THE ROUTE BY SMITH SOUND.
KANE--HAYES--HALL--NARES--MARKHAM
When my old messmate Admiral Sherard Osborn and I resolved to agitate
until the Government was induced to dispatch another Arctic expedition,
we selected the route of Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel as the one most
likely to afford valuable scientific results. We strongly deprecated a
mere rush for the North Pole, as not only useless in itself, but also
as hindering important geographical work.
The Northern Sound seen by Baffin in 1616 was discovered by Captain
Inglefield in 1852 to be a wide channel leading to the polar ocean,
and the land on its western side, facing Greenland--also discovered,
but not named, by Baffin--received the name of Ellesmere Island from
Inglefield. He found the entrance of Smith Sound to be 36 miles across.
His extreme northern point was 78° 28′ 21″ N.
In 1853 the American, Dr Kane, in the little brig _Advance_ of 120
tons, with a crew of 17 men, started for Smith Sound very poorly
equipped[144]. He had some thought of completing the search for
Franklin in this direction, but his main idea was to push his way as
far north as possible in the brig until he reached the (imaginary) open
polar sea. The _Advance_ was stopped by the ice only nine miles north
of Inglefield’s most northern position, and there Kane was forced to
winter, in a place which he named Rensselaer Harbour, on the east side
of the Sound in 78° 37′ N. The coast consists of precipitous cliffs 800
to 1200 feet high, with a belt of ice about 18 feet thick resting on
the beach[145].
Some short sledge journeys were undertaken in the spring, and Dr Kane
himself went as far as a large discharging glacier, to which he gave
the name of Humboldt. His steward, a man named Morton, with the Eskimo
Hans Hendrik and a team of dogs, crossed the front of the glacier, and
saw some open water caused by a strong current, the extent of which
he exaggerated. Unable to extricate the _Advance_, Dr Kane and his
people had to face a second winter, unprovided either with fuel or with
anything but salt provisions. Scurvy soon attacked them, but they were
saved by the kindly natives, who shared with them the proceeds of their
hunting. Half the brig being burnt for fuel and the provisions nearly
spent, Dr Kane abandoned her on May 17th, 1855, and the whole party
retreated to the Danish settlement of Upernivik, which they reached
on August 6th, 83 days after abandoning the brig. The story of their
hardships and sufferings, as told in the charming narrative of the
accomplished leader, is very interesting. His work contains the best
account of the Arctic Highlanders, from whom they received so much
kindness and hospitality. It is, however, to be regretted that from the
exaggerated story of his steward, Dr Kane should have built up such
an untenable theory as that of an open polar sea, for it misled many
persons for a long time.
Dr Hayes, the surgeon of the _Advance_, obtained funds for an
expedition to follow in the wake of Dr Kane. He sailed from Boston
on July 10th, 1860, in the _United States_, a schooner of 133 tons,
with a crew of 15 men. The little craft was blown out of Smith Sound
three times before she was at last fixed in winter quarters, ten miles
north-east of Cape Alexander, the western portal of the Sound, and
20 miles south of Kane’s winter quarters. Dr Hayes began his sledge
travelling on April 4th in the following year. He started with 12 men,
14 dogs, and a metallic boat on runners; but the latter was sent back,
and the party was reduced to four men and two dog sledges. Crossing
the Sound, they reached the coast of Ellesmere Island on May 10th,
and travelled northwards until the 18th. There was great abundance
of animal life and consequent exemption from scurvy at his winter
quarters, which he called Port Foulke. The schooner was broken out of
the ice on July 10th and returned safely to Boston in October, 1861.
Ten years afterwards an expedition in the same direction was undertaken
by an American named Hall. He was not a seaman, and possessed no
scientific attainments, but he was endowed with undaunted persistence
and enthusiasm and a very interesting personality. He was most deeply
impressed with the sad story of the Franklin expedition, and for five
consecutive years sought for relics along the south coast of King
William Island, living with the Eskimos. In 1870 he began his agitation
for an expedition to reach the North Pole, and the Navy Department
handed over to him a river gunboat called the _Periwinkle_, of 387
tons. Hall changed her name to the _Polaris_[146].
A seaman was necessary to command the vessel, and Captain Buddington
of New London, who had made thirteen whaling voyages, was selected,
Captain Tyson being his chief mate. Dr Emil Bessels, who had been with
the German expedition of 1869, had charge of the scientific work.
Morton and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, who were with Dr Kane, joined,
also three other Eskimos, friends of Hall, named Joe, Hannah, and their
daughter Silvie. The outward voyage was fortunate. During August of
1871, Hall sailed up Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel with little difficulty
from the ice until he reached a latitude of 82° 16′ N., on August 30th.
The winter quarters were in a harbour on the Greenland side, named
Thank God Bay, in 81° 38′ N.
Hall, with his dogs, went for a short autumn journey as far as an inlet
which he named Newman Bay, its northern cape, called Brevoort, being
in 82° 2′ N. and 61° 20′ W. He was taken ill on his return, became
partially paralyzed, and died on November 8th. He was buried on shore,
and a monument has been erected to his memory. Captain Buddington
resolved upon returning without attempting anything further. On August
12th, 1872, the ship was again free, but once more became beset, and
drifted out of Smith Sound by the current. On October 15th she was
again beset, and so severely nipped that boats and provisions were got
out on the ice. Suddenly the ice eased off, but Tyson and seventeen
others, including several Eskimos, were left on the floe. This ice
floe continued to drift to the south, but the means of building snow
shelters were found on it, many birds were shot, and the Eskimo, Hans
Hendrik, killed more seals than the whole party could consume. After a
long drift down Baffin’s Bay, the forlorn people were picked up in 53°
35′ N. by the _Tigress_, Captain Bartlett, who took them to St John’s,
Newfoundland, in good health.
Meanwhile the _Polaris_ was driven to the north again by a southerly
gale, and ran on shore at Littleton Island near the entrance of
Smith Sound. Here the fourteen remaining men passed a second winter,
plentifully supplied with fresh provisions by the friendly Arctic
Highlanders. They built two boats, and began a southern voyage in July,
1873, until they were picked up by the English whaler _Ravenscraig_,
whence they were transferred a few days later to the whaler _Arctic_
(on which Capt. A. H. Markham was at the time) and brought to England.
All the journals were in charge of Dr Bessels, himself an accomplished
naturalist and good observer, and his results were afterwards published.
This is all that was then known of the route by Sir Thomas Smith’s
Channel. Inglefield announced the opening to the Polar Sea, and Hall’s
river steamer found her way through the ice to the further end. But
here again many were misled, for the chart that was first produced made
the land on the west side continue to trend due north towards the pole.
Correct information from Dr Bessels, however, prevented Sherard Osborn
and myself from being deceived by the chart, and our conclusion was
that the most valuable Arctic work would be to discover and explore the
coasts facing the polar ocean.
On January 23rd, 1865, Sherard Osborn had read his able paper
advocating the renewal of Arctic research before a very crowded meeting
of the Geographical Society. All the survivors of the old expeditions
who could possibly come were there, and many other men of distinction
in the scientific world. All were impressed by the eloquence of the
gallant sailor, as well known for his great service in the Sea of Azof
as for his Arctic work. All were convinced. The Government must once
more undertake the duty. It was a most encouraging beginning, but in
March Osborn was obliged to leave England, handing over to me the
onerous duty of continuing the fight single-handed.
On the 10th April, 1865, I read a paper at a meeting of the
Geographical Society on the best route for Arctic exploration, but
Sir Roderick Murchison caused a letter from Dr Petermann assailing my
position to be read at the same time, and advocating a route north of
Spitsbergen, long known to be impracticable. This apple of discord
threw back the good cause for several years, but I continued to work
hard at the propaganda, and not without success. Sherard Osborn
returned to England in 1872, and read a paper before the Geographical
Society on April 22nd, pointing out Dr Petermann’s errors and quoting
Nordenskiöld, Payer, and his own man Koldewey against him. The
Spitsbergen route was no more heard of, but great delay had been caused.
We grew more hopeful, and in December, 1872, a deputation waited on
Mr Lowe and Mr Goschen. It met with a very unsatisfactory reception,
but the idea was getting a firm grip of the public mind, which was
shown in several ways. My work, _The Threshold of the Unknown Region_,
which dealt with the subject, went through four editions in two years,
and was translated into French. It was thought desirable that a naval
officer should make a preliminary cruise and observe the change that
steam power had made in ice navigation. Valuable information would thus
be acquired and the published narrative of such a voyage would keep up
the interest of the public in Arctic work. Commander Albert H. Markham
volunteered for this service, and embarking on board the Dundee whaler
_Arctic_, Captain Adams, sailed from that port in May 1873.
[Illustration: Lieut Parr, R.N., _H.M.S. Alert_
Cdr A. H. Markham, R.N., _H.M.S. Alert_
Sir George Nares
Lieut P. Aldrich, R.N., _H.M.S. Alert_
Lieut L. A. Beaumont, _H.M.S. Discovery_]
When the whalers were all sailing vessels there was usually much
detention, and sometimes considerable loss, in passing through Melville
Bay. In 1850 the ice offered such opposition to progress that the
whole fleet gave it up in despair. In 1830 the whole whaling fleet
was nipped against the land floe 40 miles south of Cape York, the
floes overlapping each other. Nineteen ships were destroyed, but a few
escaped by digging deep docks in the land ice. A thousand men were
encamped on the floes, and the loss amounted to £142,000.
Commander Markham found a very different state of things in 1873. The
whaling fleet consisted of ten ships, the largest being the _Arctic_ of
439 tons. She made a very quick passage through Melville Bay, reaching
the north water on June 9th. This enabled Commander Markham to visit
Port Leopold, Fury Beach, and Prince Regent’s Inlet as far as Cape
Garry, as well as to learn all the mysteries of the industry, and take
his share in the pursuit and capture of whales. The _Arctic_ returned
after the capture of twenty-eight whales, yielding nearly 15 tons of
bone and 265 tons of oil, worth £18,925. The publication of Commander
Markham’s most interesting narrative much increased the feeling in
favour of Arctic enterprise. The battle had indeed been a hard and
long-contested one, but victory was in sight. On November 17th, 1874,
the Prime Minister, Lord Beaconsfield, announced that the Government
would despatch an Arctic expedition for the encouragement of maritime
enterprise, and for the exploration of the region round the North Pole.
Nothing could be more satisfactory. We had deprecated a mere rush to
the Pole itself as useless, but we had been constantly urging the
exploration of the region round the Pole for twelve long years. But the
matter passed into the hands of the Admiralty, and all our arguments,
supported by those of the various learned Societies, were totally
disregarded. It was announced that the main object of the expedition
was to attain the highest latitude and, if possible, to reach the North
Pole!
Fortunately, Sir Leopold M’Clintock was the Admiral Superintendent at
Portsmouth dockyard, where the expedition was fitted out, Dr Lyall
and Mr Lewis of the _Assistance_ (1852–54) being responsible for the
provisions. The _Alert_, a 17-gun sloop, was strengthened and prepared
for Arctic service[147]; and by my advice a sealer, built at Dundee
in 1873 and named the _Bloodhound_, was purchased for the second ship.
She was the best possible model for a vessel for Arctic service[148].
Captain Nares, who had served on board the _Resolute_ in 1852–54,
when he was in charge of Mecham’s depôt sledge, was recalled from the
_Challenger_ to take command of the expedition. The Captain of the
second ship was Captain Stephenson, Albert Markham being Commander of
the _Alert_, and Lewis Beaumont first lieutenant of the _Bloodhound_,
whose name was changed to the _Discovery_. The officers Aldrich, May,
Parr, Giffard, Egerton, Archer, Rawson, and Conybeare, nearly all
attained distinction in after life, thanks to an Arctic training.
Captain Feilden was the naturalist of the _Alert_, Mr Hart of the
_Discovery_. The surgeons were Drs Colan and Moss in the _Alert_,
Ninnis and Coppinger with Captain Stephenson.
A volume was printed by the Geographical Society and presented to the
Expedition, containing papers on Arctic geography and ethnology, and
another manual was prepared by the Royal Society on various branches of
science in their connection with the regions proposed to be visited.
The sledge equipments were in the able and efficient hands of Sir
Leopold, and were of course as perfect as it was possible to make
them[149]. The provisions for ships and sledges were the same as for
the search expeditions, or were intended to be the same. The _Valorous_
paddle steamer was in company, to fill up the exploring ships at Disco,
and take a line of deep-sea soundings across the Atlantic during her
return voyage.
The immense crowd, brought by trains from all parts of England, which
was assembled on Southsea Common on the 29th May, 1875, when the Arctic
ships left Portsmouth Harbour, was a proof that a proper spirit had at
length been aroused. Men and officers were the pick of the service, and
the expedition started under most promising conditions. It encountered
terrific gales, however, in crossing the Atlantic, and it was not
until July 6th that the three vessels arrived at Lievely or Godhavn,
on the south coast of Disco Island. The _Alert_ and _Discovery_ were
here filled up with stores and provisions by the _Valorous_, took on
board dogs, and with them a Dane named Petersen (not the great Carl
Petersen) and the Eskimo Frederick. Parting company with the _Valorous_
at Ritenbenk, they sailed down the Waigat fjord north of Disco, and on
July 19th arrived at Proven, where the services of the veteran Hans
Hendrik were secured for the _Discovery_[150].
As the season was late Captain Nares took the middle pack, and reached
the north water of Baffin’s Bay in 34 hours. At the end of July a small
depôt was left at Cape Isabella, the western entrance of Sir Thomas
Smith’s Channel, but soon afterwards the ships were beset near Cape
Sabine, and detained by the ice for five days. At last there was a
lead to the north, but the _Alert_ was for some time in great danger
of being forced up the side of a berg. There were heavy falls of snow
and much danger from the drifting floes, and on August 8th they had to
cut a dock in order to avoid a serious nip. At length Lady Franklin Bay
was reached, and fixed upon as the winter quarters of the _Discovery_.
The _Alert_ pushed on, and fortunately a south-west gale drove the pack
off the shore, and enabled Captain Nares to take a narrow channel along
the coast, and reach “Floe-berg Beach” facing the great polar ocean,
where the vessel was hauled inside some huge masses of ice, which from
their size and formation, received the name of “floe bergs.” Here, in
82° 30′ N., within a hundred yards of a low beach, were her winter
quarters, about 50 miles from those of the _Discovery_. No ship had
ever wintered so far north before. There was some autumn travelling in
spite of soft snow, a depôt being laid out forty miles from the ship. A
most severe winter was cheerfully faced, the men being kept interested
and amused with a school, lectures, and other entertainments, while the
Royal Arctic Theatre was opened again after an interval of twenty-one
years. The chaplain, Mr Pullen, author of _Dame Europa’s School_, was
fortunately endowed both with dramatic and poetic talent, adapting
plays with much literary skill and writing excellent verses; and Dr
Moss was an artist of more than ordinary talent.
In other successful expeditions we have had to deal with the work of
strong and healthy men. Now we have to contemplate the heroic, indeed
almost miraculous efforts of men who attained great results in spite of
the ravages of a terrible and deadly disease. The seeds of scurvy had
taken root throughout the winter, and no one knew it. The travelling
parties had started before the calamity became known, and of 121 men
in the two ships there were 56 cases of scurvy, 42 in the _Alert_, but
only 14 in the _Discovery_, in which ship a larger supply of fresh meat
was obtained from musk oxen.
Captain Nares had now to consider how to carry out his instructions.
He was ordered to reach the highest latitude, and if possible the Pole
itself. Exploration was to be quite secondary. Before him was a frozen
sea consisting of huge ice masses and lines of heavy crushed-up ice,
and he expected the pack to break up and be in movement in the spring.
He did not think that an important advance could be made unless a
coast-line could be found trending north. He accordingly determined
to send out three sledge parties, one westward, another eastward, and
another north over the frozen sea, though he did not expect that the
latter could proceed for any great distance.
[Illustration: Sub-Lieut. George Le Clerc Egerton, R.N.]
[Illustration: Lieut. Wyatt Rawson, R.N.]
A preliminary journey was undertaken to open communication with the
_Discovery_ by the two youngest officers, Egerton and Rawson, with
the Dane, Petersen, and a team of nine dogs. They had hardly gone
two marches when the Dane collapsed, covered with frost bites, and
suffering from cramp. The two young officers did all that was
possible for him, but his condition was so serious that he had to be
put on the sledge and taken back to the ship. It was found necessary to
amputate both feet, but it was in vain, and he died on the 14th May.
Meanwhile, on March 20th, Egerton and Rawson started again, and reached
the _Discovery_[151].
The 3rd of April was the day fixed upon for the start of the main
sledge parties, Markham north over the frozen sea, Aldrich west along
the north coast of Ellesmere Island. Captain Nares, in compliance with
his instructions, decided to send the sledge crews north dragging two
boats as well as their sledge with provisions, which necessitated going
over the same ground four or five times, thus allowing the travellers
only to attain a very short distance from the ship. Sir Leopold
M’Clintock would have put the whole strength of the expedition on the
northern journey, and would easily have achieved the distance with
healthy men. No boats would have been taken, but the sledges would have
been made convertible into boats in the event of lanes of water barring
progress. There could be no depôts, but supporting sledges would have
been used to advance the main sledge to the pole, and to meet it in
returning. The distance to the Pole and back was much shorter than some
of the sledge journeys successfully made during the search expeditions.
But alas! the indispensable condition of healthy men was wanting.
Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr reached the autumn depôt at Cape
Joseph Henry on the 10th April, 1876, and commenced their journey over
the frozen sea with the thermometer at -33° Fahr. They encountered
small floes surrounded by broad fringes of hummocks, across which roads
had to be made for the sledges. Even then the sledges could only be
got over by standing pulls, while the ground had to be gone over four
times, dragging up the boat sledges. The work was tremendous, and the
officers worked harder than the men, with less rest. Soon scurvy began
to appear, the two first cases on the 16th and 17th April. On the 19th
Commander Markham abandoned one of the boats. On the 24th the sledge
crews were all day cutting a lane through hummocks. On the 11th May
Markham reached the limit of human endurance and their furthest north
in 83° 20′ 26″ N. Soundings were taken in 73 fathoms, showing that they
were still on the continental shelf. On the 13th May the return journey
was begun, on the 17th the second boat was abandoned, and on the 5th
June the land was reached. Next day Lieutenant Parr started alone for
the ship for help, for only three men, including Commander Markham,
could drag the sledge. Two men were unable to walk, and were placed on
the sledge; one died. The heroic resolution of all concerned enabled
them to struggle on to the last in spite of difficulties and hardships,
and the courage displayed while in the grip of this dread disease was
magnificent. The party had gone over 600 miles.
Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich’s western party had meanwhile made important
discoveries along the north coast of Ellesmere Island during an absence
of 84 days from the ship. He travelled over 630 miles, nearly all his
sledge crew being more or less disabled by scurvy. His most northern
point was 83° N., and was named Cape Columbia.
The third principal effort was to be made along the north coast of
Greenland. From April 10th to 18th Egerton and Rawson crossed the
channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island to pioneer a route,
returning on the latter date. Lieutenant Beaumont of the _Discovery_
was to command the party. On the 16th April he and Dr Coppinger
arrived at the _Alert_ with two 8-man sledges. There Rawson joined
them with another sledge, and on the 20th they all crossed the channel
to Greenland, with a fourth depôt sledge. On May 5th Coppinger parted
company, and on the 11th Rawson followed with a man on his sledge who
had shown symptoms of scurvy.
Beaumont proceeded along the Greenland north coast, a new discovery.
On May 19th he reached his turning point, naming a distant cape to the
north-east Cape Britannia. His furthest point was in 82° 18′ N. and 50°
40′ W.
Soon after the return journey was commenced the whole sledge crew was
attacked with scurvy. Three only, including Beaumont himself, were
able to drag the sledge, the others being carried forward by relays.
A dreadful disaster seemed imminent, but thanks to the foresight and
energy of Rawson, Coppinger, and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, it was
averted. They pushed forward to the rescue, and when they reached
Polaris Bay only the officers were able to drag. Here there was a
long rest, while the stricken men were revived on fresh seal meat. On
August 8th Beaumont and Coppinger started to cross the channel to the
_Discovery_ with the now convalescent men, in a 15-ft. ice boat. After
a most arduous and perilous voyage over the drifting ice, the ship was
reached on the 15th. Beaumont had been away 132 days.
Meanwhile, Lieutenant Archer had discovered and surveyed a long
and narrow fjord running south from Lady Franklin Bay. This was an
admirable piece of work, but the most important discovery was that of a
deposit of coal of the Miocene period, with many impressions of plants,
near the winter quarters of the _Discovery_.
The outbreak of scurvy led Captain Nares to return to England, and
although the geographical work fell far short of what would have been
achieved had they escaped the disease, it was still of great interest
and value, while the other scientific results were of the highest
importance. The ships reached Portsmouth 2nd November, 1876.
The geographical results were the discovery of 300 miles of coast-line
facing the polar ocean, valuable observations on the structure
of the ice in this region, and, through the tidal observations,
the discovery of the insularity of Greenland[152]. The important
magnetic, meteorological, and tidal observations were under the
immediate superintendence of Captain Nares. The great value of the
other scientific results was mainly due to that very able naturalist,
Captain Feilden. This officer had seen much service in India during
the Mutiny, in China, and during the Civil War in North America on the
Confederate side. His special study was ornithology, but he had a
sound knowledge of other branches of natural history and of geology,
and was indefatigable as an observer and collector.
Great as the scientific value of the collections was found to be, the
conclusions to be derived from the discoveries when combined with
those of former expeditions were of quite equal importance. We are
able to understand the enormous pressure exerted by the ice along the
newly-discovered coasts, and we see exactly the same thing as described
by M’Clintock on Prince Patrick Island, by M’Clure on Banks Island,
and by Collinson, in a less degree, on the coast north of America.
The conclusion was inevitable that a current drives the ice across
the polar ocean from east to west, with a set down the east coast of
Greenland. This discovery threw a new light on the whole polar economy,
and for this reason, combined with the scientific results, the Nares
expedition must occupy a very high place in the annals of Arctic
enterprise. My own conclusion at the time, based on the considerations
above indicated, was that there was a deep ocean north of Franz Josef
Land, and that a great result would be obtained by a vessel drifting
across it with the current from Eastern Siberia towards Greenland.