Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish _Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the Austrian Navy.

called by the Spaniards _El Istmo_, and by the English "the neutral

ground." It runs between the Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a

half in length and 2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more

than 10 feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a dune

in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales seem by degrees to

have accumulated the sand on this shallow run of the sea, which formerly

separated Gibraltar from Spain.

A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the enormous

height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a portion of the sand, at

the point where the isthmus joins the rock, to be excavated, and the water

of the bay to be let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of

firm ground, which probably in time of war may be completely submerged.

The stagnant water of this cut must, however, during the hot season,

considerably increase the amount of fever.

From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on this isthmus,

along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to market daily in crowds,

with provisions of all kinds, displaying their rancour against the foreign

intruders by endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for

their produce.

The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque, are much

resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and, during the summer, are

selected by numerous families for even a longer stay; for however little

pleasure or interest a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once

arrived at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect, while

there is probably no other point from which the isolated rock appears more

grand or picturesque than from this neat little village.

In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the bay, the

charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It lies on the western

shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with which it is in regular

correspondence by daily steamers.

Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly increased in

extent and prosperity, through the smuggling trade. This clean and

pretty-looking place has a population of 10,000 souls, and makes by

contrast an extremely pleasant impression on coming from the dismal and

gloomy fortress. Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance.

The small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a bright white,

and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost every window beautiful

flowers are exhibited; and the public promenade, shaded by fine trees, is

delightful. The principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the

lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries' shops,

coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller even. The churches

appear in every respect insignificant; the hospital of San Juan de Dios,

however, is an ancient and noble structure, the management of which is

admirable. One of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of

Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper end, by the side

of the beds for common patients, a large, broad, elegantly-polished

bedstead, which, the porter told us, was intended for "_caballeros_."

At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre Constantia, a large

wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000 spectators. It is chiefly used for

bull-fights, which always attract a large audience. The aqueduct here,

taken with the fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque

object.

The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to the peninsula of

Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on the opposite coast of Africa.

The lighthouse of this little promontory has been lately furnished with a

Fresnel apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is visible at

a greater distance than any other observed during our voyage. This place,

which is used by the Spaniards as a penal settlement, numbers 6500

inhabitants, and has a very indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also

occasionally make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the

strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of Morocco.

A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at Gibraltar, for

discharging and embarking freight and passengers, and to coal. The

quantity of the latter thus shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually,

all imported from England. There is also a regular correspondence by

sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and those of the

Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu, and Trieste.

Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues, except those on

wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal privileges, and in all disputes

the English law decides. It is impossible to obtain a satisfactory

statement of the amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists,

and the official reports merely give the number and nationality of the

flags of the ships that arrive and depart. Smuggling is carried on to a

great extent, and, being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as

long as Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.

The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English cotton goods,

which are exported to Barbary in considerable quantities. To compete

successfully with the English in this branch of trade would be very

difficult for any other nation; but there are a great number of other

articles which might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are

produced cheaper in several States of the European continent than in

England; a consideration of so much the more importance in trading with

the Moors, that these people regard lowness of price rather than the

quality of the goods.

For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has become a powerful

competitor of mighty England. Thus, for instance, that country exports to

Morocco, by way of Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,[8]

hardware and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of

earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into the

neighbouring Spanish provinces.

[Footnote 8: The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian sugars have of

late in a great measure driven all others out of the market. It is also

worthy of remark, that though Gibraltar is a British colony, all the

accounts are kept in Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and

French coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even

sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also are more in

use than the English.]

It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in Gibraltar

represented as of _German_ manufacture, and thereby obtain a readier sale.

This seems to be a proof that German (_i. e._ Bohemian) glass articles

have been patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only through

the importation of the latter.

The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by coasting

vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers, while the postal

communication with Great Britain is conducted by the Peninsular and

Oriental Steam Packet Company.

Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent is carried on

overland, but is little to be relied upon, as, owing to the horrible

condition of the Spanish roads, a delay of from six to eight days

sometimes occurs in bad weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance

of only sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often been six

days on its way.

The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if we omitted

mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we experienced on all sides.

Invitations were repeatedly received from the Convent (Government House),

as well as from private families, and everywhere we experienced the most

cordial reception.

We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain Warden, the

superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it afforded an opportunity

of becoming acquainted with a feature in the English naval service, as

practical as it is worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal

inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the Government, situated in

a large garden, well planted with splendid plane-trees, laurel, and

orange-trees, and ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers.

As a superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary properly

to furnish so large an edifice, this is done by contractors, who let out

the furniture at the rate of five per cent. annually on the value. This

sum is deducted monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on

board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are there furnished

and provided with all the requisite comforts by contractors under the

superintendence of the Admiralty. The value of each article is marked in a

printed list deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly

rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself besides, in the

event of the ship's being paid off, or of being appointed to another

vessel, to return in good condition all the articles specified, and pay

the value noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is

registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the amount

monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the commander of a ship

will be more fully appreciated by those who, from personal experience, are

aware of the expense attending an outfit, and the great loss which an

officer transferred from one ship to another suffers through a sudden and

forced sale of his property. The commander of a ship is moreover often not

in a condition to spend for his personal outfit a sum of perhaps a

thousand pounds sterling, but he can conveniently pay annually from £40 to

£50 for the hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for

him to maintain the appearance due to his position.

The commander and officers of the _Caroline_, which, after an absence

since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the 23rd, were, like ourselves,

received in the kindest manner by all the authorities of Gibraltar.

It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to Madeira in company

with the _Caroline_, but an unexpected incident prevented it. The

small-pox[9] made its appearance on board, and although in a mild form and

in but a few cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a

matter of precaution, all communication, and to postpone indefinitely her

departure, as a great part of the crew might be overtaken with the disease

whilst at sea, exposed to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing

the most serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases which

are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow fever, dysentery, &c.,

when it is even prudent to set sail, notwithstanding the presence of the

malady, as a change of place and climate is frequently accompanied with

beneficial results.

[Footnote 9: As there has lately been some difference amongst the medical

men of Europe as to the utility of vaccination, the following observations

from the report of Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the

_Caroline_, regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic, may

not be out of place:--"A day before our departure from Trieste a man

complained of a slight fever and headache, and his skin was covered with

spots which were judged at once to be indications of an approaching

eruption of small-pox. The man was immediately sent on shore as a matter

of precaution; but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a

second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic was on board,

and though in a mild form, yet serious consequences were apprehended. The

_re-vaccination_ of the men was therefore decided upon, and carried out,

as far as the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the

whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the operation in

their childhood, a great part of them, however, had been vaccinated on

board other vessels, from two to five years before. Only fourteen cases

occurred. Most remarkable, and evidently in favour of those who advocate

re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who had been

vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was more severe than among

those who had been re-vaccinated on board the ship. Among those who had

_never_ undergone the operation before, the vaccination on board was most

successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the _re-vaccinated_

only four cases occurred, with slighter symptoms than among those who had

been once only operated upon. We met with several instances of the kind at

other places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the vaccination laws

are stricter than anywhere else, the small-pox is extremely rare. Among

the Brazilians, who entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination,

the _variola_ is one of the most common and most frightful diseases. It

prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves, among whom, from the

ignorance and prejudice of their masters, vaccination is neglected. The

white marks of the disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and

are evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."]

After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt was made,

with the first favourable wind, to set sail and reach the Atlantic; the

_Caroline_ remaining behind for the benefit of the sick on board. She was

to follow only when the health of the crew no longer excited any

apprehension.

On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the current in the

harbour was also favourable, we weighed anchor in the hope that in the

Straits we might meet with an easterly wind. The _Novara_ passed the

_Caroline_, which saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear

the roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against the

western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with a mucous

substance, which generally indicates that there is scarcely a chance of a

fresh breeze; however, even the little we had, would have sufficed to

carry us through the Straits, but towards 6 P.M. a perfect calm overtook

us, and notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back towards

the East, and about midnight found ourselves again in the Mediterranean,

which did not seem disposed to part with us. There was no improvement next

day, and at sunset we were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point

we had occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to East

across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May to the 1st of June

the westerly wind became so fresh that we had even to reef the sails.

Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking was of no

service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack. When at last all hope

of making the West had disappeared, we anchored, like many others of our

companions in sorrow, on the 1st June, at 6 P.M., in the Bay of

Frangerola, fifteen miles north of Malaga.

Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound. Behind the

Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been quite as many more. Fresh

additions were constantly being made to the already considerable fleet,

which had involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen which

with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us, were getting more and

more out of their course, as with every successive hour their position was

changed for the worse.

[Illustration: INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.]

In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the 2nd June,

perfectly prepared for a start. Under these circumstances no one could go

on shore, but an officer was despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to

whether there were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A

relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came on board, and

stated that, though as a rule only vessels clearing from Spanish harbours

were permitted to have intercourse with the shore, an exception should be

made in favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative, and

amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were supported almost

entirely by fishing. Many ships had now been waiting several weeks for a

favourable wind to pass the Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail

towards the West, but in every case were driven back by wind and current.

In 1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several French

steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to take in tow ships

coming from the Black Sea laden with grain, and thereby to facilitate

their passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon

we had a visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came on

board in fishing-boats to view the ship. None of these people had ever

seen so large a man-of-war, and they all therefore regarded the ship with

great curiosity. The ship's band greatly delighted them, but the

signal-gun at sunset seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.

In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of wind from the

east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the delightful spectacle of a "Fata

Morgana." This phenomenon, as is well known, arises from two currents of

air of a different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane,

generally produced when the temperature of the two currents happens to

vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the case at sea, a considerably

warmer current of air comes suddenly in contact with a colder current

having a lower position, the plane of separation of the former becomes

condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which are in the lower

current, so that their image is inversely reflected. As this surface of

separation is not level throughout, various contractions and distortions

result, which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as for

instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer current of air is on

the surface of the ground, the aërial mirror is formed beneath the eye of

the observer, by which the same phenomenon is produced that results from

the reflection of objects on the surface of the water.

In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was about ten

degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at the point of

observation. The surface of the current of warm air appeared like a light

fog, inclining in the East towards the Spanish coast, and in the

South-east to South towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest

it reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of the ships

at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under sail, appeared reversed, and

assumed curiously fantastic forms, particularly in those places where the

reflecting surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon. The

appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining in the most

singular way the real ones actually floating on the sea,--the warm vapour

which is from time to time wafted on the face of the observer, as well as

the perfect and almost death-like stillness which, under such

circumstances, prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily

produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who are generally

prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies every phenomenon they cannot

understand or explain.

This "Fata Morgana"[10] was not merely interesting in itself, but also gave

reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable wind. A light easterly

breeze accordingly sprang up towards midnight, the current became

reversed, the anchor was weighed, and all sail made with this favourable

wind towards Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable

through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.

[Footnote 10: The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and signifies "sea

woman," from _mor_, sea, and _gan_, a fine woman;--the fairy mermaid of

English legendary tales.]

A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day wore on, the

easterly breeze blew strong through the Straits, and, in company with

innumerable other ships, the Pillars of Hercules were at length passed.

The wind freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down mid-channel;

for, though the set of the current was dead against us, yet the wind

proved more than a match for it, which in our case was the more apparent,

that those merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the

advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in the rear.

When towards noon the _Novara_ was off the place where the _Caroline_ had

been anchored, that ship was no longer visible. She had probably set sail

in the morning. We supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were

sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we had overtaken

and examined all of them. We now endeavoured to reach the Atlantic as

speedily as possible, making from nine to ten knots an hour, and, with

joyful sensations, sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores

the ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking Providence here,

at the entrance of that vast ocean, which now shone so brilliantly, that

we were permitted to carry the Austrian flag into distant regions.

At 4 P.M., aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the most southerly

point of Europe. We were just going to dinner when the last glimpse of the

old world passed before the cabin windows, and we gazed once more with

sorrowing eyes at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by

the rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell in letters

of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the prospect of our task;

however inviting the magnificent ocean that lay extended under our eyes,

magically lit up by the silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a

starry sky, yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world,

with which so many pleasing associations--so many cherished recollections

were bound up, had a powerful influence, and gave rise to melancholy

impressions, of which we were only relieved by the comforting hope that we

should one day return to all so dear to us.

[Illustration: CAPE TRAFALGAR.]

The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the sky, and the

ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind, ploughed the dark waves,

leaving a glittering track behind. We were now on the ocean! Below, blue,

foam-crested billows; above, the sky studded with stars;--below, the wide

desert of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely through

it.

We awoke to new activity on that great element, which conceals so many

charms and so many hardships, where the continued alternations of hope and

fear, of enjoyment and privation--where weariness and disappointment, and

yet again the new strength imparted by returning success--so excitingly

animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate power of the human mind.

Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different countries and

people seen during a voyage, all tend to arouse feelings and sensations

which are reserved for the mariner alone, and which render his life, if he

knows how to use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental

and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel Nature in all

her phases, and to know and to admire more thoroughly her works. The

seaman owes his energy, his straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life

spent in the midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation.

Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as it were, no

mediator--he lives and labours uninterruptedly on the steps of the throne

of his Creator and Preserver. In this great temple he directs to Him alone

his complaints, his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and

order from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions; here he

admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the sunrise after a stormy

night, and in the brightness of the moon that lights up his path; here he

learns by his actual experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God

only helps him who helps himself."

The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the North-east, which,

according to Maury's excellent directions and charts, may be considered as

a trade wind, and in this season might be called so. In fact, the trade

winds are produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the

Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round its axis

acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of the equator, and a

south-easterly to the south of it. But the trade winds become perceptible

at a certain distance from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of

the earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes a greater

breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is extended further towards the

poles, as the position of this zone and its heat obtained from the sun are

the causes of these phenomena.

This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its sandy deserts,

presents a broader zone of the greatest heat than is possible on the sea,

and the trade winds, accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its

direction, however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends

necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of this zone of

greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a more northerly wind, which

in our progress towards Madeira became much more easterly. The weather

continued on the whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased

length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we were now

navigating.

We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the west. As we

saw nothing of the _Caroline_, we concluded that she was considerably

ahead. The current, which near Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending

towards the Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land,

and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a way that the

ship is carried imperceptibly southwards, though only a few miles a-day.

This current is a lateral branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the

Gulf of Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude of New

York sends off a branch in a south-easterly direction, which passes round

Madeira, and, near the Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast

of Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The

temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this current is

generally rather higher than that of the air, indicates to the mariner

that he is in the Stream, and he must take care that his ship is not

carried more to the south out of its course than he wishes. This shows

clearly of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it

becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific navigator not only

to find out their direction and strength, but to use all means at his

command, in order to ascertain their general movement in given districts

of ocean.

For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as circumstances seem

to render it advisable) to throw overboard, and commit to the mercy of

these currents, a well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a

card with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus prepared, and

made conspicuous by a covering of white linen cloth, or some such

material, wanders hither and thither with the current, until it is picked

up by some other ship, or is stranded anywhere on _terra firma_. The fact

of such a bottle having been picked up is usually published, together with

the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is obvious that an estimate

can be formed of the average strength and direction of the current.

At 1 P.M. each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one of these

ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only rarely did we afterwards

receive any information with respect to them. In each bottle was placed a

card with the following particulars, written in German, English, French,

Italian, and Spanish:--

"H.I.M. frigate, _Novara_, such and such a day of the week and month, hour

at which thrown overboard, Longitude from Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever

finds this bottle, which is about being thrown overboard well-corked and

in good order, is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest

spot at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and longitude,

in which the bottle has been found, together with the particulars of a

similar nature already enclosed."

On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55 nautical miles

distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as the wind was favourable and

pretty fresh, it became necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the

anchorage by daybreak.

About 2.30 A.M., a vessel was perceived, which, by its lights, was made

out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a port fire which was not merely

replied to, but accompanied by signalling the number of the _Caroline_.

She was steering exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle

with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in the roads of

Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom, immediately South of the Loo Rock, a

singular-looking, lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for

large ships. The U. S. corvette, _Dale_, lay in our vicinity, and sent a

boat on board with an officer to extend to us the usual greetings, after

which she saluted the Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen

guns,[11] which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now had

the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely disappeared on

board the corvette _Caroline_, those attacked being now in a fair way of

convalescence, while on board the _Novara_, the health of the ship's

company was eminently satisfactory.

[Footnote 11: Commodores of other nations receive only eleven guns by way

of salute.]

[Illustration: LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).]

[Illustration: SCENE IN MADEIRA.]

IV.

Madeira.

FROM THE 8TH TO THE 17TH OF JUNE, 1857.

First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the

Island.--History.--Unfavourable political circumstances

connected with the cultivation of the ground.--Aqueducts.--

First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its

Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.--

Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence

for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the

Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress

among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--

Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--

Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent

Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--

Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent

of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to

Funchal.--Departure.

Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal, its luxuriant

gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its mountain sides cultivated

almost to their summits; and although the grander and more gigantic forms

of true tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays rather

the character of an island off the shores of Italy than of the torrid

zone--still Nature exhibits herself here with such varied charms that

imagination can scarcely conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most

beautiful plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in

their highest development, whilst some representatives of the tropics

intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful picture. Odoriferous

magnolias, large flowering tulip trees, plane trees, laurels, myrtles,

acacias, passion and trumpet flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense

blossoms, gaudy hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders,

aloes, 40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with shining green

foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like flowers, chestnut trees,

Brazilian pines, cypresses--all delight the eye, together with

pomegranates, tamarinds, bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic

dragon trees, pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacatés. Certainly,

at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the Nicobar islands,

or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline islands, with grander and more

imposing scenery; but none that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and

loveliness the floral beauty of Madeira.

The anchorage of Funchal[12] is merely an open, exceedingly unsafe

roadstead, which affords so little protection to ships that often in

southerly winds they are obliged to get under sail. This is especially the

case in the winter, when the sea often rushes into the small unprotected

bay with fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast on

shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank whilst at anchor;

a similar violent gale from the south raged in December, 1848, when a like

number of ships met with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The

British sloop of war _Daphne_ only escaped by making the open sea in time.

In order to run less risk of being surprised by such gales, sailing

vessels generally cast anchor to the south of the Loo Rock, where there is

tolerably safe anchorage at a depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In

that position they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore

more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its irresistible

violence. Steamers, which are better able to resist the force of the waves

than sailing vessels, generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that

passengers may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater

facility.

[Footnote 12: The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the first

discoverers of the island found this plant in great abundance.]

The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for the

shortcomings of nature with regard to safe landing-places in this island,

otherwise so highly favoured. Though the rocky condition of the Funchal

roads, (the only anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,)

offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour for boats and

small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto done so little, that the

landing of passengers can only be effected by small, peculiarly-built

boats, which, whilst tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the

natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the ship remains any

length of time at Funchal, the communication with the land is attended

with considerable expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during

a stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres[13] (£9 15s.

sterling), although they had not over-charged us.

[Footnote 13: Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.]

The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers--even those belonging

to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power--have to go through, are extremely

annoying, and entail a great loss of time. Before landing, passengers'

boats are boarded in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few

cable lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged to

repair to the custom-house, where even small and open packages are

subjected to a second rigid examination. The time lost during this

process, unnecessarily minute, is exceedingly unpleasant. The reason

assigned for these vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late,

smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in the opinion of

the Governor, required these measures of precaution. It seems, however,

that this system rather promotes contraband trading, by making it very

lucrative. The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his

power to diminish the frequency of the continual examinations, and

likewise, in all other respects, endeavoured to promote the objects of the

Expedition.

The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta Furado in the

east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts to 30 miles; its greatest

breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the south, to Ponta do Saõ Jorge in the

north, is 12-1/2 miles, and its area is about 240 square miles. This

volcanic and mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep ravines

and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken and irregular, that

the representation Columbus once gave to Queen Isabella, of the Island of

Jamaica, when she asked him for a description of its configuration, might

perfectly be applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator,

after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and partly opened it

again, placed it on the table, saying, he could convey to Her Majesty no

clearer idea of that island than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.

A large portion of the island is not susceptible of cultivation; for the

heathy region which constitutes nearly one-third of its surface, and rises

to a height of about 2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely

steep, and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit of any

kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst another not less

considerable tract is too rocky and precipitous for that purpose. In the

south of the island, the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be

at a height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley grow at

2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a better system of irrigation

prevails, the extreme boundary of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,

and on the declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an elevation

of above 3000 feet.

The earlier history of the island has had such a great influence upon its

present industrial and social condition, that a few remarks on the most

important features of its history may find a place here.

Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ Gonsalvo da

Camara[14] and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421, a colony of Europeans

settled on the island. Camara obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the

south-eastern, and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together

with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was then the

principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico that of Teixeira's.

These two recipients (_donatarios_) enjoyed the exclusive privileges of

erecting flour and saw mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for

public baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, moreover, had

the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims upon the tithes of the royal

revenues, and were empowered to grant portions of the land to settlers.

Every settler was required to erect within five years a house, a cottage,

or barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these conditions, at

the expiration of the fixed period, had not been complied with, the donor

had the right of granting the land to some one else. These grants were

hereditary, and lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event

of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary privileges and

immunities were deemed necessary in order to reconcile the holders with

the dubious character of the early settlers in the island; for, though in

those times the highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous

expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison and convict

hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had much more the character of

a place of banishment for criminals than that of a colony of free

emigrants.

[Footnote 14: Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.]

With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first settlers are

said to have set on fire so large a portion of the primeval forests, that

they were soon unable to check the conflagration. According to old

writers, the fire, particularly in the south of the island, lasted several

years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that many persons in

order to escape from it, sought refuge on board the ships in the roads of

Funchal.[15]

[Footnote 15: The name _Madeira_, signifying in Portuguese "timber or

wood," justifies the statement that the island was at one time richly

wooded.]

This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by ancient and

modern authors, is being avenged even at present, though centuries have

passed since the deed. The cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no

longer to be found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old

houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show the magnitude

which this noble tree formerly attained in the island. Of the dragon tree

(_Dracæna Draco_), which was once the ornament of the forests of Madeira,

there are at present, in the whole island, only six or seven specimens in

existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. The Til-tree

(_Oreodaphne f[oe]tens_), the Vinhatico (_Persea indica_), and the Folhado

(_Clethra arborea_), formerly the most numerous representatives of the

native flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, and

their places are occupied by plants and trees of the temperate zone,

particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit of which furnishes the

inhabitants with food, whilst the tree itself has served hitherto in the

north of the island as a support to the vine. The destruction of the

forests has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the

modification of the climate in general, and to the diminution of humidity

in particular. At the date of the discovery of the island, and a long time

after, the Rio Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to

have been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the sea; at

present this river is quite insignificant, and almost dried up.

The island remained for two centuries in the possession of the direct

heirs of the original owners, and when at last, from want of legal

successors, these privileges lapsed, the crown granted them to other

favourites; but with some restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and

saw mills was then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other

privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the first

settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable property in land,

whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, now very generally adopted, the

introduction of negro slaves from Africa, and the foundation of large

estates, contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. The

ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the island are even now

mute witnesses of the opulence of their former occupants.

This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the beginning of the

last century, materially affected by the introduction of the so-called

_vinculos_ or entails, which, introduced under the protection and in

favour of the church, were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich

proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in order to have

masses said for the repose of their souls, and encumbered their lands with

so many burdens, that only a small remainder fell to their heirs. So long

as these claims were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases

for a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on their

lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a _morgado_ (entailed

property). Under the severe but wise administration of the Marquis of

Pombal, a law was passed which forbade the future creation of morgados

(unless the property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and even

then the special licence of the crown had to be obtained), declaring the

whole system of entails "as contrary to the rights of property and the

well-founded claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom

Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, as it allowed

at the same time the abolition of single entails, the value of which was

below 200 Spanish piastres annually, as well as that of every morgado,

the annual value of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As,

however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 piastres, these

oppressive restrictions still weigh upon four-fifths of the land,

notwithstanding the above-mentioned laws. Among the creditors who still

have claims, there are three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar

institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital of Funchal,

and the Portuguese Government. The institution of these vinculos and

morgados produced a kind of feudal dependency between the cultivator of

the estates (_caseiro_) and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the

occasion of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the

caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land produced; when the

landlord removed from the town into the country, the caseiro carried his

litter and luggage; in conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as

_meu amo_ (my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of these

usages, and in various ways altered the relation between the caseiro and

the landlord.

Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the system of

parcelling ground into small allotments, which has been continued up to

the present time. The farms are in general extremely small. In the richer

and more fertile parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent,

very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not even the tenth

part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho, the proprietor of nearly

one-third of the whole island, had upwards of eight thousand tenants.

Supposing that this mode of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds,

there would be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, taking

the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth inhabitant would be a

tenant farmer. This state of things is not to be wondered at, considering

that almost every day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent

of which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large garden bed, on

which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, peaches, sugar-cane, and

sometimes even grain.

In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has made more

progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; generally, however, the

system of paying in kind is still in existence, in which the harvest,

(after deducting the _tithe_, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and

not to the church,) is divided between the landlord and the tenants.

According to this principle the landlord receives half of the produce of

the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, wine, fruit or vegetables, which are

brought for sale, and not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes

happens, however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on the

ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in agriculture. They are

diminutive and singularly unsightly, but of a very powerful breed, and

furnish very good meat for the table. They are generally fed in stalls,

but in the mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are

only a few badly-fed sheep on the island, so that the mutton is almost

unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are in abundance, and the rearing of

poultry is generally the principal means of living possessed by the

peasantry. What is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and

boars to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few rabbits we

saw were perfectly identical with the European species (_Lepus

cuniculus_), and lead to the supposition that rabbits as well as pigs, now

found in a wild state here and there on the island, are only the progeny

of those which have formerly been introduced from Europe.

The numerous open and walled water conduits (_levadas_), which are of

considerable height, and lead to all parts of the cultivated land, are of

particular importance. Each levada is placed under the superintendence of

a committee, selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct

interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the most

considerable landowner of the district, under the title of _juiz da

levada_, is entrusted with the control of the water, and receives for his

services the use of the water during twenty-four hours. The right of using

these levadas is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law

proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through which such a

conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the water by turns, during a

certain number of hours (generally not more than twenty-four). These turns

are different, according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to

forty days. The distribution of the water is entrusted to a so-called

_levadeiro_, who places himself at the upper end of the land through which

the water is to flow, and with an hour-glass in his hand measures--a

modern Saturn--the time during which the owner is entitled to the use of

the beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed period, the

water is made to pass on to the ground of another proprietor. These

conduits, so extremely important to the farmer, were constructed partly at

the expense of the Government, and partly by the contributions of the

landed proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the right to

this privilege either by purchase or by government grant. For every

twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400 reis[16] are paid, which tax is

employed to keep them in good order.

[Footnote 16: 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or about 4s.

4d.]

The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a deplorable

condition. They are generally laid with small pointed stones, and at

numerous places they have an inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every

adult male native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to

give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the bad condition

of the roads in the interior of the island, most of the natural produce is

conveyed from one place to another in boats, or, as is the case with wine,

is carried to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the

inhabitants.

[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.]

The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting of

sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery of the island, through

the instrumentality of Prince Henry of Portugal (son of John I.), which

grew so abundantly, that for a considerable period the produce of the

island sufficed for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In

commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the cultivation of the

sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were introduced into the arms of the island.

In the year 1452 was erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at

the end of the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120, in which

slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio Cordeyro, who wrote his

_Historia Insulana Lusitana_ at the beginning of last century, makes

mention of a considerable number of sugar factories, which had been

erected in almost every part of the south coast. On the estate of the

Genoese, Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there were

annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas[17] of sugar. By degrees, however, the

culture of the cane fell, into decay, whether through disease of the plant

or its cheaper production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so

that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work in the whole

island; and even these only produce molasses and rum, of which the latter,

in the year 1856, amounted to 1500 pipes. The cultivation of the

sugar-cane, however, has increased since the vine disease has fallen so

heavily on the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen

factories again in activity on the island, though so late as 1855, the

importation of sugar, for the consumption of the island, amounted to but

31,176 arrobas.[18]

[Footnote 17: One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe = 108 gallons.]

[Footnote 18: From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4 galls. of juice,

and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8 galls. of rum. The average price was

2200 reis per gal. of sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23

degrees) is sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.]

The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island, the

sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana tree, about 1000 feet

above the level of the sea. In the north, the cultivation of the cane

would be remunerative only at those points where, as, for instance, at

Fayal and San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for it. To

judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the cane in Madeira

might, with care, even at the present time, prove advantageous. In the

south-west part of Lousiana, where, in 1796, this plant was introduced

exclusively for the manufacture of _Taffia_,[19] there exist at present as

many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an average, 200,000

hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira is not, as in Lousiana, obliged

by the frost to cut the cane before it is ripe; there it ripens

thoroughly, blooms in January, and is harvested in March.

[Footnote 19: A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much liked in the West

Indies.]

The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and steam. There are

also a dozen large distilleries at work, possessing the most modern

English improvements. An acre of land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to

yield from 100 to 120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more

profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the vine, even in its

best days.

As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and soil are

peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been made. The same remark

applies to olive trees; though the Government ordered the latter to be

planted so long ago as 1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is

prevented from extending, being a government monopoly. As for wheat, it

is not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of the

consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat, to the amount of

216,918 bushels, was imported from the north of Africa alone, a quantity

nearly twice as great as that which the island produces. Wheat and maize,

or Indian corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of the

Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to increase than

decrease.

The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which grow at

considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation and dressing of the

ground, three harvests may be obtained in the course of the year.

The Inhame [not the Yam (_Dioscorea alata_) of the West Indies and South

America, but a kind of grume (_Colocasia esculenta_)] grows in large

quantities near to rivers and water conduits, where the ground is humid.

It is much sought for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though

rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naïvely says, "picao

algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the throat).

Sweet potatoes (_Convolvulus edulis_, Lin.), water-melons, gourds, as well

as all kinds of European garden vegetables, are found throughout the year

in the market, though not of a particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons,

bananas, guavas, pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant

during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple and pear-trees

are to be met with.

On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands south-east of

Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on the rocks the orchilla

(_Rocella tinctoria_), a species of lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine

purple colour, much used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for

industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some care, be

advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was a small quantity

brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis the quintal. At the present

time the yield has entirely ceased, though it is found in large quantities

in the neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such good

quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case with all lichens,

that grow in more southern and warmer climates, it is of a better quality,

and more highly esteemed.

The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest profit to the

natives, and made the name of Madeira famous and familiar, even to those

who do not profess a particular interest in the beauties of nature in this

romantic island, is its _wine_. Though this article of exportation has,

through the vine disease, entirely lost its former importance, yet it may

be of some interest to take a glance at its history and culture, in order

the better to comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have

overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad vintages of

the last seven years.

The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time with the

sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of Portugal, in 1425, but

its culture did not attain much importance till the beginning of the

sixteenth century. Some authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes

its reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much later date,

imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much is certain, that the

produce grown on the estates of the Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality

all others in the island, and maintained a higher price in the market even

when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in the north at an

elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are fitted for the manufacture of

wine, grow only as high as the Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).

Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the island, namely,

the _Bual_ and _Tinta_, both of which were brought from Burgundy, the

_Sercial_ from the Rhine, and the _Malvasia_ or _Malmsey_ from Candia.

There are four species of the last-mentioned, (_candila_, _roxa_,

_babosa_, and _propea_); the delicious flavour of which by many people is

considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian _Tokayer_. The

most esteemed sorts were grown west of Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and

Estreita. Excellent qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north

side of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in general,

however, the grape of the northern district proved to be of inferior

quality, and was therefore only used in the manufacture of rum. In the

north the vines were trained on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in

Lombardy and the Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (_Arundo

sagittata_), and tied up by a species of willow (_Salex rubra_),

specially cultivated for that purpose.

Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the island was thus

planted, yet the individual vineyards were but small in extent, the

largest of them not exceeding three or four acres. In the wine-growing

countries of Europe fresh plants are set at least every twenty years; but

in Madeira they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they yield

any fruit. The native growers do not relish improvements; of all the

agricultural implements which some English landowners, settled near

Funchal, wished to introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these

enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually let out to

farmers (_caseiros_), and rarely cultivated by the proprietors themselves.

The yield of an acre was estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the

cost of producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40 Spanish

piastres. In the same year the total production of the island amounted to

30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000 were exported, as the inferior sorts,

not keeping well, are not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines

exported, half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other,

comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West Indies, and the

United States. Up to the year 1851, when the last good vintage occurred,

the price of a pipe varied from 12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as

1845, when the Danish corvette _Galatea_, on her voyage round the world

for scientific purposes, put in at this island, the inferior sorts were

so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it more profitable to supply

the crew with wine mixed with water than beer. Since that time prices have

become ten times higher, and the best quality now sells for from £110 to

£150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the older stores are

exhausted.

Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after year, for a

considerable time, yet the actual vine disease only made its appearance in

1852, when the leaves and fruit were covered with a kind of fungus

(_Oïdium Tuckeri_),[20] like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a

commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of the calamity.

The report[21] is not decisive on the point, whether the fungus is the real

cause or only a symptom of the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to

how it may be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,[22] who resided during a period

of 18 months in the island, and has published a valuable treatise, states

that the vine-disease appears there in the same form as in Germany, even

as regards the season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At

first the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on its

lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance, becomes spotted, and

at last decays. The young diseased grape likewise becomes covered with a

white dust, at first partially, and then entirely, the green skin by

degrees assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time in

size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry, when it becomes

black, and perishes together with its diseased stock. In this decayed

condition the grapes remain on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr.

Schacht was successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its

earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a solution

consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of water; an operation

which had been likewise performed with good effect in the Royal hothouses

of Sans-souci in Prussia. He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the

fungus with this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it.

The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves a glossy

appearance. All that had once been operated upon in this way remained in a

healthy condition, and even those affected by the fungus recovered beneath

the crust, the operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the

fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with powdered sulphur,

which was so much lauded, seems to be of little use. At Teneriffe, Dr.

Schacht found the fungus widely spread, notwithstanding the application of

sulphur. Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended as a

protection against the disease, having proved very successful in the

south.

[Footnote 20: Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of 1853, page 583;

and of 1854, page 137;--Fulasne, "Sur le Champignon, qui cause la Maladie

de la Vigne."--_Comptes Rendus_, vol. xxvii. 1853;--Dr. Schacht on

Madeira, pages 52 to 58.]

[Footnote 21: Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das vinhas nas ilhas

da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.]

[Footnote 22: Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &c. Von Dr. H.

Schacht. Berlin. 1859.]

The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance of the malady

amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990 Spanish piastres, £190,000,[23]

and after having waited in vain a period of five years, for a better state

of things, the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the

vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can scarcely believe

that but a few years ago the greater portion of the island was covered

with the plant. The cause of its disappearance must, however, not be

ascribed entirely to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of

its culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that of late

it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient quantity of grapes for

invalids to whom they were medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar

plantations, which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the

destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation, which causes

the roots of the latter to rot in the humid ground.[24]

[Footnote 23: The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the year 1851, to

10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852), only to 1413-1/2 pipes.]

[Footnote 24: The vine disease seems, however, to have been already

prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old lease, referring to

land or property in the west of the island, there is a clause to the

effect that "In the event of the young grape being covered with mildew

(_mangra_), the contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the

disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago, though not to a

great extent.]

The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike the sympathies

of the philanthropist and the attention of the political economist. We

here behold a population of upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived

at once of a product, which has been for more than three centuries the

principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many an

industrious grower made a considerable fortune.

The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this branch of

industry, is now forced to apply his energies to another, on the fortunate

selection of which will depend his welfare for the future, or at least for

years to come.

Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned the culture of

the vine, and have been assisted in their endeavours by the Consul of the

United States in Funchal, the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were

made by engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought from the

banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle, that it is most

advisable, and likely to be productive of the best success, to obtain

young plants only from countries where the disease has never appeared. The

choice fell upon the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to

the United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the merit of

transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two North-American grapes

to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It is, however, a question, whether they

will be able to replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of

climate and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the

European vines succeed in North America; and the two indigenous sorts,

which are grown in great quantities on the banks of the Ohio and the

Missouri, cannot stand a comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice

of the American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what is

called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian Schaumwein.

Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for the purpose of

introducing the culture of cochineal, to supply the place of that of the

vine. Several plantations of nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the

first harvest was gathered in 1858. The nopal (_Opuntia cochinillifera_)

is the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect breeds, and the

south of the island, up to an elevation of 500 feet, the only part adapted

for its cultivation. An attempt was made to introduce the culture of

cochineal in the island by Señor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836.

But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices against

innovation, as well as the limited spirit of enterprise possessed by the

native merchants, rendered the attempt, in that instance, abortive. In

consequence, however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating

cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would appear, the

probable results in a mercantile point of view. At the time of our visit

there were about thirty acres of land planted with cactus, and the "seed"

of the cochineal insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot

but think the notion of substituting the cultivation of cochineal for that

of the vine was not a lucky one, the large capital required, and the

limited market for the article, holding out small chance of success. The

entire consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no more than

about 30,000 quintals, and towards this quantity, Guatemala furnishes

15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico 8000, Java and the Philippine

Islands together 1000 quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that

the cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important source of

gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of the vine. Few

landowners in the island seem to possess sufficient means to withstand the

chances and fluctuations to which its culture is subject. To illustrate

this, it may be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of

Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the tercio (150

lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In the following year, when

it was unusually productive, the price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio

of dried cochineal costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a

nopal plantation must lie fallow every third year, being consequently only

productive during two years. Have the landowners of Madeira considered all

these disadvantages, and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks

peculiar to the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold

out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the sugar-cane, coffee,

cotton, and tobacco.

There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a climate so

delightful, and so little subject to extremes as Madeira, the mean annual

temperature being 64 degrees Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in

the most southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five

years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An invalid residing at

Funchal, within his own doors, may always have a temperature not lower

than 64, nor higher than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course

of the summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the shade;

these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a year, and rarely last

longer than a couple of days. Dr. Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825

to 1831, only once during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90

degrees, two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and

south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the beginning of

October. In November the weather clears up, and generally keeps fine till

the end of December. At this period snow falls on the mountains, and rain

at Funchal, accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the

end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The remainder of

the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall of rain at Madeira

amounting, according to Sir James Clark,[25] to 36 inches, there being in

all about 73 wet days,[26] whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an

average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is only 29

inches.

[Footnote 25: On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of Madeira. By Sir

James Clark. London. 1841.]

[Footnote 26: The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's observations,

is, on a seven years' average, 30·62 inches per annum. Dr. Mittermayr,

from Heidelberg, states, on a three years' average, the rainy days to be

95 per year. Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states

the fall of rain on an average to be 29·82 inches, and the number of rainy

days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter, 17 in the spring, 4 in the

summer, and 31 in the autumn.]

In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the summer, owing to

the north-westerly winds and the regular sea-breezes of that season,

which keep the atmosphere continually at an even temperature; and hence

the island is the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the

winter season. England, which seems to possess the very unenviable

privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality in Europe the most

numerous contingent of phthisical patients, provides this island likewise

with the greatest number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of

patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little benefit in

advanced and decided cases; although it seems to have a curative effect on

young people in the first stage of the malady, as well as in cases where,

being hereditary, its presence is merely apprehended.

The number of strangers who annually, during the winter, resort to Madeira

for the benefit of their health, amounts to from 400 to 500, and the money

thereby circulated in the island reaches the sum of about £30,000. The

number of English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of

1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely reached 100.

The reason of this was another calamity, the cholera, which suddenly made

its appearance in Funchal on the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the

island had been spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic

is said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese troops,

which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where cholera was then

raging. The circumstances under which this epidemic appeared in Madeira

leave little doubt of the correctness of this supposition, and seem to

confirm the view of Professor Pettenkofer,[27] relative to the importation

of the disease by ships, and its propagation by human excrements, a theory

advanced by this learned German physician in his famous work, with as much

soundness as sagacity.

The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st battalion of

infantry, and the first who fell a victim to the epidemic was a boatman,

who had landed some of the soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on

the 7th of July, at 1 P.M., and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A few

weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole island, raging with

fatal severity, in consequence of the poverty, distress, and helplessness

of the inhabitants. We cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at

the time of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro de

Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal. According to the

observations regularly made by him, during two years, with reference to

the quantity of ozone[28] contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as

long as the pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst,

under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the ozonometer of

Schönbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.

[Footnote 27: Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and Observations on the

Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.]

[Footnote 28: Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is found in more

perceptible quantity in pure localities than in those where great

quantities of putrescent substances are accumulated, as the ozone

disappears by oxidation. Observations on the quantity of ozone contained

in the air during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest, because

they may throw a light on the influences of the atmosphere in the

propagation of certain diseases.]

In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to decrease, the

last case which happened on the island occurring at Funchal, on the 16th

December, 1856. It appears, from official reports, that out of a

population of 102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other

statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the number of fatal

cases to a much larger figure. A variety of local circumstances tended to

heighten the fearful violence of the epidemic: the great distress among

the people, arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several

years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of 1856, and

deprived the population, whilst suffering from other calamities, of one of

their most important means of sustenance; and finally, to bring

misfortunes to a climax, even that source of gain was dried up which the

people derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy families.

Terrified by the reports which were in circulation as to the ravages

caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds altered their original plan of

passing the winter there, and even resident strangers, horror-stricken,

left the island, which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into

a burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is estimated at

£20,000, an immense sum at a time when pestilence and famine were raging

so fiercely. The British Government, as well as English philanthropists in

general, deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which they

promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of the sufferers. Soon

as intelligence of the great distress arrived in London, two steamers of

war, the _Salamander_ and _Hesper_, with provisions, medicine, clothing,

bedding, and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former arrived

on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October, 1856. This assistance

essentially contributed to the rapid extinction of the epidemic, as it

sufficed to relieve the more pressing wants.[29] Considerable contributions

arrived also from the United States; and, according to public statements,

the relief that came from foreign countries amounted to £8895.

[Footnote 29: Old chronicles report that Madeira has been visited by a

pestilential disease, that raged within the years 1521 to 1535. But the

cholera was never in the island before the year 1856. The yellow fever is

altogether unknown.]

The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course, seriously affected

by such a train of calamities. The principal exports had hitherto

consisted of wine, cattle, fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most

important of these articles--wine--had, as already stated, all but

entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the small quantities

still exported being merely the remnants of old stocks.

According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the produce

exported in 1851 amounted to £164,960, of which £96,950 were shipped in

English, £26,500 in American, and £16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The

exports of 1855 were only £95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had

entirely ceased, the value did not exceed £2400!

The imports were of a more numerous and varied description; calico, cotton

and woollen goods, hardware, spices and provisions from England; timber,

salt meat, and other articles from the United States; grain from the

Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil, rice, and other

colonial produce from Lisbon and the Portuguese settlements. The commerce

is almost entirely in the hands of the English,[30] whose liberality during

the cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of the

inhabitants.

[Footnote 30: Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually imported are

_English_ manufactures.]

The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt by the trading

community, particularly in times of temporary distress. Singularly enough

there are few Portuguese coins to be met with, and even these are not

liked by the inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English

and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc pieces, and Spanish

dollars. The sailing vessels in the roads of Funchal are mostly under

English and American flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse

between Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails and

passengers,[31] and a steam-packet arrives regularly every fortnight on its

way from Europe to South America.

[Footnote 31: An English coal depôt has been established in Funchal since

1848.]

The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we have seen, by

no means inconsiderable, and by proper management might enable the people

to extricate themselves from their present depressed position; but though

not exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy requisite for

effectively improving their condition. Whenever they have enough of yams

and potatoes, they no longer think of exerting themselves or of acquiring

a more comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in Ireland,

nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the Indians in North or

South America, have we witnessed such a degree of poverty and wretchedness

as we beheld among the labouring classes in the mountainous districts of

this island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking beggars

covered with rags were seen, whose features indicated their unhealthy way

of living, and an utter lack of the most common necessaries of life. The

calamities of the last five years have certainly contributed to this

excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty years ago,

may have carried away with him quite a different impression of its

inhabitants.

The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some favourable

exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and decrepit, owing to the elements

of which it is composed. The first settlers, as already stated, belonged

by no means to the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley

assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered island merely in

search of adventure. The admixture which afterwards took place with the

black race imported from Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the

people both physically and morally. Though there is not one single pure

negro in the whole island, yet the features of a considerable proportion

of the inhabitants denote their African descent. In the population of

Punta da Sol, a village on the west side of the island, the negro type is

said to be exhibited in its strongest character.

The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white trowsers, a

shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire toilette; with a few rare

exceptions we never saw shoes: but even the poorest of the poor wears a

curiously-shaped small cloth cap (_carapuça_) of a blue colour, with red

lining, terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This seems

to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn formerly by the inhabitants

of the African coast, with whom the first settlers, allured by the

slave-trade, once carried on an active intercourse.

[Illustration: CARAPUÇA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF MADEIRA.]

Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood by acting as

guides to strangers. The roads being very steep, and formed of pointed

stones, horses of an excellent breed are used in going even short

distances; however fast the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the

horses on foot, to which the natives are habituated from their earliest

years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the principal causes of

consumptive complaints, which are more frequently met with here than might

have been expected considering the climate, though bad nourishment and

unhealthy dwellings may have their part in causing the prevalence of the

malady. The common people are mostly lodged in small low cabins of wood or

timber, thatched with straw, the only opening being the door, through

which air and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden

benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet from a ground

which, during nine months of the year, is damp.

It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes offer a more

pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging, kind, and attentive towards

strangers, and evidently endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable

ideas of themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the Austrian

Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and Don Juan Muniz, so

deservedly celebrated for his knowledge of the flora of Madeira, the

members of the _Novara_ expedition are indebted for many a happy and

delightful hour.

The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes are emigration

to the British West Indies, and devastation by the cholera. The number of

inhabitants in the two islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to

103,296; and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last

twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted to 40,000, many

of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid the heavy emigration tax.

Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable disposition of

the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa de Misericordia, standing in

a beautiful square, planted with planes and magnolias, can receive 104

patients, and is exceedingly well managed. It appears, however, rather

singular that the surgical are separated from the medical cases, whilst no

separation exists amongst the patients who may happen to be labouring

under contagious diseases. The most frequently recurring diseases are

cutaneous, a circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country where

the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness of their bodies,

and where Government itself favours as it were this carelessness by

levying a considerable tax upon the importation of soap! Dysentery

prevails throughout the year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases

occur more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very numerous. The

nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is estimated at £40,000; the

annual income being about £1800 sterling.

The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of about forty

patients, most of whom come from places in which the black has least mixed

with the white race.

The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by public

subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000 to 4000 piastres.

The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female orphans, was

erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken of the education of the

inmates, who are not permitted to leave the establishment, except in case

of getting married or respectably employed.

Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained by the

commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse; and there has been a most

singular expedient adopted, in order to prevent abuse as regards obtaining

the board money, which amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A

piece of tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which are

fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the event of death, it

cannot be taken off and put on another child's neck. The witnessing of the

process of fastening and stamping this necklace is most unpleasant,

although no real pain is inflicted on the child.

In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve elementary

schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and likewise forty-nine Sunday

schools, having about 2400 pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with

six professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for

twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four professors, which,

however, during the year of our visit, had only seven students. Though the

Government is very rigid in exacting the attendance of the children at

school, yet only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the

island really avail themselves of the benefit.

A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection, at the

expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a memorial of her

daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease on the island.

There exist several public libraries and book societies at Funchal; and in

several of the clubs a great many of the leading English, French, Spanish,

Portuguese, and German journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in

the Portuguese language, are published at Funchal. The first newspaper

ever published there was the _Patriota Funchalense_, the first number of

which appeared on the 2nd of June, 1821.

[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF MADEIRA.]

The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the churches are

insignificant, and even the cathedral, a building in the Basilica style,

is in no way remarkable otherwise than by the innumerable garlands and

nosegays, offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its

interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.

That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now converted into a

barrack, in which the whole garrison of the island, amounting to 400 men,

are lodged. The daily pay of these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about

one penny!

An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a town gaol, in

which the prisoners are very humanely treated. Passers-by may have an

undisturbed talk with them through the lattice-work; and once we even

observed a man who had thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to

have his measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!

The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting neighbourhood,

enhance the pleasantness of the climate of Funchal so much resorted to by

invalids. In the interior of the town, not far from the sea-shore,

splendid avenues of magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and

massive oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and shade on

numerous seats under the dense foliage of their wide-spreading branches.

Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most pleasantly the

summits of those lofty mountains, which rise close to Funchal, where a

balmy fragrance perfumes the air, and the eye roams with delight in all

directions over scenery of the most striking description.

One of the favourite points from which such a view may be obtained in all

its beauty, is the terrace in front of the church of Nossa Senhora de

Monte, situated 1965 feet above the level of the sea, on a ridge of the

Arrebantao mountain, reached in less than an hour by one or other of the

existing conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and

sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies, and drawn by a

couple of small oxen.

[Illustration: SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.]

Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern winter, appears

rather odd in a climate such as that of Madeira, yet its practicability

and convenience is very soon perceived, when comfortably sliding away over

the smooth stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe, are

unknown here.

But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able to wander

through the interior of the island, will find spots which command

landscapes by far more grand and sublime than that seen from Nossa Senhora

de Monte. Cape San Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;--the awe-inspiring

Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears so powerful a

witness to the corroding action of water;--the lovely and solitary cascade

of Rabacal;--the Pic Arrieiro, with its craggy rocks, offering to the

geologist such a remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the

island;--the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic cones, on which

the geologist is able to make the most interesting studies and

investigations, just in the same manner as the anatomist on a corpse;--all

these wonders of nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite

the admiration of the beholder.

The most delightful event during our stay in the island was an excursion

of several days, made to the romantic localities of the northern coast. A

stately cavalcade of twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June

morning, from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic

Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride of two hours,

the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house, situated about 4500 feet

above the level of the sea, erected by the Government some years ago for

the shelter of travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly

country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico Ruivo, with the

fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls bathed in gold by the rays of

the rising sun, presents a most imposing sight. On the whole route only

one small miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a few

straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and wretchedness,

which can scarcely be paralleled in any part of the habitable globe.

[Illustration: VILLAGE OF FAYAL.]

At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna, an extensive

village, with a large church and some brick buildings prettily situated in

flower-gardens, the most stately of which was--the inn. The good cheer and

repose found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some degree

for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for those to be

encountered on the morrow.

The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of June, render it

indispensable to start early in the morning, if the traveller wishes to

enjoy the beauties of the scenery. At 2 A.M., therefore, our cavalcade

set out, followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions and

instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in sleep, the air

quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding her pallid light over sea

and mountain, feebly shadowed forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes

of roses, fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and

brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white figures which,

standing at the doors of their poor cabins, looked inquisitively at the

riders, that were already so early on their way. The path led up to the

mountains in steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground through

ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the uneven surface of

indurated lava. And when at last, emerging from deep glens, steep

precipices, and rocky walls, all yet buried in the shades of night, the

blue star-spangled sky burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the

effect was almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on the

distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean, and rising mists

gathering into clouds, undulated like the surface of an agitated sea. It

was only along the ridges of mountains and through the ravines, that one

might glance between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of

water at our feet.

At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called Choupana, at a

height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen dismounted, and left their horses

behind, preferring to reach on foot the termination of their journey.

[Illustration: EL HOMEM EM PÉ.]

We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an open spot,

when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern sky. Beaming in all his

majesty on the sharply-defined clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled

like so many ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great

luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and shade in such

gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning hand can mingle, the chaotic

masses of vapour assumed the appearance of gigantic islands and lofty

towering mountains, whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully

out from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along a

precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees, past a group of

basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a height of 40 feet above the

beautiful grassy carpet that clothes the ground, and in the crevices of

which an old laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken root.

The natives call this singularly-shaped group _Homem em pé_, or the man

standing erect.

Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or Encumiada

Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a prodigious height, from

a frightful abyss of almost fathomless depth. We now hastened across a

plain covered with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada

Alta. Safe on an eminence[32] above yawning gulfs, beneath a deep blue sky,

in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we abandoned ourselves to the

thrilling impressions of the magnificent picture which nature here brought

forth of earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an

immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres and Torinhas),

rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining almost imperceptibly on the left

hand, whilst on the right it descends abruptly in terraces, with

perpendicular walls of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an

inaccessible ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of

the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a radius of little

more than two miles. Deep clefts and ravines run from the rocky crevices,

and unite in a gloomy and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the

mouth of the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the right

and to the left, and when they are too distant to be distinguished by the

eye, dark shadows rising on the rocky walls indicate the deep crater-like

basin of the Curral, and the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro

Frio. It would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of fearful

convulsions, burst from a single central point in all directions; as if

entire mountains had sunk into the deep, or had, by the action of torrents

permeating their crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand

and fragments into the ocean.

[Footnote 32: 5883 feet, according to the geologist's barometrical

measurements.]

The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but barren naked

rocks,--not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not a trace of vegetation is to

be seen. At the highest points, strata nearly horizontal extend in

remarkably regular layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold

variety of colours and tints.[33] A dark grey schistus of volcanic ashes

alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and violet layers of tufa,

dross, and scoriæ, together with brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red

predominates on the upper part of these _Torres_, green prevails on the

lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of the crevices of

the basalt, everything seems covered with a dense green carpet. These are

the celebrated "clefts" of Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet

high, not an inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to

the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight and admiration.

[Footnote 33: The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana, mentions that

these wild contorted masses of mountain reminded him of the crater-walls

of the Kilauea at the Sandwich Islands.]

[Illustration: ERICA TREES.]

Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe its character to

the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the peculiar charm of the

landscape arises more from grasses, ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of

moss, all of which grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and

abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling cushions, or as

if laid with soft velvet carpets in all directions. The different shades

of green indicate the characteristics of successive zones of vegetation.

Through the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those mountain

waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer, swell in the winter

into torrents. Along these are scattered the straw-thatched huts of the

natives, surrounded by vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley,

potatoes, yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas. These

cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many places even to

3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there is the smallest shelf to be

found, even if only a square yard in size, it is turned to account. Next

to this region, in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods.

_Vaccinias_ (blackberries), and different kinds of heath, often attaining

a growth of five or six feet, occupy the whole of the ground, and in the

month of June, when the broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured

belt girts Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld this

golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the dark masses of

evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the true region of the _Erica

arborea_, which, with its light-green and _paille_ tint, contrasted with

the deeper colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our secondary

mountain ranges. The _Erica arborea_ attains here the height of a large

tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40 feet of its gnarled stems stretch along

the ground. Thus it may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the

summit of the Pico Ruivo.

After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a most

delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments, filled our boxes and

pouches with plants and geological specimens, and prepared for our

departure. The guides, despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on,

humming in plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our

horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly descended the

steep mountain sides to St. Anna.

A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was not less

charming than instructive, especially as we gazed on those hardened

streams of lava, so interesting as regards the geological history of the

island, out of the numerous crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent

rosettes of _Sempervivum_. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from the

bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological hammer, now with

the botanical box, or the butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of

natural history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses

delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant shrubs and

splendid native flowers.

In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias, euphorbias, and

fuchsias, was a handsome _Camellia japonica_, which had attained the

imposing height of 15 feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading

fan-like in numberless branches.

The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by a troop of

ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously appealing to our charity.

Plenteous alms were given them, for where Nature is so prodigal of her

gifts, the human mind becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we

again reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and here

the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a peculiar character;

for, instead of returning to Funchal on horseback, we slid down a mountain

1500 feet high, right into the town, on small double-seated wooden

sledges, thus travelling down what is probably the grandest natural

_Montagne Russe_ in the world. A train of more than a dozen sledges

started at the same time. These singular vehicles are guided on either

side with admirable adroitness by two natives, who avoid slipping by

moistening their shoes; and, notwithstanding the velocity of these

conveyances, even slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this

kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement of the people

of Funchal.

The whole company met together once more at a convivial dinner in the

hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the country, not only the room

and table, but even every single dish served up, was adorned with garlands

of fragrant flowers.

[Illustration: PLATE II.--TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.]

On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had originally

been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as we learned, two days

before our departure, that the yellow fever, though on the decrease, had

not yet entirely ceased, we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of

Brazil, and therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in

investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent in these

latitudes. For though the proper course of ships between England and North

America has been admirably laid down, for nearly every month of the year,

by the long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the

Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great difficulty in

steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or Madeira to South America, by

the directions hitherto existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these

latitudes, close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally

falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused partly by the

African coast and partly by the cluster of isles from the Azores to the

Cape Verde Islands, and which are of still more frequent occurrence in the

summer of the northern hemisphere.

We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the summer, gather

daily round the mountains, a long time in view; and on the 19th, at a

distance of 120 miles from the island, some persons on board thought they

could still distinguish them.

We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with light breezes and

fine weather. Advancing, however, towards the limits of the trade-winds,

showers became frequent, and the wind chopped about much oftener; a more

southerly course was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible

under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.

There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the formation of

the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume at times very curious

appearances. The _cirri_ disappeared by degrees, and the _cumuli_ towered

up on the horizon in colossal masses. These latter are formed under the

influence of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen chiefly

during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they vanish by absorption, just

as fast as they are formed by evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely

proceeds from them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours,

is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when their outlines,

as they stand out in bold relief on the clear blue sky, vary in hue from

the deepest grey to the most brilliant golden yellow.

The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean teem with

animated orgasms. A net cast into it was immediately filled with an

immense number of little living creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles,

sea-nettles, and various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most

minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds of beautiful

forms and tints, from which those tiny things endeavoured, with great

exertion, to extricate themselves. The microscope discloses to the

observer an entirely new world in the economy of nature, as displayed in

the animal life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation,

from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all specially adapted

to the element in which they exist, and organized to contribute to the

preservation, as well as the further development, of the whole globe.

This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the zoophytes; the

water of rivers dissolves the chalky substances of the land and carries

them down to the ocean,--immense numbers of these form, for themselves,

habitations from this matter;--by successive accumulation, produced

through the action or the dead bodies of these creatures, the ground is

raised gradually into the reefs, banks, and rocks, so dangerous to

navigation; or into islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of

his moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high position,

just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuæ do in their narrow

sphere.

Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small _physali_, a

species of _Acalephæ_, known to sailors as "Portuguese men-of-war." They

sail along by means of their large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst

their numerous long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep

into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure their food.

The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet colour, and resemble, when

in sunshine, a splendid flower, floating about the sea in all directions.

Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the sea is animated

by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of doubt whether this fish

really moves through the air by flying, or whether, being pursued by

enemies, it merely darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself

in the air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long distances

it moves are out of all proportion to its size and probable muscular

power. This doubt seems to have originated with those who never have had

an opportunity of personally observing flying-fish; or who have merely

seen these creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as to

render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement really consists.

But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here attains a length

of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral fins are so much developed that

they may perfectly well be used as wings. By closely observing them, it is

seen that these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory motion,

like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist the oblique spring from

the water, produced by muscular power; they move at a height of from two

to three feet above the surface of the sea, to a distance of from 50 to

100 yards, and at the same time change the direction of their flight in

exactly the same way as grasshoppers.

It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food that drives

these creatures from their own element. They have numerous enemies, of

which the principal is the bonita (_Scomber Palamy_); whenever flying-fish

were seen the bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the

latter darting out of the water and snapping at a flying-fish, when, if

they did not succeed, they were perceived hastening under water in the

same direction that their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite

aware of the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns back

abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer. The advantage of

the wings is, however, more apparent than real, for whilst they escape by

these means from the bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice

to the seagulls and man-of-war birds (_Tachypetes aquilus_), which reach

them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able to conceal

themselves again in the ocean. Those which were seen on the north of the

equator, were invariably of the smaller kind (_Exocætus volitans_); whilst

in the south, also, the larger species (_Exocætus exulans_) made their

appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of small vessels

with low bows, but on the _Novara_, which rose about 20 feet over the

surface of the water, this was not possible; however, some fell upon the

chains, which were caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.

On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27° 2' N. Lat., and 24° 7'

W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the mirror-like aspect of the sea

allowing us to take a deep-sea sounding with what is called Brooke's

apparatus. This consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound

shot, fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily be

drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious mechanism, by means of

which, on touching the ground, it is detached from the tube, which may

then be drawn up, the shot remaining in the sea. The tube has a

funnel-shaped opening at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the

ground may likewise be brought up for scientific examination.

In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite for the

sounding, was launched, and the operation began. Unfortunately there were

only 4050 fathoms of line, as we did not find at Gibraltar the quality

required for the purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without

reaching ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the attempt

to heave the tube without the shot. In this, however, we succeeded only in

so far as regarded the first 2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the

remainder was lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise

of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross nearly our entire

attention.

To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to descend through

the different strata of water, which increases in density in proportion to

the depth attained, we annex the length of the different periods required

in paying out the line during the experiment:--

Minutes. Seconds.

The first 1000 fathoms occupied 19 8

From 1000 to 2000 " 21 3

" 2000 to 3000 " 40 6

" 3000 to 4000 " 76 6

" 4000 to 4050 " 3 5

______________

Total time in running out the entire length Hours 2 39 28

As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same period, it may

easily be conceived how great is the expenditure of time necessary for

such an experiment, and on what chances the success of the whole operation

depends. Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is

certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run off without

reaching the ground. There is always, however, to be taken into

consideration the under-current, which draws the line out of the

perpendicular, and renders the result of the operation rather doubtful.

We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the thirtieth

degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian to the southward.

In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the parallel of the

sun's declination, upon which the direction of our shadows, already for

several days scarcely perceptible, was of course changed from north to

south.

We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as we made daily

from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the wind became very unsteady,

and on the 5th, in 8° 30' N. Lat. and 29° 30' W. Long., it entirely left

us. The sky often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect changed

at times with surprising rapidity, without any particular disturbance in

the direction or strength of the wind; nor had we to complain of as much

rain as might have been expected in these regions.

The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately not of long

duration, for in 6° 43' N., and 28° 49' W., a fresh south-east wind sprang

up. When we came within the influence of the south-east trade-wind, we

endeavoured to approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of

observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of the

investigations suggested by the letter of instructions drawn up by

Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream, which, on leaving the

western coast of Africa takes a westerly direction, is divided by the

projecting American Continent into two branches, of which the stronger

turns N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves south-west

along the coast of Brazil.

We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of calms, and it

became still more perceptible the more the equator was approached. The

continuance of the south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a

more westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no disadvantage to a

good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury has proved indisputably that ships

make extremely short passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west

that they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on the other

hand, which, from over-anxiety to avoid the current, keep too far to the

east, lose much time, being compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms,

which increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others come very

little in contact with it, and avail themselves of the changes of wind

near the shore, to double the Cape of St. Roque on the American coast, so

much dreaded by the former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high

admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical work on the

physical geography of the sea, as well as his inestimable wind and current

charts, deserve the especial attention of all who navigate these seas.

The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became the aspect of

the southern constellations. The light of the northern polar star grew

fainter and fainter, its altitude diminished, and it at length entirely

disappeared. But, on the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan

clouds, the ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the

southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as the northern

sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some difficulty in recognizing

our old acquaintances of the northern hemisphere in their relation to the

new stars.

On the 15th, at 3 A.M., we crossed the Line in 33° 50' W.L. This event,

which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in their seafaring life, had

in this case the additional feature of being actually the first occasion

of an Austrian man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew,

who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment to which it

would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony the preceding evening.

Neptune, accompanied by an appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and

nereids, appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to the

Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the vessel was

entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact mathematically by an

immense sextant, a chart, and pair of compasses a yard long, all

manufactured by the ship's carpenter, and claiming his right to see the

act of shaving and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the

first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water from the masts

and fire-engines he made his exit down the rope ladder in a blaze of blue

fire, followed by an ignited tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe

of fire on the mirror-like surface of the sea.

The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when Neptune

re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady and a hopeful youth,

all decked out in real sea-god-like attire, in a car drawn by six tritons,

still accompanied by his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their

bugles, when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great ruler

of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to begin.

Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo a lathering

with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and submit to be scraped by an

immense tin razor; which operation being performed, the unfortunate

sufferer was thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there

deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots, dishes, and

everything else that would hold water. The officers and other gentlemen

escaped the ordeal by a contribution in money or wine towards the

festivities.

When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this process, and the

scene, amidst formidable gushes of water, rioting, uproar, and excitement,

had reached its highest point, behold! a voice thundered from the

quarter-deck the words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted

aspect.

Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the Austrian Navy. · 第 10 / 15 章

Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy neck of land,