since the scene of supposed
action lies two degrees nearer the Pole than Georgia, in the southern
ocean, “almost wholly covered with everlasting snow.” What then
would be the effect of the tides and gales of wind, driving packed
icebergs with irresistible force, through channels, and over rocky
shoals;--each part of the surface being exposed for centuries, as
the country was elevated, to this action? Would not the fragments of
rock embedded in the ice grate in a direct path over the surface,
regardless of _minor inequalities_? and would not the fragments
themselves be grooved and scored in one direction? Can we for one
moment believe it possible that boulders, either in water or in
the thickest mud, could be driven over a rugged surface, or along
a perpendicular face of solid rock, with such enormous velocity as
with their points to groove and scratch it, and nevertheless not to
be rolled over and over, like a stone descending a mountain, but to
be marked with parallel lines of abrasion, equally with the fixed,
underlying mass? It appears to me that we assuredly can make no
such admission. Travellers in the Arctic regions tell us that the
drift-ice, with its irresistible power, can force up the gravel and
sand into mounds (see _Geograph. Journal_, vol. viii., p. 221), and
drive before it great boulders, and even ships, and masses of ice,
high and dry on the beach. What then would be the effect of a few
pebbles, or a single fragment, between such masses of ice and a steep
coast-wall of rock? Would not scratches “horizontal, or nearly so”
be formed, “indicating (to use Sir James Hall’s words) that grinders
had been pressed against the rock;” as if “independently of their
gravity”?
In this explanation only _veræ causæ_ are introduced, and reasons can
be assigned, for the belief that these causes have been in action
in these districts. On the theory of debacles, it still remains
to be proved that rocks can be thus _scooped_ and _furrowed_, or
hills _scarped_; although I am far from affirming they cannot,--and
scratched, I presume, they certainly would be. With respect to
Sweden, where the land is now rising, and where ice even still is a
transporting agent, it is undoubtedly the part of the geologist, to
endeavour by long and laborious research to account for the phenomena
by these real agencies. For to introduce, before it is absolutely
forced on us, the hypothesis of a deluge of mud and stones, fifteen
hundred feet deep in Sweden, or three thousand in North America,
which rushing over the country, rounded the northern fronts of the
hills, and rolling by their eastern and western flanks, left them
marked with oblique furrows, is to violate, as it appears to me,
every rule of inductive philosophy.
Page 297.
With reference to the embedment of the Siberian animals with their
flesh, I have mentioned in a note, the case of ice described as
rising from the bottom of the sea, off the coast of Greenland.
Messrs. Dease and Simpson, during their late memorable journey along
the shores of the Arctic ocean, speaking of one part (_Geograph.
Journal_, vol. viii., p. 218) say, “The ice lay much closer here;
and numerous masses adhered to the bottom, under the water, which
obliged us to search a passage out from the shore.” Further on (p.
220) they say, “But nowhere had the thaw penetrated more than two
inches beneath the surface (of the land), while under water along the
shore, the bottom was still _impenetrably frozen_.” This was on the
second of August. It should, however, be observed, that the sea along
this part of the American coast is extremely shallow.
Page 321.
I have given my reasons for believing that the temperature of
the mineral springs of Cauquenes, was permanently changed by the
earthquake of 1822. This inference is altogether false, for I find
that Schmidtmeyer, in his Travels in Chile during the years 1820
and 1821, says (p. 311) that the temperature of the different
springs was 83°, 103°, 106°, 112°, 117° and 118° of Fahrenheit. Now
Mr. Caldcleugh says, after the earthquake of February, 1835, the
temperature fell from 118° to 92°. Previously, therefore, to this
shock, it had regained the temperature which it had in 1820.
Page 377.
When I offered my views on the cause of the great waves, which follow
earthquakes on certain coasts, I was not aware of the paper on this
subject by Sir James Hall in the _Edinburgh Royal Transactions_, vol.
vii., p. 154. I cannot, however, perceive the necessity of a sudden
elevation of the bottom, to produce the observed effects, as supposed
by that distinguished philosopher. Having read the abstract of a
_Notice on the Resistance of Water_, by Mr. Russell, I perceive the
subject is far more intricate, than I was at the time aware.
Page 381.
I have said that during the _few months_ subsequently to the great
shock of February, 1835, at Concepcion, upwards of three hundred
tremours were felt, but I should have said, within _twelve days_.
(See _Geograph. Journal_, vol. vi., p. 322. _Sketch of Surveying
Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle, by Captain FitzRoy_). From some
additional information which I have met with since finishing this
chapter, I find the train of volcanic phenomena, which followed this
earthquake, affected a larger area than that mentioned (seven hundred
by four hundred miles), and affected it in a manner which gives great
additional weight to the argument that South America is in that part
a mere crust resting over a sheet of fluid rock; and likewise to
the generalization that the action of volcanoes, and the permanent
elevation of the land (and consequently, as I believe, the elevation
of mountain chains) are parts of the same phenomenon, and due to the
same cause.
Page 446.
When I put together the few and exceedingly imperfect remarks on the
subject of Miasmata, I did not know of Dr. Ferguson’s remarkable
dissertation--the result of his investigations in Holland, Spain,
Portugal, and the West Indies--on the Nature and History of
Marsh Poison (_Edinburgh Royal Transact._, vol. ix., p. 273). He
there clearly proves the fact, which had struck me with so much
surprise, namely, that the driest districts, which, according to
common notions, would be considered as the most healthy, are often
singularly the contrary. In his concluding remarks, Dr. Ferguson
says (p. 290), “One only condition, then, seems to be indispensable
to the production of the marsh poison, on all surfaces capable
of absorption, and that is the _paucity_ of water, where it has
previously or recently _abounded_. To this there is no exception in
climates of high temperature; and from thence we may justly infer,
that the poison is produced at a highly advanced stage of the _drying
process_.” And, from facts previously stated, it would appear that
even in barren hilly countries, the banks of mountain torrents, which
had been overflowed, sometimes became extremely insalubrious. In
another place, Dr. Ferguson says, “It is from these (the dried and
half-dried margins of lakes and marshes) that the poison uniformly
emanates, and never from the body of the lake or pool; and I think
it may be fairly presumed, that water, as long as it can preserve
the figure of its particles above the surface, is innoxious, and
that it must first be absorbed into the soil, and disappear from
the eye, before it can produce any mischievous effects. Whoever in
malarious countries waits for the evidence of putrefaction will,
in all the most dangerous places, wait too long, as every one can
testify who has seen pestilence teem forth, to the paralyzation of
armies,--from the bare barren sands of the Alentejo in Portugal, the
arid burnt plains of Estremadura in Spain, and the recently flooded
table-lands of Barbadoes.” I cannot forbear quoting here a remarkable
fact, mentioned by Humboldt, though interpreted in a different
manner by that illustrious traveller. Speaking of the intermittent
fevers which are so common near the great cataracts, or _raudales_,
of the Orinoko, he says (_Pers. Nar._, vol. v., p. 17) the causes
“are violent heats, joined with the excessive humidity of the air,
bad nutriment, and, if we may believe the natives (as well as the
missionaries), the pestilent exhalations that arise from the bare
rocks of the _raudales_.” Further on (p. 85), he says, “many examples
are adduced of persons, who having passed the night on these black
and naked rocks, have awakened in the morning with a strong paroxysm
of fever.” Humboldt thinks that these cases may be explained by the
effect produced on the body by the high temperature, which the black
rocks, coated with a layer of the oxides of manganese and iron,
retain during the night. But it appears to me that the relation is
too remarkable to be thus explained, between this fact and those
mentioned by Dr. Ferguson, in which the desiccation of nearly bare
rock in Spain, and of a very thin bed of earth overlying dry coral
rock in the West Indies, has given rise to the most pestiferous
exhalations.
Page 461.
The sixth bird, mentioned as an inhabitant of the Galapagos, Mr.
Gould now finds is not like the rest, peculiar to these islands, but
is a known North American species of Ammodramus.
Page 465.
I have given my reason for believing that the _Testudo_,
inappropriately called _Indicus_, is an aboriginal species of the
Galapagos. I now find (_Kerr’s Voyages_, vol. x., p. 373) that as far
back as 1708, Woods, Rogers, and Courtney, in their voyage round the
world, speaking of the tortoises of these islands, say that it is the
opinion of the _Spaniards_ that there is no other in _these seas_,
except at the Galapagos: it is, however, then added, that they are
common in Brazil,--a mistake which may be attributed to two different
species not having been distinguished. It has been said that the
bones of _Testudo Indicus_ were found in numbers in the Isle of
France, with some fragments of those of the Dodo; but M. Bibron--one
of the best authorities in Europe on reptiles--informs me that he has
reason to believe that a second species has been confounded under
this name.
In the same page I remark that there is every reason for believing
that several of the islands possess their own peculiar varieties
or species of tortoise, but that my specimens were too small to
decide this question. M. Bibron now informs me, that he has seen
full-grown animals, brought from this Archipelago, which he considers
undoubtedly to be distinct species. At p. 467, I have observed that
the specimens of the _Amblyrhyncus cristatus_--that extraordinary
marine herbivorous lizard--were larger from Albemarle, than from any
other island. In this case, also, M. Bibron tells me, he has seen
what he considers two species of the aquatic Amblyrhyncus, besides
the terrestrial species. Doubtless the several islands have their
own representatives of the Amblyrhyncus, like they have of some of
the birds, and of the tortoises. With respect to the plants from
this Archipelago, Professor Henslow writes to me, that although
he has not yet examined them attentively, he finds that “there
are several instances of distinct species of the same genus, sent
from one island only: that is, whilst the genus is common to two
or three islands, the species are often different in the different
islands. In some cases the species seem to run very close to each
other, but are, I believe, _distinct_.” I may observe that, from my
ignorance of botany, I collected more blindly in this department
of natural history than in any other; so that certainly it was not
_intentionally_ that I brought the different species from different
islands. If, indeed, I at all noticed their resemblance, I probably
collected the second and third species as duplicate specimens of the
first. It is useless to repeat here my regrets at not having procured
a perfect series in every order of nature from the several islands:
my excuse must be, the entire novelty of the fact, that islands in
sight of each other should be characterized by peculiar faunas:
I ought, perhaps, rather to think it fortunate, that sufficient
materials were obtained to establish so remarkable a circumstance in
the geographical distribution of organic beings, although they are
insufficient to determine to what extent the fact holds good.
Page 477.
To the two cases of land-birds being extremely tame in islands only
lately inhabited by man, I might have added Tristan da Acunha.
Captain D. Carmichael (_Linn. Transact._, vol. xii., p. 496),
speaking of the thrush and bunting--the only true land-birds--says,
“they fly about the cantonment, and are so tame as to suffer
themselves to be caught with a hand-net.”
Page 552.
One of the species of Millepora, which is mentioned as having the
property of stinging, is the _M. complanata_; and the other, I
believe, is _M. alcicornis_. In the Voyage of the Astrolabe (vol.
iv., p. 19), an Actinia is said to have this property, and even
to infect the water, which it squirts from its mouth. A flexible
coralline, allied to Sertularia, was observed (p. 337) at New Ireland
to have the same stinging power.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] As these notes are appended to the Journal, I have found it
scarcely possible to classify them properly. I have been obliged to
allude to the lower descent of the glaciers in Europe during former
periods--facts which are first brought forward in a succeeding note
to p. 294.
[2] No doubt if much more snow fell formerly than at present, the
glaciers would formerly have descended somewhat lower; but as Europe
now has a moderately humid climate, it is improbable in the highest
degree (if indeed possible) that a difference of that kind could have
caused the former extremely low descent of the ancient glaciers of
the Alps: therefore we are compelled to attribute the difference to a
change of temperature of some kind.
[3] M. Charpentier (_in his account of M. Venetz’s investigations on
the Glaciers of the Valais--Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_,
vol. xxi., p. 215) was fully aware of this difficulty. His
explanation rests on a supposed enormous oscillation of level in the
Alps,--an assumption which is unsupported by other facts, and is not
applicable to the general case of Europe.
[4] It must be remembered, that I am here considering the effect
of icebergs, in inland and protected sounds. Dr. Richardson tells
me, that the great icebergs in the Arctic sea are packed together,
and are driven with such force against the shore, that they push up
before them, to the height of several feet, every pebble and boulder
which lies on the bottom; and consequently the submarine ledges
of rock are kept absolutely bare. If a fragment were to be wedged
beneath one of these mountain-masses of ice, when forced upward
with such overwhelming power, it is impossible to doubt that the
underlying surface of solid rock would be deeply scored. As it is
known that the shingle on most beaches has a tendency to travel in
one direction, so must the icebergs; and hence we may conjecture,
that the grooves, would generally be slightly oblique to the line of
coast, and parallel to each other.
[5] We might expect that they would sometimes be launched into the
deep, whilst on their passage. M. Charpentier (_Edinburgh New Phil.
Journal_, vol. xxi., p. 217) observes, speaking of another theory,
“This view is equally insufficient to account for the extraordinary
position of immense single blocks, which we sometimes find planted
vertically in the soil, in the _valleys_, as on the sides of a
mountain, and split up throughout their whole extent from top to
bottom,--a phenomenon which would force us to believe that these
blocks, had fallen perpendicularly from a certain height on the very
spots where we now see them, and had been rent asunder by the fall,
into the several fragments lying near one another.” M. Charpentier
considers this owing to the fragments having fallen through fissures
in the enormous glaciers, which, as he believes, extended from the
Alps, across the lake of Geneva, and up the Jura. The explanation
above suggested is, at least, as simple as this.
[6] Sir James Hall believes that erratic boulders were transported
by debacles, when embedded in ice. He seems to have been led to this
opinion, by a clear perception of the difficulty of supposing the
existence of glaciers in the Alps and in other regions of central
Europe, excepting at great altitudes; and from such situations a
debacle was absolutely requisite to transport fragments on ice. Sir
James rejects the belief of M. Wrede (given on the authority of De
Luc), that the boulders of the Baltic may have been brought into
their present place by ice, acting, during a steady and slow change
in the level of the ocean. M. Wrede, therefore, appears to have been
the originator of the theory advocated in this volume; and no country
was more likely than Sweden to have given birth to such a theory.
[7] It is, however, said in Professor Buckland’s _Reliquiæ
Diluvianæ_, p. 202, that Colonel Imrie found the surface of some
trap-rocks in the southern parts of Stirlingshire, having “a
considerable degree of polish; and this polish is almost always seen
marked by long linear scratches.”
[8] Mr. Lyell, moreover, describes (_Philosoph. Transact._, 1835, p.
18), the rocks of gneiss on the beach near Oregrund in Sweden, as
being so “smooth and polished, that it is difficult to walk on them.”
Further on (p. 21), he describes the large bodies of ice, which are
annually packed on this coast, so as to be eighteen feet thick: here
then we have the same phenomena as in the Alps; and great icebergs
in movement, instead of solid glaciers. More lately M. Berzelius has
sent specimens of these rocks, “polished as if by emery in a constant
rectilinear direction” (_Edinb. New Phil. Journal_, vol. 1., p. 313),
to Paris, accompanied by a letter to M. Elie de Beaumont.
INDEX
TO
MR. DARWIN’S JOURNAL.
Aborigines banished from Van Diemen’s Land, 533.
---- of New South Wales, 519.
---- extermination of, 520.
Absence of coral formations in certain seas, 562.
---- of trees in Pampas, 53.
Aconcagua, river of, 415.
----, volcano of, 308.
Advice to collectors, 598.
Africa, Southern part desert, yet supports large animals, 98.
Agouti, habits of, 81.
Albemarle Island, 457.
_Alcedo Americana_, 162.
Alluvium stratified in Andes, 387.
_Amblyrhyncus subcristatus_, 469.
---- _cristatus_, 466.
_Anas brachyptera_, 457.
Animal, extinct, allied to the Camelidæ, 208.
Animalcula, pelagic, 16.
Angra, capital of Terceira, 594.
Antarctic islands, 272.
Antipodes, 496.
Ants of Brazil, 37.
Apires, or miners, 420.
Aplysia, 5.
Apple-trees, 363.
_Aptenodytes demersa_, 256.
Areas of alternate movements in the Pacific and Indian oceans, 563.
Armadillo-like covering of fossil animals in South America, 181.
Armadilloes, habits of, 113.
Arrow-head found in Pampas, 123.
Ascension, 586.
Australia, 515.
Australian barrier, 556.
Azores, 594.
Bahia Blanca, 89-123.
Bahia, Brazil, 11.
----, scenery of, 589.
Bald Head, Australia, 537.
Ballenar, Chile, 428.
Banda Oriental, 169.
Barking bird, 352.
Basaltic platform of Santa Cruz, 216.
Bathurst, Australia, 528.
Bay of Islands, New Zealand, 496.
Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego, 237.
----, scenery of, 240.
Beetles alive in sea, 186.
Beetles, dung-feeders, 583.
Bell of Quillota, 312.
Berkeley Sound, 245.
Birds, species peculiar to certain islands in the Galapagos
Archipelago, 475.
Birds, tameness of, 475.
_Birgos latro_, 551.
Bizcacha, habits of, 143.
Bolas, manner of using, 50.
Bones, of the guanaco collected in certain spots, 197.
Boulders of Tierra del Fuego, 267.
Bramador, El, 441.
Brazil, great area of granite, 12.
Buenos Ayres, 140.
Bug of Pampas, 403.
Bulimus, on desert places, 426.
----, extinct species of, 582.
Burchell, Mr., travels of, 101.
Butterflies, flocks of, 185.
Butterfly producing clicking sound, 38.
Bynoe, Mr., account of floating ice, 283.
Cacti, 318.
Calasoma, on wing out at sea, 185.
Calcareous casts of branches and roots of trees at King George’s
Sound, 537.
Calcareous incrustations on rocks of Ascension, 587.
Callao, 446.
_Calomys bizcacha_, 143.
Camelidæ, fossil animal allied to, 210.
Cape of Good Hope, 573.
Capybara, or carpincho, 57.
Caracara, or Carrancha, 64.
_Carcharias megalodon_, 423.
Cardoon, beds of, 138.
Carrion hawks, 63.
Casuchas, 413.
Castro, Chiloe, 338.
_Cathartes atratus_, 68.
Cattle, effects of their grazing on the vegetation, 137.
Cattle wild at the Falkland Islands, 247.
Cauquenes, hot springs of, 321.
Cause of extinction of species among mammalia, 210.
---- of discoloured sea, 18.
_Cavia Patagonica_, 81.
_Cervus campestris_, 51.
Chacao, Chiloe, 335.
Chalk, formation of, 553.
Charles Island, Galapagos Archipelago, 456.
Cheucau, 351.
Chile, 308.
----, features of country, 311.
Chiloe, 333, 356.
----, forests of, 358.
----, roads of, 357.
Chonos Archipelago, 342.
---- ----, vegetation of, 349.
---- ----, ornithology of, 353.
Chupat, Rio, 125.
Clearness of atmosphere within Andes, 398.
Clouds of vapour after rain, 27.
---- on Corcovado, 33.
_Colias edusa_, flocks of, 185.
Collectors, advice to, 598.
Concluding remarks, 602.
Colonia del Sacramiento, 169.
Compound animals, 261.
Concepcion, Chile, 370.
Condor, habits of, 219.
Confervæ, pelagic, 14.
Convicts, condition of in New South Wales, 531.
Copiapó, river of, 429.
----, valley of, 430.
----, town of, 437.
Coquimbo, 421.
Coral formations, 539.
----, stinging species of, 552.
----, dead, 549.
Cordillera, passage of, 383.
----, different productions on east and west side, 399.
----, structure of, 389.
----, geology of, 390.
----, rivers of, 407.
Corrales, where animals are slaughtered at Buenos Ayres, 140.
Countries, unhealthy, 446.
Crabs, hermit species of, 544.
---- at Keeling Island, 551.
Craters, number of at the Galapagos Archipelago, 453.
Crustacea, like trilobites, 303.
----, pelagic, 189.
_Ctenomys Braziliensis_, 58.
Cucao, Chiloe, 359.
Cuckoo-like habits of Molothrus, 60.
Cumbre of Cordillera, 414.
Cuttle-fish, habits of, 6.
_Dacelo Jagoensis_, 2.
Dasypus, three species of, 113.
Deer, with strong odour, 56.
Degradation of coral reefs, 547.
Deserts of Peru, 444.
Despoblado, valley of, 437.
Diodon, habits of, 13.
Discoloured sea, 18.
Dogs, shepherd, 174.
D’Orbigny, travels in South America, 110.
Doris, eggs of, 258.
Droughts, periodical, 157.
----, great in Pampas, 155.
Dung-feeding beetles, 583.
Dust, falling from atmosphere, 4.
Earthenware fossil, 452.
Earthquake at Concepcion, 370.
----, effects of on hard rock, 370.
----, effects of on sea, 373, 377.
----, line of vibration of, 375.
---- accompanied by an elevation of the coast, 379.
----, causes of, 380.
---- at Valdivia, 369.
----, effects of on the tides, 369.
----, at Coquimbo, 422.
----, effects of on a river-bed, 413.
---- of Callao, 450.
---- accompanied by rain, 431.
Eggs of Doris, 258.
Elater, springing powers of, 35.
Electricity of atmosphere, within Andes, 399.
Elevated shells near Lima, 451.
---- ---- at Chiloe, 362.
Elevation of coast of Chile, 310, 417.
Elevation within human era, 451.
Entomology of the Galapagos Archipelago, 473.
---- of Brazil, 37.
Entre Rios, geology of, 149.
Epeira, habits of, 40.
Erratic blocks, how transported, 288.
---- ---- absent in intertropical countries, 288.
---- ---- on plains of Santa Cruz, 224.
---- ---- of Tierra del Fuego, 267.
Estancia, value of, 170.
Extermination of aborigines in Australia, 520.
Extinction of species, causes of, 210.
---- of wild animals in New South Wales, 525.
Extinct quadrupeds in South America, 95, 104, 146, 149, 152, 180,
210.
Falkland Islands, 246.
---- ----, birds tame at, 476.
Fennel, 138.
Fern-trees, 536.
Fernando Noronha, 10.
Fields of dead coral, 459.
Fire, art of making, 251, 488.
Fish, eating coral, 553.
----, emitting harsh sound, 160.
Fleas, 424.
Forests of Tierra del Fuego, 228, 300.
Fossil Mammalia, 95, 104, 146, 149, 152, 180, 210.
---- earthenware, 452.
Fox, of the Falkland Islands, 249.
---- of Chiloe, 341.
Frogs, noises of, 34.
---- and toads, not found on volcanic islands, 472.
Fruit trees, southern limit of, 268.
_Fucus giganteus_, 303.
Fuegians, 227, 234, 239, 240, 242.
Fulgurites, 69.
Fungus, edible, 298.
_Furnarius fuliginosus_, 353.
---- _rufus_, 112.
Galapagos Archipelago, 453.
---- ---- belongs to American Zoological province, 474.
Gallinazo, 68.
Gauchos, 48.
----, character of, 182.
---- live on meat, 136.
Gay, M., on floating islands, 323.
Geese at the Falkland Islands, 257.
Geology of La Plata, 52.
---- of Patagonia, 201.
Geology of Cordillera, 390.
Glaciers, 279, 283, 306.
----, effects of, 280, 283.
---- in lat. 46° 40′, 285.
Glow worms, 34.
Goats, destructive to vegetation at St. Helena, 582.
Goeree Roads, 237.
Good Success Bay, 227.
Gossamer spider, 187.
Granite mountains, Tres Montes, 345.
Gravel, how transported, 201 to 206.
Greenstone, fragments of, 313.
_Gryllus migratorius_, 412.
Guanaco, habits of, 195.
Guantajaya, mines of, 444.
Guardia del Monte, 137.
Guasos of Chile, 315.
Guasco, 427.
_Gunnera scabra_, 340.
Gypsum, great beds of, 389.
Hailstorm, 134.
Hall, Capt. Basil, on terraces of Coquimbo, 423.
Height of snow-line on Cordillera, 275.
Hermit crabs, 544.
_Himantopus melanura_, 133.
Horse, powers of swimming of, 168.
----, wild at the Falkland Islands, 248.
----, fossil, 149.
Horsemanship of the Gauchos, 175.
Hot springs of Cauquenes, 321.
Humming-birds of Rio de Janeiro, 37.
---- of Chile, 330.
Hunting party in Pampas, 131.
Hybernation of animals, 115.
_Hydrochærus capybara_, 57.
Hydrophobia, 436.
Hymenophallus, 37.
_Ibis melanops_, 194.
Ice at bottom of sea, 297.
----, prismatic structure of, 397.
Icebergs, 280, 282, 283.
Inca’s bridge, 409.
Incrustations, calcareous on rocks of Ascension, 587.
---- of phosphate of lime, 8.
Indians, 118.
----, grave of, 199.
---- of the Pampas, 84.
----, ruins of houses of, 409, 438.
---- of Valdivia, 366.
----, antiquities of, in Chile, 325.
----, decrease in numbers, 122.
Insects, first colonists of St. Paul’s rocks, 10.
---- blown out to sea, 186.
Iquique, 442.
Jaguar, habits of, 159.
James Island, Galapagos Archipelago, 458.
Kater’s peak, 233.
Kauri pine, 510.
Keeling Island, 539.
---- ----, birds of, 543.
---- ----, entomology of, 544.
---- ----, Flora of, 541.
Kelp, or sea-weed, 303.
King George’s Sound, 536.
Labourers, condition of, in Chile, 317, 324, 417.
Lagoon islands, 540, 553.
Lakes of brackish water in Brazil, 24.
_Lampyris occidentalis_, 34.
Lazo, manner of using, 50.
_Lepus magellanicus_, 248.
Lichen on loose sand at Iquique, 444.
Lightning storms, 72.
---- tubes, 69.
Lima, 446.
Lime changed by lava into crystalline rock, 5.
----, phosphate of, 90.
Lion-ant in Australia, 526.
Lizard, marine species of, 466.
Llama or Guanaco, habits of, 195.
----, fossil species, allied to, 210.
Locusts, swarms of, 402.
Longevity of species in Molluscs, 97.
Lorenzo, San, island of, 451.
Luxuriant vegetation not necessary to support large animals, 98.
Lyell, Mr., on terraces of Coquimbo, 423.
----, on longevity of Molluscs, 97.
----, on Siberian animals preserved in ice, 293.
----, on transportation of boulders by ice, 287.
----, on subsidence in the Pacific, 557.
Madrina, or the godmother of a troop of mules, 384.
Magdalen Channel, 305.
Magellan, Strait of, 263.
Maldonado, 45.
Mammalia fossil, 95, 104, 146, 149, 152, 180, 210.
Mandioca, 25.
Mares, killed for their hides, 179.
Mare’s flesh, eaten by the troops, 83.
Marine Saurian, 466.
_Mastodon angustidens_, 152.
Mauritius, 570.
Maypo river, 385.
_Melisuga Kingii_, 330.
Meteorolites, 433.
Mendoza, 404.
Miasmita, 446.
Mice, inhabit sterile places, 439.
Millepora, stinging property of, 552.
Mills for grinding ores, 324.
_Milvulus forficatus_, 163.
Mines, 424.
----, how discovered, 486.
Miners, 418, 420.
----, condition of, 323.
Mining system in Chile, 317.
Missionary system at Tahiti, 493.
---- ---- at New Zealand, 508.
Mocking-bird, 62.
Molothrus, habits of, 60.
Monte Video, 167.
Mount Sarmiento, 306.
---- Tarn, 265.
Mules, 384.
Murchison, Mr., on rocks from Falkland Islands, 253.
_Myopotamus Coipus_, 351.
New Zealand, 496.
---- Caledonia, 559.
_Noctua cunicularia_, 145.
Noises from hill at Copiapó, 441.
Noses, ceremony of pressing, 505.
Octopus, habits of, 6.
Oily coating on sea, 19.
Ophryessa, 115.
_Opuntia Galapageia_, 460.
---- _Darwinii_, 194.
Ores, gold, 324.
Ornithology of the Galapagos Islands, 461.
_Orpheus modulator_, 62.
Osorno, volcano of, 356.
Ostrich, habits of, 105.
----, eggs of, 132.
Otaheite, 480.
Otter, Chonos Archipelago, 351.
Owl of Pampas, 145.
Palm-trees, sap from, 312.
Pampas, number of embedded remains in, 155.
_Papilio feronia_, 38.
Parana, Rio, 146.
----, islands in, 158.
Parrots, 163.
Partridges, how caught, 51.
Pas, fortresses of New Zealand, 498.
Passes in Cordillera, 408.
Pasture, altered from grazing of cattle, 137.
Patagonia, geology of, 201.
Peat, formation of, 349.
Pebbles perforated, 173.
---- transported in roots of trees, 549.
Pelagic animals in southern ocean, 190.
Penas, Gulf of, 284.
Penguin, habits of, 256.
Pentand, Mr., on Bolivian Andes, 392.
Pepsis, habits of, 40.
Pernambuco, 591.
----, reef of, 593.
Petrels, habits of, 354.
Peuquenes, pass of, 389.
Phosphate of lime incrusting rocks, 8.
Phosphorescence of sea, 191.
Plains at foot of Andes in Chile, 402.
---- round the Sierra Ventana, 126.
---- almost horizontal near St. Fe, 146.
Planariæ, terrestrial species of, 30.
Plover, long-legged, 133.
Polished rocks, Brazil, 12.
_Polyborus chimango_, 66.
---- _Nova Zelandæ_, 67.
_Polyborus Braziliensis_, 64.
Ponsonby Sound, 240.
Porto Praya, 1.
Port Desire, 193.
---- ----, river of, 198.
---- St. Julian, 199.
---- ----, entomology of, 200.
---- Famine, 264.
Portillo pass, 383, 398.
Potato, wild, 347.
_Procellaria gigantea_, habits of, 354.
_Protococcus nivalis_, 394.
Pteroptochos, two species of, 329.
----, three species of, 351.
_Puffinus cinereus_, 354.
_Puffinuria Berardii_, 355.
Puma, habits of, 327.
----, flesh of, 135.
Puna, or short respiration, 593.
Punta Alta, Bahia Blanca, 95.
---- Gorda, 438.
_Pyrophorus luminosus_, 35.
Quillota, 310.
----, valley of, 314.
Rabbit, wild, at the Falkland Islands, 248.
Rain at Coquimbo, 422, 425.
---- in Chile, effects on vegetation, 417.
Rat, only aboriginal animal of New Zealand, 511.
Red snow, 394.
Reef at Pernambuco, 590.
Reefs, encircling, 555.
----, barrier, 556.
----, fringing, _ib._
Remedies of the Gauchos, 148.
Reptiles absent in Tierra del Fuego, 301.
---- at Galapagos, 472.
Respiration, difficult in Andes, 393.
Revolution of October, 1833, at Buenos Ayres, 165.
Rhinoceroses, live in desert countries, 100, 103, 577.
_Rhyncops nigra_, 161.
Rio de Janeiro, 21.
---- Plata, 44.
---- Negro, 73.
---- Colorado, 82.
Rocks burnished with ferruginous matter, 12.
Rosas, General, 85.
Ruins of Callao, 450.
---- of Indian buildings in Cordillera, 409.
Ruts worn in lava rocks, 597.
St. Helena, 578.
---- Fe, 147.
---- Jago, trade-wind, 3.
---- Paul’s rocks, 7.
Salado, Rio, 137.
Salinas at the Galapagos Archipelago, 459.
---- at the Rio Negro, 75.
Saline efflorescences, 91.
Salt lakes, 75.
Sandal-wood trees, dead at Juan Fernandez, 583.
San Pedro, forests of, 341.
Sand, hot from sun’s rays, at Galapagos Archipelago, 459.
Santa Cruz, river of, 213.
Santiago, Chile, 319.
Sauce, Rio, 124.
_Saurophagus sulphureus_, 62.
Scenery of Andes, 388, 394.
Scissor-tail, 163.
Scissor-beak, habits of, 161.
Sea-pen, habits of, 117.
Shells, land, species, in great numbers, 426.
Shepherd dogs, 174.
Shingle-beds, how deposited, 201 to 206.
Siberian animals, how preserved in ice, 293.
---- ----, preserved in ice, food necessary during their
existence, 103.
Silicified trees in vertical position, 406.
Silurian formations at Falkland Islands, 253.
Silurus, habits of, 160.
Slavery, 27.
Smelling power of carrion hawks, 222.
Smith, Dr. Andrew, on the support of large quadrupeds, 99.
---- ---- ----, on perforated pebbles, 173.
Snake, venemous, 114.
Snow-line, on Cordillera, 275.
Snow, effects of on rocks, 388.
----, red, 394.
Soda, nitrate of, 443.
----, sulphate of, 91.
Southern islands, 272.
Sparus, coral-eating fish, 553.
Spawn on surface of sea, 18.
Spiders, habits of 40.
----, gossamer, 187.
Stalactites or sulphate of lime, 9.
Steam issuing from fissures in ground at the Azores, 596.
Stinging-coral, 552.
Streams of stones at Falkland Islands, 254.
_Struthio Rhea_, 105.
---- _Darwinii_, 108.
Subsidence in Pacific Ocean, 557.
---- at Keeling Island, 560.
Sulphate of soda incrusting the ground, 91.
Sydney, 515.
Tabanus, 200.
Tahiti (Otaheite), 480.
----, three zones of fertility, 484.
Tail, fossil, gigantic size of, 181.
Talcahuano, 370.
Tameness of birds, 475.
Tapocolo and Turco, 329.
Tapalguen, Sierra, flat hills of quartz, 135.
Tasmania, 532.
Tattooing, 482, 501.
Temperance of the Tahitians, 490.
Teru-tero, habits of, 133.
Tercero Rio, fossil remains, in banks of 146.
Terraces in valleys of Cordillera, 385.
---- of Coquimbo, 423.
---- of Patagonia, how formed, 202.
_Testudo Indicus_, habits of, 462.
Theory of lagoon islands, 553.
Thistle beds, 138, 143, 172.
Tierra del Fuego, 227, 263.
---- ---- ----, climate and vegetation of, 268.
---- ---- ----, geology of, 266.
---- ---- ----, deep channels in, 267.
---- ---- ----, zoology of, 300.
---- ---- ----, entomology of, 302.
_Tinamus rufescens_, 51.
_Tinochorus Eschscholtzii_, 110.
Toad, habits of, 115.
---- not found in volcanic islands, 472.
Tortoise, habits of, 462.
Torrents, effects of, in Cordillera, 385.
Toxodon, 180.
----, teeth of, 146.
Transport of seeds, 541.
---- of boulders, 280 to 292.
---- of stones in roots of trees, 549.
---- of fragments of rock on banks of the St. Cruz river, 216.
Travertin with leaves of trees, Van Diemen’s Land, 535.
Tree-ferns, southern limits of, 271.
Trees, absence of, in Pampas, 53.
----, silicified, vertical, 406.
Tres Montes, 343.
Trigonocephalus, or Cophias, 114.
_Trochilus gigas_, 331.
Tropical scenery, 590.
Tubes, siliceous, formed by lightning, 69.
Tucutuco, habits of, 58.
Turkey buzzard, 68.
Tupungato, volcano of, 397.
Turtle, manner of catching, 547.
Types of organization in different countries, constant, 209.
Uruguay, Rio, 171.
Uspallata range, 406.
Valdivia, 363.
----, forests of, 364, 368.
Valley of St. Cruz, how excavated, 217.
----, dry, at Copiapó, 438.
Valleys, excavation of, in Chile, 314, 438.
---- of Tahiti, 486.
---- in Cordillera, 385.
Valparaiso, 308.
Vampire bat, 25.
Van Diemen’s Land, 532.
_Vanellus Cayanensis_, 133.
Vanikoro, encircled island, 555.
Vegetation of St. Helena, 580, 582.
----, changes of, at ditto, 579.
---- of New South Wales, 517.
---- on opposite sides of Cordillera, 399.
----, luxuriant, not necessary to support large animals, 99.
Ventana, Sierra, 125.
Villa Vicencio, 405.
_Virgularia Patagonica_, 117.
Volcanic phenomena, 380.
Volcanoes near Chiloe, 336.
----, occur within the areas of elevation, 567.
_Vultur aura_, 68.
Waders, first colonists amongst birds of distant islands, 543.
Waimate, New Zealand, 507.
Walleechu tree, 79.
Wasps preying on spiders, 40.
Water-hog, 57.
Water, sold at Iquique, 442.
Waves, caused by fall of ice, 281.
---- from earthquakes, 377.
Weatherboard, N. S. Wales, 522.
Weeds, English, in New Zealand, 511.
Weight of large quadrupeds, 101.
Wellington, Mount, 536.
Wells at Iquique, 445.
Wells, ebbing and flowing, 545.
Wigwams of Fuegians, 234.
Winds, cold on Cordillera, 440.
---- on Cordillera, 395.
Zoological provinces of N. and S. America, 153.
Zoophytes, Falkland Islands, 258.
Zorillo, or skunk, 94.
THE END.
WHITING, BEAUFORT HOUSE, STRAND
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Footnote [4] of CHAP. XVI has two anchors on page 375.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
when a predominant preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg xiv: ‘630’ has been inserted as the ‘INDEX’ page number.
Pg 11: ‘luxuuriance of the’ replaced by ‘luxuriance of the’.
Pg 15: ‘half to to three’ replaced by ‘half to three’.
Pg 47: ‘knowing venemous’ replaced by ‘knowing venomous’.
Pg 48: ‘to cuty our’ replaced by ‘to cut your’.
Pg 86: ‘an acomplishment of’ replaced by ‘an accomplishment of’.
Pg 111: ‘recal the idea’ replaced by ‘recall the idea’.
Pg 198: ‘snow on the the’ replaced by ‘snow on the’.
Pg 201: ‘as meaures of’ replaced by ‘as measures of’.
Pg 212: ‘forcibly recal’ replaced by ‘forcibly recall’.
Pg 264 CHAP. XIII, Footnote [1]: ‘differnece 18°’ replaced by
‘difference 18°’.
Pg 341: ‘he forest was’ replaced by ‘the forest was’.
Pg 394: ‘the footseps of’ replaced by ‘the footsteps of’.
Pg 401: ‘this neigbourhood’ replaced by ‘this neighbourhood’.
Pg 418: ‘beds of alfarfa’ replaced by ‘beds of alfalfa’.
Pg 437: ‘are the the sole’ replaced by ‘are the sole’.
Pg 453: ‘Islands volcanic’ replaced by ‘Galapagos Islands
volcanic’ to match the TOC entry for this chapter.
Pg 471: ‘trying to sieze’ replaced by ‘trying to seize’.
Pg 535: ‘in a a solitary’ replaced by ‘in a solitary’.
Pg 556: ‘and thrty miles’ replaced by ‘and thirty miles’.
Pg 565: ‘just recal to’ replaced by ‘just recall to’.
Pg 570: ‘--Cape of Goo Hope’ replaced by ‘--Cape of Good Hope’.
Pg 570: ‘calcareons matter’ replaced by ‘calcareous matter’.
Pg 571: ‘more Anglefied’ replaced by ‘more Anglified’.
Index:
Pg 630, Birds: ‘certain islan’ replaced by ‘certain islands’.
Pg 632: Two J entries moved to be after I entries.