GREENLAND AND ITS INLAND ICE--NORDENSKIÖLD, NANSEN, PEARY
The inland ice of Greenland was for centuries one of the greatest
Arctic problems--an entirely unknown area of 750,000 square miles. So
little was its formation understood in the first half of the eighteenth
century that Governor Claus Paars, Greenland’s first and only governor,
took out horses with the idea of riding across it to the supposed lost
colony on the east side. He was disabused when he sailed up to the end
of the Amaralikfjord, reached the inland ice and, after a march of two
hours, was stopped by a crevasse.
No one knew what there might be within that vast region. The Eskimos
were often on its edge when hunting the reindeer, but had never
ventured far. They were terrified at the mighty solitude. At last
curiosity overcame fear in the case of a trader named Lars Dalager,
who was at Frederikshaab, one of the most southern Greenland stations.
With a few Eskimos, he went up to the head of a fjord to the south of
the _iisblink_ on September 2nd, 1751, and advanced for a few days
over very rough ice. He noticed the extreme cold of the inland ice and
sighted mountain peaks which he supposed to be on the eastern coast,
but they have since been found to be _nunataks_ or mountain peaks
rising out of the great snowy expanse. He returned to his boat after
five days. The men of science who visited Greenland somewhat later,
Fabricius in the days of Krantz, and the German Geisecke in 1806–13,
only reached the edge of the inland ice, though it engaged much of
their attention. The well-known Alpine traveller Whymper made two
attempts from Disco Bay in 1867 and 1872, but without result. Several
persons, such as Steenstrup, Kornerup, and Holm, made observations
on the rate of movement of the glaciers and it was found to vary in
different localities.
The first really serious expeditions were those of Nordenskiöld in
1870 and 1883. In the former year the accomplished Swedish explorer
selected the northern arm of the Auleitsivik fjord, twenty miles
north of Godthaab, as his point of entrance into the unknown. He was
accompanied by the botanist Dr Berggren. On the 19th July they reached
the ice cap by a cleft, and finding the surface impassable for a sledge
they abandoned it, and went on with a few necessaries on their backs.
Passing the region of broken-up ice and cleft and favoured by good
weather, they came to a perceptible rise, with a smoother surface,
and reached their furthest point 2200 feet above the sea and 30 miles
west of the Auleitsivik fjord, returning after six days. Nordenskiöld
found rivers and streams on the surface. The explorers went along the
bank of one great river until the whole mass of water poured down a
perpendicular cleft into the depths.
In 1883 Nordenskiöld again came out to Greenland in the steamer
_Sophia_, funds being supplied by Baron Oscar Dickson, that munificent
supporter of Arctic research. Nordenskiöld believed that the inland ice
was not an unbroken mass, but that there were islands with bare rocks
and some vegetation, the abode of reindeer and ptarmigan. He started
from the same place as in 1870, with a party of ten, including two
Lapps with _ski_. In 18 days they had advanced 73 miles and attained
a height of 5000 feet. They were stopped by soft sludgy snow, but
Nordenskiöld sent on the Lapps, who returned with a report that they
had been 145 miles further, reaching a height of 5800 feet, and that
there was nothing but an endless unbroken surface of snow. Yet the
sight of two ravens rather confirmed Nordenskiöld in the belief that
the expanse of snow was relieved by oases. The great Swedish savant was
31 days on the inland ice.
[Illustration: Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]
Meanwhile, Dr Rink, the learned and accomplished Danish Inspector of
Greenland, had warmly advocated further research as far back as 1876.
The Danish savant Steenstrup observed the rate of movement of glaciers
in 1876 and 1877, and in 1878 an expedition was undertaken into the
interior by Lieutenant Jensen. This was a very interesting journey and
revealed the character of the inland ice in the far south. Jensen
entered by the Fredrickshaab _iisblink_, and crossed the expanse of
snow as far as the Nasuasak _nunatak_, which was one of the peaks seen
by Dalager, 4700 feet above the sea. He had three small one-man sledges
with three weeks’ provisions. The ice was very rough and broken, and
the men suffered from snow blindness. But the _nunataks_ were reached,
and Jensen ascended one of them to a height of 5000 feet, obtaining an
extensive view. They are known as the Jensen _nunataks_. The journey on
the inland ice occupied 31 days, from July 3rd to August 3rd.
The next attempt was made in 1886 by Peary in Disco Bay, in the same
place that Whymper had previously selected. Robert Peary was a civil
engineer employed in the American naval dockyard service; a very
resolute and determined man who had conceived the ambition of taking
a share in Arctic discovery. His companion was the Danish lieutenant
Maigaard. Their point of entrance was in 69° 30′. They took thirty
days’ provisions, which were carried on two sledges, 9 feet long and 13
inches wide, weighing 23 lb. each, their shelter for the night being a
tarpaulin between the sledges. They advanced over the inland ice for 24
days, from June 8th to July 2nd, meeting with a “fohn” wind which made
the snow soft and sticky, and they were also delayed by snowstorms. In
returning, the wind was at their backs, so they rigged up the tarpaulin
on some alpenstocks and sailed back at great speed, 22, 27, and even
more miles a day. They returned on July 24th.
The name of Fridtjof Nansen will for ever be coupled with the first
crossing of the inland ice of Greenland. It was here that his genius
in conceiving a great plan for discovery, his ability as a leader,
and his mastery of details first began to develop. From the first he
was something more than an explorer. Born on the 18th of October,
1861, young Nansen was of good lineage on both sides, and in his after
life he proved the truth of Holberg’s saying “Det er min tro noget
i at vaere kommen af godt folk.” He became a naturalist, and as his
character developed its chief points were devoted patriotism, breadth
of view, and love of science, above all of scientific accuracy. He had
reached the age of 27, when, after a study of the labours of Jensen
and Nordenskiöld, he resolved to achieve the crossing of Greenland,
conceiving that science would benefit more especially by discoveries
respecting the meteorology of the inland ice.
Nansen, who had determined on crossing from east to west, had already
been for a cruise on the east coast of Greenland and had made
acquaintance with the character of its difficult navigation. The study
of the necessary equipment was undertaken with his never-failing care
and intelligence. His party was to number six, and he had to consider
the nature of the ground and the climate, while, as in all Arctic
travelling, lightness had to be the main consideration. His sledges, of
which he took five, were of ash, the upper part light and slender. They
weighed 28 lb., and were 9½ feet long by 20 inches wide, the runners
shod with thin steel plates. They were turned up at both ends, with
a chair-back-like bow for pushing and steering, and every joint was
lashed, no metal being used.
The tent was in five pieces of waterproof canvas, with two uprights
and one cross pole of bamboo, the guy-ropes made fast to crampon-like
hooks. The sleeping bags were of reindeer skin, with hood-shaped flaps
to button over the head, each to hold three men.
Nansen rightly decided that woollen clothes were the best, as avoiding
condensation. He paid specially close attention to the foot gear.
Woollen stockings were worn next the skin, then thick goat’s-hair
socks, and over these came the _finneskos_ of the Lapps with the
hair outside, stuffed, as is the Lapp custom, with a grass (_Carex
vesicaria_). Large woollen mitts were used, and fur caps with
ear-flaps. The cooking apparatus consisted of a spirit-lamp with a
copper tin-lined boiler above, tall and cylindrical, with a copper
flue carried through the centre, by which the hot air passed to a
broader and shallower copper vessel over the boiler to melt snow in,
all cased in thick felt. With this apparatus and 12 oz. of spirits a
gallon of chocolate and rather less of water was obtained in an hour.
The provisions consisted of Beauvais dried meat (which contained
insufficient fat), meat biscuits, chocolate with meat powder, pea
soup with fat, and tea. Some luxuries such as condensed milk and
whortleberry jam were taken, but Nansen was very strongly opposed to
the use of spirits and tobacco, as being injurious stimulants. The
instruments consisted of a theodolite and stand, a pocket sextant,
artificial horizon, azimuth compass, four watches, thermometer,
boiling-point thermometer, and aneroids. Four of the sledges when
loaded had a weight of 200 lb. each, the fifth of 400 lb.
Nansen was a master of ski-travel. This method of winter locomotion
has been used by his countrymen from time immemorial, and by himself
from childhood, and truly the speed attained and the feats performed
by Norwegian experts are marvellous. On very soft snow, however, the
Canadian snow-shoe is preferable.
Of his five comrades Otto Sverdrup was the son of a Helgeland farmer
with forest property, and was born on October 31st, 1855. He had been
17 years at sea. Olaf Dietrichsen, a surgeon and a keen sportsman, was
aged 25, and Kristian Trana, aged 24, was a forester. The others were
two Lapps, both young men.
The expedition started in June, 1888, and the _Jason_, a Norwegian
sealer, took them to the edge of the ice on the east coast of Greenland
and some distance into it. The explorers then took to their boats, but
it was long before they could reach the land. Drifted to the south,
they came to an Eskimo encampment at Cape Bille, and having reached the
inner lead of water on the 15th August, boats were at length hauled up
on the beach and the great journey was commenced. From the 17th to the
20th they were detained by storms with heavy rain, but the 22nd saw the
ascent commenced in fine weather. The ice was heavily crevassed and
_nunataks_ were visible here and there.
By the 26th the party had reached a height of 6000 ft., and by the end
of the month the elevation was 7930 ft. Hitherto they had worn Canadian
snow-shoes, but on September 2nd it was found that ski could be used,
even when dragging the sledges, and the national mode of progression
was gladly adopted for the remaining nineteen days. The explorers
were surprised at the great difference between the temperature of day
and night on this lofty plateau in September. The thermometer showed
-4° in the day, and -40° Fahr. at night. Furious gales of wind were
frequent.
The summit was 8250 ft. above the sea, and from September 17th there
was a pronounced fall to the westward. Sail was now set on the sledges,
portions of the tent being used for that purpose. This day a snow
bunting was seen. The crevasses and fissures again began to appear,
and on the 20th the summits of the western Greenland mountains were in
sight. The _sermik suak_ or inland ice thus proved to be a vast extent
of smooth level snow with a margin of broken and fissured ice. The head
of the Ameralik-fjord was at length reached after 40 days on the inland
ice.
The explorers were still sixty miles from the Danish settlement of
Godthaab, and it was decided that while Nansen and Sverdrup constructed
a boat and went down the fjord the rest should proceed by land. The
framework of the boat consisted of two bamboos and a ski staff. The
difficulty was the ribs, which were made of the branches of the dwarf
willows growing on the banks of the fjord, and the canvas covering them
entailed much labour in sewing with a sailmaker’s needle as they were
without a “palm.” The oars were bamboos with forked willow-branches
with canvas stretched across. It was a fairly good boat, and only
required baling every ten minutes. After a great feast on cranberries
the two explorers started and managed to make their way in her to
Godthaab. The others also arrived safely, and all were very hospitably
received for the winter, returning to Norway in the following year.
It was a splendid achievement. The central water-parting was found to
be 125 miles from the east, and 226 from the west side, the greatest
elevation measured being 8970 ft. Supposing the average land surface
under the ice to rise to 2000 ft., the thickness of the ice-cap would
be nearly 7000 ft. The excavating power of the glaciers is enormous,
and the pressure causing the melting of the snow and the discharge of
an enormous quantity of water into the sea, counteracts any increase
above caused by the excessive precipitation occurring from the warm
winds blowing from the sea. Nansen found the moisture to be so great as
to be near saturation. Out of 40 days on the inland ice there were 16
days of snow and 4 of rain. The meteorological results were the most
important outcome of the expedition, because the deductions from them
apply to regions far beyond the limits of Greenland. It was a fine
piece of exploring work, and the name of Nansen will for all time be
coupled with the first crossing of Greenland.
Peary, who, as already mentioned, had made an attempt at crossing with
Maigaard in 1886, succeeded in raising funds for another expedition
in 1891. His design was to traverse the inland ice from Whale Sound
in the north of Baffin’s Bay, where he would find the tribe of Arctic
Highlanders. Here a steamer landed him, accompanied by Mrs Peary, Dr
Frederick Cook, aged 26, a hunter named Gibson, a young Norwegian aged
20 named Eivind Astrup, a meteorologist named Vershoef, and Henson, a
coloured man from Virginia, aged 23. Some short sledge and boat trips
were made; the house, taken out in pieces, was built; and the winter
was passed in preparations for the journey over the inland ice.
Peary, a man of great energy and indomitable resolution, claimed to
have inaugurated a new departure in Arctic exploration. He held that
only small parties can do effective work; that fur clothing is better
than woollen, and indeed absolutely essential; that tents and sleeping
bags are unnecessary luxuries; and finally that all traction should
be by dogs, and that by killing a portion of the dogs for dogs’ food
the original load will last longer. But, at all events as regards the
latter, few humane Englishmen will agree with him. Dogs are invaluable
for keeping open communications, and for depôt work; but they ought to
be well fed, well treated, and not overworked. There is a fine passage
in Captain Scott’s _Voyage of the Discovery_ on this subject:--
“To pretend that dogs can be made greatly to increase the radius of
action without pain, suffering, and death, is futile, and this sordid
necessity robs sledge-travelling of much of its glory. In my mind
no journey ever made with dogs can approach the height of that fine
conception which is realised when a party of men go forth to face
hardships, dangers, and difficulties by their own unaided efforts,
and by days and weeks of hard physical labour succeed in solving some
problem of the great journey.”
Peary started with Astrup, Cook, and Gibson in April, 1892. By May
24th the true inland ice had been reached, and the supporting party
with Cook and Gibson returned. Already the number of dogs had been
reduced to 13. Peary and Astrup continued over the inland ice, reaching
an elevation of 6000 ft. On June 26th they came in sight of the sea,
and from July 1st they were travelling over mountainous crests and
ridges until they reached a summit whence they had a view of a great
bay. Musk oxen were seen and one was secured. By July 7th they were
back on the inland ice, and returned on August 6th. Only five dogs had
survived. Peary claims to have travelled a distance of 1400 miles in 80
days--about 17 miles a day.
Dr Cook had been getting through some useful anthropological work
in the meantime, making a census of the Arctic Highlanders, taking
measurements of both sexes at different ages, and recording their
habits and customs.
In 1893 Peary undertook another expedition. Accompanied by Mrs Peary,
with Captain Bartlett in command of his steamer _Falcon_, he made, as
before, for Whale Sound. Fourteen persons were landed and the _Falcon_
returned. A winter house was built and on September 12th Mrs Peary gave
birth to a daughter. On March 8th, 1894, the start was made for the
inland ice journey. On the 13th eight dogs were killed as food for the
others. Astrup and another man broke down, and had to be sent back on
sledges. The rest went on, but were stopped by a gale on March 22nd,
and when it subsided two dogs were found dead, and two more men were
obliged to return. In this journey tents and sleeping bags were taken,
in spite of their being previously held to be “unnecessary luxuries,”
The party got 128 miles from Whale Sound, where a large depôt was left,
at 5500 ft. above the sea, a smaller one having been deposited earlier.
Here they were forced to return.
Later, Astrup made a reconnaissance of Melville Bay, and the recesses
of Whale Sound were explored.
Another winter was passed at the house, and preparations were made for
a second attempt at the inland ice. On April 1st, 1895, Peary started
with a man named Lee, the coloured man Henson, four natives, six
sledges, and sixty dogs. The first depôt could not be found, being
buried under the snow, and--a far more serious blow--they also failed
to find the second depôt with all their pemmican, 1400 lb. On entering
the fourth week the party began the eastward slope with only 17 dogs
left out of 42. The survivors had to be fed with dogs and soon only
11 were left. One cannot help feeling glad when Peary and his two
comrades had to get into the drag-ropes themselves. At last they left
the ice and pushed on to the land in the hope of finding musk oxen, and
reaching the valley succeeded in shooting two of these animals and a
hare.
When the return journey was begun on June 3rd Peary had nine dogs and
fourteen days’ rations for them, and thirty days’ half rations of
biscuits and oil, and seventeen of frozen meat for the men. On the 10th
there were only six dogs, and on the 22nd one alone survived. The men
had four biscuits left when they reached the house at Whale Sound.
The results which Peary claimed were the discovery of Independence Bay,
of the northern end of Greenland, of a channel dividing that great mass
of land from large islands to the north, and of Greenland’s insularity,
and for many years these features have been shown on the maps. It
has now been found that he did not discover the actual north end of
Greenland, and that his channel does not exist. Peary nevertheless
did real good in improving the condition of the Arctic Highlanders by
supplying them with canvas and improved weapons. With better means of
obtaining sustenance the death rate is said to have decreased and there
are signs of an increase in the population of this most interesting
northern tribe. Dr Cook’s census gave the number at 233. Peary
discovered near Cape York, and brought home, the three great meteoric
stones from which the Arctic Highlanders used to obtain the iron for
their knives.