The application of this principle of individuation in the early stages

of a child's learning to read, suggests the propriety also of making

some preparation for his reading every new lesson in succession. We have

seen that it is chiefly the new words in a lesson that create

difficulty, and prevent the operation of that important law in Nature

which induces the mind at once to lay hold of the ideas. To obviate this

distraction of mind therefore beforehand, the new words which _are to

occur_ in the lesson should be selected, and made familiar to the child

previously, and by themselves;--he should be taught to read them easily

by the combination of their letters, and clearly to understand their

meaning, in precisely the same shade in which they are used in the

lesson he is to read. When this is done, the lesson will be read with

ease and with profit;--while, without this, the difficulty will be much

greater, if not beyond his powers. In accordance with this plan, the

"First Class Book," before referred to, has been constructed, and its

efficiency on that account is greatly increased.

The neglect of this special application of the principle has been long

and painfully felt in society, and most of all where the young have been

sent earliest to school. The habit of reading the words without

understanding the meaning of what they read, having once been acquired,

the weak powers of children are not sufficient to overcome the

difficulties with which this habit has surrounded them. They feel

themselves burdened and harassed with unnatural and unmeaning exercises

for years, before they can acquire the art of reading the words of the

simplest school book; and, what is still worse, after they have left the

school, and have entered upon the busy scenes of life, they find, that

they have now to teach themselves an entirely new art,--the art of

_understanding by reading_. Instead of all this waste of energy, and

patience, and time, experience has fully proved, that by following the

plain and easy dictates of Nature, as above explained, all the drudgery

of learning to read may be got over in a week,--it has been times

without number accomplished in a single day,[16]--and this without any

harassing exertion, and generally with delight. Of the truth of this, a

few out of many instances may here be enumerated.

In the summer of 1831, the writer one morning found himself, by mere

accident, and a perfect stranger, in a Sunday school in the borough of

Southwark, London. He attached himself first to a class of children,

some of whom he found on enquiry had been two years at the school, and

were yet only learning the alphabet. In the same school, and on the same

morning, a young man who only knew his letters, but had never yet

attempted to put them together, was classified with the infants, whom he

had willingly joined in his anxiety to learn. He had a lesson by

himself. By a rigid adherence to the above principle of individuation,

this young man, to his own great astonishment, was able in a few minutes

to read a verse. The lesson went on, and in somewhat less than half an

hour he had mastered several verses, and now knew perfectly how to make

use of the letters in decyphering the several words. By that one lesson

he found himself quite able to teach himself. In proof of this, as was

afterwards ascertained, he read that same day on going home, without

help, nineteen verses of the same chapter; and these verses, on

returning to school on the same afternoon, he read correctly and without

hesitation, to his usual and astonished teacher. There can be no doubt,

from this circumstance, that if it had been at all necessary, he could,

without further aid, and with still greater ease, have read a second

nineteen verses, and perfected himself by practice in this important,

and supposed difficult art of reading, by this one lesson of less than

half an hour.

In a later experiment, made in Dumfries, in the presence and under the

sanction of Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, and the clergymen and teachers of

that town, the power of this principle was put to a severe trial, in a

very unexpected and extraordinary manner. The week-day teachers of that

town having heard of some of the above circumstances, and of the powers

of the Lesson System generally, in enabling children to read with but

little trouble, were desirous of having its powers tested in that town,

where the writer happened to be for a few days. He agreed; and Sir

Thomas Kirkpatrick, the Sheriff of the county, with the clergymen and

teachers, at his request, formed themselves into a committee for the

purposes of the investigation. A sub-committee of the week-day teachers

were appointed to procure a boy to be taught, which they did, and who,

on being closely examined at a preliminary public meeting of the whole

examinators, was found totally ignorant of words, and knew not one

letter from another, with the exception, of "the round o."

With this boy the writer retired, having agreed to call them again

together at a public meeting, as soon as he was ready. This at the time

he did not doubt would have been on the very next day;--but he was

disappointed. He had not been five minutes with his pupil, till he

found, to his great mortification, that he had little or no intellect to

work upon. The boy was twelve years of age, and yet he was perfectly

ignorant of all the days of the week, except one, the market day, on

which he was in the practice of making a few pence by holding the

farmers' horses. He could in no case tell what day of the week went

before or followed another. He could count numbers forward mechanically

till among the teens; but by no effort of mind could he tell what number

came before nine, till he had again counted forward from one. The most

obvious deduction from the simplest idea appeared to be quite beyond the

grasp of his mind. For example, though repeatedly told that John was

Zebedee's son, yet, after frequent trials, he could never make out, nor

comprehend who was John's father. Yet this boy,--one certainly among the

lowest in the grade of intellect of our species,--by a rigid application

of the principle of individuation, was enabled to overcome a great part

of the drudgery of learning to read, by exactly eight hours' teaching.

This boy, who at the preliminary meeting on Wednesday, knew only "the

round o," read correctly in the Court-House on the following Monday, a

section of the New Testament, to the Rev. Dr Duncan, minister of

Ruthwell, before the Sheriff, clergymen, teachers, and a large assembly

of the inhabitants of Dumfries. To ascertain that he had in that time

really _learned to read_, and that he did not repeat the words of the

section by rote, he was made to read before the audience, in a chapter

of the Old Testament, and then from a newspaper, the same words that he

had read in his lesson. This he did readily, and without a mistake.

FOOTNOTES:

[14] For some practical information and directions connected with the

subjects in this chapter, see Note M.

[15] Note N.

[16] Note H.

CHAP. V.

_On the Means by which Nature may be imitated in Applying the Principle

of Grouping, or Association._

The principle of Grouping, or Association, as employed by Nature in her

educational process, is obviously intended to enable the pupil easily to

receive knowledge, and to assist the memory in retaining and keeping it

ever after at the command of the will. It is employed to unite many

objects or truths into one aggregate mass, which is received as

one,--having the component parts so linked, or associated together, that

when any one part is afterwards brought before the mind, it has the

power of immediately conjuring up, and holding in review, all the

others. For example, when a child enters a room in which its parents and

relations are severally employed, the whole scene is at a single glance

comprehended and understood, and will afterwards be distinctly

remembered in all its parts. The elements of the scene are no doubt all

familiar, but the particular grouping of these elements are _entirely

new_, and form an addition to his knowledge, as we formerly explained,

as substantial, and as distinct, as the grouping of any other kind of

objects or circumstances could possibly do. Here then is a certain

amount of knowledge acquired by the child, which could be recorded in

writing, or which might be communicated by words; but which, by the

operation of this principle of grouping, has been acquired with greater

ease, and in much less time, than he could either have read it, or

described it. It has been done in this instance by Nature bringing the

_ideas_ suggested by the group directly before the mind of the child,

without even the intervention of words; and we see by this example, how

much more laborious it would have been to communicate the very same

amount of knowledge to the pupil, by making him _read_ the description

of it, and how utterly preposterous and unnatural it would be to compel

him, for the same purpose, to commit the words of that description to

memory. The words are merely an artificial contrivance for the conveying

of ideas;--and the more they can be kept out of view, it will be better

for the teacher, and more natural and easy for the child.

In communicating knowledge, therefore, to the young, the more directly

and simply the ideas to be communicated are presented to the mind the

better. They must usually be communicated by words; but these, as the

mere instruments of conveyance, should be kept as much as possible out

of view. To bring them at all under the notice of the child is a defect;

but to make them the chief object of learning, or to make the pupil

commit them to memory, is not only laborious and unnecessary, but is

unnatural and hurtful.

In all this we ought simply to take our lessons from Nature, if we wish

to succeed in conveying knowledge by the combination of simple objects.

In the above example, we have seen that a single glance was sufficient

to give the infant a distinct idea of the whole scene; and the reason

is, that the principle of individuation had previously done its work.

Each of the elements of which the scene was composed, had undergone an

individual and separate examination, and therefore each was familiar.

This is Nature's method of communicating knowledge to the young; and it

is obvious, that a different arrangement of the objects or actions would

have made no difference in the effects produced by the operation of the

principle. Whatever the circumstances might have been, the new scene,

with all its variety of incidents, persons, and things, which it would

take ten-fold more time to enumerate than to learn, would at once be

impressed on the mind, and delivered over to the keeping of the memory,

without labour, or any perceptible effort. The whole grouping forms a

chain of circumstances, any one link in which, when afterwards laid hold

of by the mind, brings up all the others in connection with it. The

memory by this means is relieved from the burden of remembering all the

individualities, and the innumerable details of the scene, by

maintaining a comprehensive hold of the whole united group, as one

undivided object for remembrance.

From this it appears evident, that this principle is intended to succeed

that of individuation, and never to precede it. Objects and truths which

form the elements of knowledge must be individually familiar, before

they can be successfully grouped, or associated together in masses, in

the way in which the several parts of the knowledge of the young are

usually presented; but after these objects or truths have once become

known, they may be permanently associated together in any variety of

form without fatigue, and be retained on the memory for use without

confusion or distraction of any kind.

In our investigations into the nature and working of this principle, as

detailed in a former chapter, we found several causes which gave rise

to certain uniform effects, which, for the purpose of imitation or

avoidance, may be classed under the following heads:--We found,

1. That wherever the principle of grouping acted with effect, it had

always been preceded by the principle of individuation.

2. That wherever the principle of individuation was made to interfere,

the effect intended by the principle of association was in the same

degree obstructed or destroyed.

3. That whenever ideas or objects, whether known or unknown, were

presented to a child in greater number than the mind could receive or

reiterate them, it silently dropped the surplus;--but if these were

_forced_ upon the mind, all the mischiefs arising from the interference

of the two hostile principles immediately took place.

4. That children, in grouping under the tuition of Nature, received and

retained the impressions of objects presented to their notice, in a

natural and regular order;--forming in their minds a continuous moving

scene, where motion formed a part of it; and that this movement of the

objects, actually was a portion of the grouping.

These being the facts connected with this portion of Nature's

educational process, the object of the teacher should be to endeavour to

imitate her in all these circumstances; carefully avoiding what she has

shewn to be inoperative and hurtful, and copying as closely as possible

all those that tend to forward the objects of instruction.

The first thing then to be attended to by the teacher, is, that in every

attempt to communicate knowledge to a child by the grouping of objects,

he takes care that the principle of individuation has preceded it;--that

is, that the various ideas or objects to be grouped, be individually

familiar to the pupil. In communicating a story, therefore, or an

anecdote, or in teaching a child to read, care must be taken that the

objects or individual truths, the words, or the letters, be previously

taught by themselves, before he be called upon to group them in masses,

whether greater or smaller. If this be neglected, an important law of

Nature is violated, and the lesson to this extent will be ineffective,

or worse. But if, on the contrary, this rule be attended to, the pupil,

when he comes to these objects in the act of grouping, is prepared for

the process; he meets with nothing that he is not familiar with; he has

nothing to learn, and has only to allow the objects to take their proper

places, as when he looked into the room, and grouped its contents as

before supposed. All this being perfectly natural, is accomplished

without effort, and with ease and pleasure.--This precaution on the part

of the teacher, will at once remove many of the difficulties and

embarrassments which have hitherto pressed so heavily upon the pupil in

almost every stage of his advance, but more especially in the early

stages of his learning to read.[17]

As an illustration of our meaning, we may notice here, that a child who

knows what is meant by "sheep," and "the keeping of sheep," of "tilling

the ground," and "making an offering to God," &c. is prepared to hear or

to read an abridgement of the story of Cain and Abel. We say _an

abridgement_ or _first step_, for reasons which shall afterwards be

explained. Without a previous knowledge of these several elements of

which this story is compounded, he could neither have listened to it

with pleasure, nor read it with any degree of profit; but as soon as

these are individually familiar, the grouping,--the knowledge of the

whole story,--is a matter of ease, and generally of delight. As the

story advances, it causes a constant and regular series of groupings on

the mind by the imagination, which are at once exquisitely pleasing and

permanent. The child, as in a living and moving picture, imagines a man

laboriously digging the ground, and another man in a distant field

placidly engaged in attending to the wants and the safety of a flock of

sheep. He imagines the former heaping an altar with fruits and without

fire; and the latter killing a lamb, laying its parts on an altar, while

a stream of fire descends from the skies and consumes it. His

imagination goes on with increasing interest to picture the

quarrel-scene in the field; and he in effect sees the blow given by the

club of Cain, that destroyed the life of his brother. All this living

and moving scene will be remembered in groups; and these groups will be

more or less closely linked together, and will be imagined more or less

distinctly as a whole, in proportion to the mental advancement of the

particular child.

The next thing to be attended to in communicating knowledge to a child

by grouping, is, that no strange for unknown object or idea be

introduced among those which he is called upon to group; because in that

case, the operation will be materially interfered with, and either

marred or destroyed. The completeness of this operation in the hands of

Nature, depends in a great measure, as we have seen, upon the perfect

composure and self-possession of the mind during the process. If there

be no interruption,--no element of distraction introduced into the

exercise,--all the circumstances, as they arise in the gradual

developement of the story, are comprehended and grouped. The living and

moving picture is permanently fixed upon the memory, so that it may be

recalled and reviewed at any future time. But if, on the contrary, the

placidity of the mind be interrupted,--if some strange and unknown

object be introduced, whose agency is really necessary for connecting

the several parts of the story,--the very attempt of the child to

become individually acquainted with it, throws the whole process into

confusion; and he has either to drop the contemplation of this necessary

part of the machinery, or to lose the benefit of all that is detailed

during the time he is engaged with it. In either case the end is not

gained; and the great design aimed at by the teacher,--the communication

of the knowledge connected with the narrative,--is more or less

frustrated. Like the landscape pictured on the placid bosom of the lake,

the formation and contemplation of his own undisturbed imaginings are

delightful to the child; but the introduction of an unknown object, like

the dropping of a stone in the former case, produces confusion and

distortion, which are always unpleasant and painful.

One general reason why the introduction of unknown objects into these

groupings of the child is so pernicious, may also be here adverted to.

It arises from the circumstance, that no person, whether young or old,

can form, even in his imagination, the idea of an entirely new thing.

This is commonly illustrated by the well known fact, that it is

impossible to conceive of a new sense;--but it is equally applicable to

the conception of a new object. Adults can no doubt conceive and picture

on their imaginations, objects and scenes which they never saw;--but

this mental act is not the imagining of an entirely new thing. All such

scenes or things are compounded of objects, or parts of objects, which

they have seen, and with which they are familiar. They can readily

picture to themselves a centaur or a cerberus, a mermaid or a

dragon,--creatures which have no existence, and which never did exist;

but a little reflection will shew, that nothing which the mind conceives

of these supposed animals is really new, but is merely a new combination

of elements, or parts of other animals, already familiar. Children

accordingly can easily conceive the idea of a giant or a dwarf, a woman

without a head, or a man with two, because the elements of which these

anomalies are compounded are individually familiar to them;--but were

they told of a person sitting in a howdah, or being conveyed in a

palanquin, without having these objects previously explained or

described to them, the mind would either be drawn from the story to find

out what these meant, and thus they would lose it; or they would, on the

spur of the moment, substitute in their minds something else which

perhaps had no likeness to them, and which would lead them into serious

error. For example, they might suppose that the one was a house, and the

other a ship;--a supposition which would distort the whole narrative,

and would render many of its parts inconsistent and incomprehensible.

As adults then, in every similar case, are under the necessity of

drawing materials from their general knowledge, for the purpose of

compounding all such unknown objects, it must be much more difficult for

a child to do this, not only because of his want of ability, but his

want of materials. The remedy therefore in this case is, to explain and

describe the objects that are to be grouped, before the pupil be called

upon to do so. And when the object has not been seen by the child, and

cannot be exhibited by a picture, or otherwise, the teacher must exert

his ingenuity in enabling him to form an idea of the thing that is

unknown, by a combination of parts of objects which are. Thus a tiger

may be described as resembling a large cat; a wolf, a fox, or even a

lion, as resembling certain kinds of dogs; a howdah as a smaller sofa,

and a palanquin, as a light crib. In all these cases, it is worthy of

notice, that a mere difference of size never creates confusion;--simply

because, by a natural law in optics, such differences are of constant

occurrence in the experience both of children and adults. A water neut

will convey a sufficiently correct idea of a crocodile; and the picture

of an elephant, only one inch square, will create no difficulty, if the

correct height be given. When these rules have been attended to, it will

be found, that this principle in Nature has been successfully imitated;

and the pupil, by the previous process of individuation, will be

perfectly prepared for the delightful task of grouping the objects which

he now knows. When he comes to these objects in the narrative, he

conceives the idea of them accurately, and he groups them without

effort. There is no hesitation, and no confusion in his ideas. The

painting formed upon the mind is correct; the whole picture is united

into one connected scene, and is permanently imprinted on the memory for

future use.

Another circumstance connected with this principle of grouping in

children, we found to be, that when, at any time a greater number of

objects were presented to the mind than it was able to reiterate and

group, it silently dropt the surplus, and grouped those only which came

within the reach of its powers; but if in any instance an attempt was

made to _force_ the child to receive and reiterate the ideas of objects

beyond a certain point, the mind got confused, and its powers

weakened.--The imitation of Nature in this point is also of great

importance in education, particularly in teaching and exercising

children in reading. To perceive this more clearly, it will be necessary

to make a few remarks on the nature of the art of reading.

Reading is nothing more than a mechanical invention, imitative of the

act of hearing; as writing is a mechanical mode of indicating sounds,

and thus becomes a substitute for the art of speaking, and conveying

ideas. But there is this material difference between reading and

hearing, that in hearing the person giving attention is in a great

measure passive, and may, or may not attend as he pleases. He may

receive part of what is said, and, as prompted by Nature, he may

silently drop all that he cannot easily reiterate. But in the act of

reading, the person has both the active and the passive operations to

perform. His mind, while he reads, must be actively engaged in

decyphering the words of his book, and the ideas are, or should be, by

this act, forced upon the observation of the mind at the same time. As

long, therefore, as the child is required to read nothing except that

which he understands, and to read no more, and no faster, than his mind

can without distraction receive and reiterate the ideas which he reads,

the act of grouping will be performed with ease, and with evident

delight, and the powers of the mind will be healthfully and extensively

exercised and strengthened:--But if this simple principle of Nature be

violated, the exercise becomes irritating to the child, and most

pernicious in its consequences. The neglect of this application of the

principle is so common in education, that it usually escapes

observation; but on this very account it demands from us here a more

thorough investigation.

We say then, that this principle is violated when a child is required to

read that which it does not, and perhaps cannot understand; and also

when he is required to read more, or to read faster, than he is able to

reiterate the ideas in his own mind. On each of these cases we shall say

a few words, for the purpose of warning and directing the teacher in

applying this important principle in education.

Let us then suppose a child set to read a section which he does not, and

which there is every probability he cannot understand, and then let us

carefully mark the consequences. The child in such a case reads the

words in his book, which ought to convey to his mind the ideas which the

words contain. This is the sole purpose of either hearing or reading.

But this is not accomplished. The words are read, and the ideas are not

perceived; but the child is required to read on. He does so; and of

course when the first part of the subject or sentence has been beyond

his reach, the second, which most probably hangs upon it, must be much

more so. In this therefore he also fails; but he is still required to

read on. Here is a practice begun, which at once defeats the very

intention of reading, and allows the child's mind to roam upon any thing

or every thing, while the eye is mechanically engaged with his book. The

habit is soon formed. The child reads; but his attention is gone. He

does not, and at length he cannot, understand by reading. This habit, as

we formerly explained, when it is once formed, it requires great efforts

on the part of the child to overcome. Most people when they are actively

engaged in life, do at last overcome it; while thousands, who have

nominally been taught to read, never can surmount the difficulties it

involves. Many on this account, and for want of practising an art which

they cannot profitably use, lose the art altogether.

But again, let us suppose a child set to read that which he may

understand, but which he is required to read more rapidly than allows

him to perceive and to reiterate the ideas while reading, and let us

mark what are the necessary consequences in such a case. The child is

called on to read a sentence, and he does so. He understands it too. But

the art of reading is not yet familiar, and he has to bend part of his

attention to the decyphering of the words, as well as to the perception

and reiteration of the ideas. This requires more time in a child to whom

reading is not yet familiar, than to a child more advanced. But give him

a little time, and the matter is accomplished the ideas have been

received, and they will be reiterated, grouped, and committed to the

keeping of the memory,--and then they will form part of his knowledge.

But if this time be not given,--if the child, while engaged in

collecting the ideas from the words of one sentence, be urged forward to

the reading of another, the mental confusion formerly described

instantly takes place. More ideas are forced upon the mind than it can

reiterate; no group can be formed, because the elements of which it

ought to be composed, have not yet been perceived; the imagination gets

bewildered;--the mind is unnaturally burdened;--its faculties are

overstretched;--the child is discouraged and irritated; the powers of

his mind fatigued and weakened; and the whole object of the teacher is

at once defeated, and rendered worse than useless.--In every case,

therefore, when the child is called on to read, sufficient time should

be given;--the teacher taking care that the main design of reading, that

of collecting and grouping ideas, be always accomplished; and that the

pupil reads no more at one time than he can thoroughly understand and

retain.

There is yet another circumstance connected with this process of

grouping, which ought not to be overlooked. It refers to the order in

which the objects to be grouped by the child are presented to his

notice. A child under the guidance of Nature, receives and retains its

impressions of objects in a natural and simple order. When it witnesses

a scene, the group of objects, or actions formed and pictured on the

mind by the imagination, is exactly as they were seen, the one

circumstance following the other in natural and regular order. In

telling a story therefore to a child, and more especially in composing

lessons for them to read, this part of Nature's plan should be carefully

studied and acted upon. The elements of which the several groupings are

composed, or the circumstances in the narrative to be related, should be

presented in the order in which the eye would catch them in Nature, or

the order in which they occurred, that there may be no unnecessary

retrogression of the mind, no confounding of ideas, no fear of losing

the links that connect and bind together the minor groupings of the

story. In the history of Cain and Abel, for example, the child is not to

be required to paint upon his imagination, a deadly struggle between two

persons of whom as yet he knows nothing; and then, retiring backwards

in the story, be made acquainted with the circumstances connected with

their several offerings to God; and last of all, their parentage, their

occupations, and their characters. The minds of the young and

inexperienced would be perplexed and bewildered by such a plan of

proceeding; and the irregularity would most probably be the cause of

their losing the whole story. The opposite of this plan is no doubt

frequently adopted in works of fiction prepared for adults, and for the

sake of effect; but every one must see that it is unnecessary in simple

history, and is not at all adapted for the instruction of the young.

When Nature's method is adopted, the child collects and groups the

incidents as he proceeds, and paints, without effort, the whole living

and moving scene on his imagination, as if he himself had stood by, and

been an eye-witness of the original events.

The ascertained benefits of these modes of imitating Nature, are

literally innumerable; and it is happily within the power of every

parent or teacher, in a single hour, to test them for himself. We shall

merely advert to one or two instances which occurred in the recorded

experiments, where their effects, in combination with the other

principles, were conspicuous.

In the experiment upon the prisoners in the County Jail of Edinburgh,

the acquisition of their knowledge of Old Testament History, instead of

being a burden, was to them a source of unmingled gratification. There

were painted upon their minds the leading incidents in the history of

the patriarchs, not only in groups, but their judgments being ripened,

they were able to perceive them in regular connection. These pictures,

then so pleasantly impressed on their imaginations, are likely to remain

with them through the whole of their lives. The Report says, that "they

were examined on their knowledge of the Book of Genesis," and "gave a

distinct account of its prominent facts from Adam down to the

settlement in Goshen, and shewed by their answers that these

circumstances were understood by them in their proper nature and

bearings."

By the same means, but in less time, and to a greater extent, the same

object was attained with the children in Aberdeen, who, though chosen

from the schools specially on account of their want of knowledge, were,

by only a few hours teaching, enabled, besides many other subjects of

knowledge, to receive and retain on their minds the great leading

circumstances that occurred from "the death of Moses downwards, to that

of the revolt of the ten tribes in the reign of Rehoboam."

In the experiment in London also, a large portion of Old Testament

history, with much other knowledge, was acquired in a few hours by a boy

of about nine years of age, who, previously to the commencement of the

experiment, knew no more of God than the name;--who had no idea of a

soul, or that he should live after death;--who "had never heard of Adam,

Noah, or Abraham;"--"had no idea of a Saviour; knew nothing of heaven or

hell; had never heard of Christ, and knew not whether the name belonged

to a man or a woman." Yet this boy, in an exceedingly short time, could

give an account of many groupings in the Old Testament history.

We shall only remark, in conclusion, that if, by the proper application

of this principle, so much knowledge may be acquired by rude and

ignorant children, not only without effort, but in the enjoyment of

great satisfaction; what may not be expected in ordinary circumstances,

when the pupils are regularly trained and prepared for the purpose, and

when all the principles employed by Nature in this great work, are made

to unite their aids, and to work in harmony together for producing an

enlightened and virtuous population? This may most assuredly be gained

in an exceedingly short period of time, by a close and persevering

imitation of Nature in these educational processes.

FOOTNOTES:

[17] Note O.

CHAP. VI.

_On the Methods by which Nature may be imitated in Communicating

Knowledge by Classification, or Analysis._

In a former chapter we had occasion to notice a fourth principle brought

into operation by Nature in the acquisition of knowledge, which is the

principle of Classification, or Analysis; and we shall now enquire how

this principle may be successfully imitated by the teacher for the

furtherance of his art.

There are two forms, which in a former chapter we endeavoured to trace

out and explain, in which this principle of Analysis appears in the

educational process of Nature. We shall here again very shortly advert

to them, beginning with that which in education is perhaps the most

important, but which hitherto has certainly been least attended

to,--that of teaching connected truths by progressive steps.

When we read a connected section of history for the first time, and then

examine the state of our knowledge respecting it, we find that we have

retained some of the ideas or truths which we read, but that we have

lost more. When that portion which we have retained is carefully

examined, we find that it consists chiefly of the more prominent

features of the narrative, with perhaps here and there occasional

groupings of isolated circumstances. We have, in fact, retained upon the

memory, little more than the general outline,--the great frame-work of

the history. There will be the beginning, the middle, and the end,

containing perhaps few of the minor details, but what is retained is all

in regular order, bound together as a continuous narrative, and,

however meagre, the whole forms in the imagination of the reader, a

distinct and connected whole. There is perhaps no more of the intended

fabric of the history erected in the mind than the mere skeleton of the

building; but this frame-work, however defective in the details, is

complete both as to shape and size, and is a correct model of the

finished building from top to bottom. This is the state of every

advanced pupil's mind, after he has for the first time closed the

reading of any portion of history or biography. If the narrative itself

has been correct, this general outline,--this great frame-work of the

history,--remains on his mind through life, without any material

alteration. Additional information afterwards will assist in filling up

the empty spaces left between the more massive materials, but it will

neither shake, nor shift them; and even the most minute details of

individual or family incidents, connected with the general narrative,

while they add additional interest, and fill up or ornament different

and separate parts, will never alter the general form of the fabric, nor

displace any of the main pillars upon which it is supported.

This is one way of illustrating this analytical process of Nature; but

for the purposes of imitating it in education it is not perhaps the

best. The idea of a regular analytical table of the history, formed of

successive branches, by successive readings, is by far the most natural

and applicable. By a first reading of a portion of history, there are

certain great leading points established in the mind of the reader,

which form the first branches of a regular analysis, and to some one or

other of which parts or divisions every circumstance of a more minute

kind connected with the history, will be found to be related. This first

great division of the history attained by the first reading, if correct,

will, and must, remain the same, whatever addition may afterwards be

made to it. By a second reading, our knowledge of the leading points

will greatly assist us in collecting and remembering many of the more

minute circumstances embodied in them, or intimately connected with

them; but even then, an ordinary mind, and more especially a young

person, will not have made himself master of all the details. A third,

and perhaps a fourth reading, will be found necessary to give him a full

command of all the minuter circumstances recorded.[18]

In endeavouring to take advantage of this principle, so extensively

employed by Nature, it is of great importance to observe, that a certain

definite effect is produced by each successive reading. A first reading

establishes in the mind of the pupil a regular frame-work of the whole

history, which it is the business of every successive reading to fill up

and complete. There is by the first course, a separation of the whole

subject into heads, forming the regular divisions of a first branch of

the analysis;--the second course tends to subdivide these again into

their several parts; and to form a second branch in this analytical

table;--and a third course, would enable the pupil to perceive and to

separate the parts of the narrative included in these several divisions,

by which there would arise a third branch, all included in the second,

and even in the first.

We have here supposed, that the pupil has been engaged with the very

same chapters in each of these several courses;--and that he read the

same words in the first course that he read in those which followed. He

had to read the whole, although he could retain but little. He had to

labour the whole field for the sake of procuring plants, which could

have been more certainly and more healthfully raised upon a square yard.

His reading for hours has produced no more knowledge than is expressed

by the first branch of the supposed analysis; and therefore, if the

teacher would but analyse the subject for the child, whether it be a

science or a history,--suppose for example, the History of Joseph,--and

give his younger pupils no more at first than the simple _outline_ of

the story, some very important advantages would be the result. In the

first place, the very difficult task of keeping the volatile mind of a

child continuously fixed to the subject during the lengthened reading of

the whole narrative will be unnecessary;--the irritation and uneasiness

which such a lengthened exercise must produce in a child will be

avoided;--time will be economised, the labour of the teacher will be

spared, and the mind of the child at the close of the exercise, instead

of being fagged and prostrated, will be found vigorous and lively. And

yet, with all this, the positive result will be the same. The child's

knowledge of the subject in this latter case, will in reality be as

extensive, and much more distinct and permanent, than in the former.

Here is the first step gained; and to attain the second, a similar

course must be pursued. Nature, who formed this first branch of the

analytical table on the minds of the first class of the children, formed

another and more extended branch in the minds of the second class. The

teacher therefore has only to take each of the branches which form the

first step, and sub-divide them into their natural heads, so as to form

a second,--and to teach this to his children in the same manner that he

taught them the former. By this means, the first class will now possess

an equal degree of knowledge with those who occupied the second;--and by

a similar process, the others would advance to the third and the fourth

classes according to circumstances.

The plan here proposed for imitating Nature by progressive steps, has

been tried with undeviating success for many years. Its efficiency, as

embracing the principle employed by Nature for the communication of

knowledge, has been repeatedly subjected to the most delicate and at the

same time the most searching experiments. By its means, in connection of

course with the catechetical exercise by which it is wrought, very

extraordinary effects have been produced even upon individuals whose

minds and circumstances were greatly below the average of common

children.

In the experiment made upon the adult criminals in the County Jail of

Edinburgh, the pupils acquired easily and permanently a thorough

knowledge of the history contained in the Book of Genesis. "They gave a

distinct account of its prominent facts, from Adam, down to the

settlement in Goshen, and shewed by their answers, that these

circumstances were understood by them, in their proper nature and

bearings. They gave, in the next place, a connected view of the leading

doctrines of revelation; when their answers evinced, most

satisfactorily, that they apprehended, not merely each separate truth,

but that they perceived its relation to others, and possessed a

considerable knowledge of the divine system as a whole. They were also

examined upon several sections of the New Testament; where their answers

displayed an equally clear and accurate knowledge of the subject." These

persons, be it observed, belonged to a class of individuals, who are

generally considered to be peculiarly hostile to the reception of

information of this kind, and certainly who are least able to comprehend

and retain it; and all this, besides other portions of knowledge, on

which they were examined during the experiment, was communicated with

ease by about twenty hours teaching.

By the experiment made at Aberdeen, upon children the most ignorant that

the Committee of Clergymen could find among the several schools in the

city, it was ascertained, that after only nine or ten hours teaching,

they had not only received a thorough knowledge of "several sections of

New Testament History," but that they had acquired a knowledge of all

the leading events included in the Old Testament History, from "the

death of Moses, downwards to that of the revolt of the Ten Tribes in the

reign of Rehoboam. Here they distinctly stated and described all the

leading circumstances of the narrative comprised in the 'First Step,'

whose brief but comprehensive outline they appeared, in various

instances, to have filled up at home, by reading in their Bibles the

corresponding chapters."

The efficiency of this form of analytical teaching, as exhibited in

successive steps, when employed for the purpose of teaching a knowledge

of civil history and biography, was also proved with equal

certainty;--for these same children showed a thorough knowledge of that

portion of the History of England embraced by the reign of Charles I.

and the Commonwealth; and in biography, the life of the late John Newton

having been employed for the purpose, they shewed such an acquaintance

with the leading facts, and the uses to be made of them, that the

reverend gentlemen in this report of the experiment say, that the

children had "to be restrained, as the time would not permit."

In teaching the sciences, particularly the science of natural

philosophy, this method of employing the principle of analysis has been

found equally successful. Nature indeed, by the regular division of her

several works, has obviously pointed this out as the proper method of

proceeding, especially with the young; and the success that has

invariably accompanied the attempt, shews that the opinion is well

founded.

In the experiment at Aberdeen, the class of children, who were specially

selected from their companions on account of their ignorance only a few

days before, were "interrogated, scientifically, as to the production,

the nature, and the properties of several familiar objects, with the

view of shewing how admirably calculated the Lesson System is, for

furnishing the young with a knowledge of natural science and of the

arts. One of their little companions being raised before them on a

bench, they described every part of his dress, from the bonnet

downwards, detailing every process and stage of the manufacture. The

bonnet, which was put on his head for this purpose, the coat, the

silk-handkerchief, the cotton vest, were all traced respectively from

the sheep, the egg of the silk-worm, and the cotton-pod. The buttons,

which were of brass, were stated to be a composition of copper and zinc,

which were separately and scientifically described, with the reasons

assigned, (as good as could be given,) for their admixture, in the

composition of brass." "A lady's parasol, and a gentleman's watch were

described in the same manner. The ivory knob, the brass crampet, the

bamboo, the whalebone, the silk, were no sooner adverted to, than they

were scientifically described. When their attention was called to the

seals of the gentleman's watch, they immediately said, 'These are of

pure, and those of jeweller's gold,' and described the difference. The

steel ring was traced to the iron-stone in the mine, with a description

of the mode of separating the metal from its combinations. The processes

requisite for the preparation of wrought-iron from the cast-iron, and of

steel from the wrought-iron, with the distinguishing properties of each

of these metals, were accurately described, and some practical lessons

drawn from these properties; such as, that a knife ought never to be put

into the fire, and that a razor should be dipped in warm water previous

to its being used. Various articles were collected from individuals in

the meeting, and successively presented to them, all of which they

described. India-rubber, cork, sponge, pocket combs, &c. A small pocket

thermometer, with its tube and its mercury, its principles and use, and

even the Turkey-leather on the cover, were all fully described. After

explaining the nature and properties of coal-gas, one of the boys

stated to the meeting, that since the commencement of this experiment,

he had himself attempted, and succeeded in making gas-light by means of

a tobacco-pipe;--his method of doing which he also described."

The other form in which the principle of Analysis may, in imitation of

Nature, be successfully employed in communicating knowledge to the

young, is not to be considered as new, although the working of the

principle may not have been very clearly perceived, or systematically

regulated. It is seen most simply perhaps in the division of any

subject,--a sermon for example--into its great general heads; and then

endeavouring to illustrate these, by sub-dividing each into its several

particulars. By this means the whole subject is bound together, the

judgment is healthfully exercised, and the memory is greatly assisted in

making use of the information communicated.

It is upon this plan that the several discourses and speeches in the

Acts of the Apostles have been analysed, as an introduction to the

teaching of the epistles to the young.[19] Upon the same principle

depends the success of the "Analysis of Prayer," of which we shall

afterwards have to speak; and it is by means of this principle, in

connection with the successive steps, that the several departments of

natural philosophy are proposed to be taught.

The efficiency of the principle in this form, as applied to the teaching

of natural philosophy to mere school boys, has been ascertained by

numerous experiments, of which the one in Aberdeen, already alluded to,

has afforded good evidence. But the experiment conducted in Newry, on

account of several concurrent circumstances, is still more remarkable

and appropriate, and to it therefore we propose briefly to refer.

"In the year 1830, the writer, in passing through the town of Newry on

his way to Dublin, was waited upon by several Sunday school teachers,

and was requested to afford them some information as to teaching their

schools, and for that purpose to hold a meeting with them and their

fellow teachers, before leaving the place. To this he readily agreed;

but as he intended to go to Dublin by the coach, which passed through

Newry in the afternoon, the meeting had to take place that same day at

two o'clock. At that meeting, the Earl of Kilmorey and a party of his

friends were very unexpectedly present; and they, after the business of

the meeting was over, joined with the others in requesting him to

postpone his departure, and to hold a public meeting on the following

Tuesday, of which due intimation would be given, and many teachers in

the neighbourhood, who must otherwise be greatly disappointed, would be

able to attend." To this request, accordingly, he at once acceded.

"In visiting the schools next day, the propriety of preparing a class or

two of children for the public meeting was suggested and approved of;

and the day-teacher being applied to, gave Mr Gall a list of six of his

boys for the purpose. With these children he met on Monday; and after

instructing them in the doctrines of the Gospel, and teaching them how

to draw lessons from Scripture, he began to teach them some parts of

natural philosophy, and to draw lessons also from these. Their aptness,

and eagerness to learn, suggested the idea of selecting one of the

sciences, and confining their attention principally to it, for the

purpose of ascertaining how much of the really useful parts of it they

could acquire and learn to use, in the short space of time which must

intervene between that period and the hour of meeting. Considering what

would be most useful and interesting, rather than what would be most

easy, he hastily fixed on the science of anatomy and physiology, and

resolved to mark the time during which they were engaged with him in

learning it. These lessons were altogether oral and catechetical,--as

neither he nor the children at that time had any books to assist them in

their labours.

"The method adopted by Mr Gall in communicating a knowledge of this

important and difficult science to these school-boys, was strictly

analytical;--classifying and connecting every part of his subject, and

bringing out the several branches of the analysis in natural order, so

that the connection of all the parts was easily seen, and of course well

remembered. An illustration of his method may induce some parents to try

it themselves.

"He first directed their attention to the bones, and taught them in a

few words their nature and uses, as the pillars and safeguards of the

body;--the shank, the joint, and the ligaments, forming the branches of

this part of the analysis. He then led them to imagine these bones

clothed with the fleshy parts, or muscles, of which the mass, the

ligaments, and the sinews, formed the branches. He explained the nature

of their contraction; and shewed them, that the muscles being fastened

at one end by the ligament to a bone, its contraction pulled the sinew

at the other, and thus bent the joint which lay between them.--He then

taught them the nature and uses of the several viscera, which occupy the

chest and belly, and their connection with each other. This prepared the

way for considering the nature of the fluids of the body, particularly

the blood, and its circulation from the heart and lungs by the arteries,

and to them again by the veins, with the pulsation of the one, and the

valves of the other. The passage of the blood through the lungs, and the

uses of the air-cells and blood-vessels in that organ were described;

when the boys, (having previously had a lesson on the nature of water,

atmospheric air, and the gases,) readily understood the importance of

bringing the oxygen into contact with the blood, for its renovation

from the venous to the arterial state. The nature of the stomach and of

digestion, of the intestines, lacteals, and absorbents, was next

explained, more in regard to their nature than their names,--which last

were most difficult to remember;--but the knowledge of the function,

invariably assisted the memory in recalling the name of the organ. They

were next made acquainted with the brain, the spinal cord, and the

nervous system generally, as the source of motion in the muscles, and

the medium of sensation in conveying intelligence from the several

organs of sense to the brain, by which alone the soul, in some way

unknown, receives intelligence of outward objects. This prepared the way

for an account of the organs of sense, and the mechanism of their parts;

and lastly, they were made acquainted with the integuments, skin, hair,

and nails, with the most obvious of their peculiarities.--On all these

they were assiduously and repeatedly catechised, till the truths were

not only understood, but were in some degree familiar to them. In this

they were greatly assisted by a consideration of their own bodies; which

Mr Gall took care to make a kind of text-book, not only for making him

better understood, but for enabling them more easily and permanently to

remember what he told them. When he shewed them, by their hands, feet,

and face, the ramifications of the blood-vessels and nerves,--the

mechanism of the joints,--the contraction of the various muscles,--the

situation and particular uses of which he himself did not even know, but

which were nevertheless moved at their own will, and whenever they

pleased,--the young anatomists were greatly pleased and astonished; and

this added to their eagerness for farther information, and to their zeal

in shewing that they understood, and were able again to communicate it.

"These preparatory meetings were never protracted to any great extent,

as the whole time was divided into three or four portions,--the boys

being dismissed to think over the subject, (for they had nothing to

read,) and to meet again at a certain hour. The watch was again

produced, and the time marked; and when the whole period occupied by

this science and its connections was added together, it amounted to two

hours and a half exactly. One of these lessons, and the longest, was

given during a stroll in the fields.

"The public meeting of parents and teachers was held at Newry on the 5th

of October 1830, when the above class, with others, were examined on the

religious knowledge which had been communicated to them on the previous

days, with its lessons and uses; after which the six boys were taken by

themselves, and thoroughly and searchingly catechised on their knowledge

of the anatomy and physiology of the human body. They were examined

first on the nature and uses of the bones, their shapes, substance,

joints, and ligaments. Then on the nature and offices of the muscles,

with their blood-vessels, nerves, ligaments, sinews, and motions;--the

uses of the several viscera;--the heart with its pulsations, its power,

its ventricles and auricles, and their several uses;--the lungs, with

their air-cells, blood-vessels, and their use in arterializing the

blood;--the stomach, intestines, &c. with their peristaltic motions,

lacteals, &c.;--the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, with their

connections, ramifications, and uses;--the senses, with their several

organs, their mechanism, and their manner of acting. On all these they

were questioned, and cross-questioned, in every variety of form: And

that the audience might be satisfied that this was not a mere catalogue

of names, but that in fact the physiology of the several parts was

really known, and would be remembered, even if the names of the organs

should be forgotten, they were made repeatedly to traverse the

connecting links of the analysis forward from the root, through its

several branches, to the extreme limit in the ultimate effect; and, at

other times backward, from the ultimate effect to the primitive organ,

or part of the body from which it took its origin. For example, they

could readily trace forward the movement of the arm joint, or any other

joint, from the ligament of the muscle at its junction with the bone,

through its contraction by the nerve at the fiat of the will, by which

the sinew of the muscle, fastened at the opposite side of the joint, is

pulled, and the joint bent;--or they could trace backward any of the

operations of the senses,--the sight, for example, from the object seen,

through the coats of the eye, to the inverted picture of it formed upon

the retina, which communicated the sensation to the optic nerve, by

which it was conveyed to the brain. In all which they invariably

succeeded, and shewed that the whole was clearly and connectedly

understood.

"When this had been minutely and extensively done on the several parts

of the body, some medical gentlemen who were present were requested to

catechise them on any of the topics they had learnt, for the purpose of

assuring themselves and the audience that the children really and

familiarly understood all that they had been catechised upon. One of the

medical gentlemen, for himself and the others present, then stated

publicly to the meeting, that the extent of the children's knowledge of

this difficult science was beyond any thing that they could have

conceived. And afterwards affirmed, that he had seen students who had

attended the medical classes for six months, who did not know so much of

the human body as these children now did."

This experiment became more remarkable from a circumstance which took

place within a few days afterwards, and which tended still more strongly

to prove the permanence and efficiency of this method of imitating

Nature; shewing, not only that truth when communicated as Nature

directs, is easily received, and permanently retained upon the memory,

but that all such truths when thus communicated, become more and more

familiar to the mind, and more decidedly under the controul, and at the

command of the will. The circumstance is thus recorded in the account of

the experiment[20] from which we have already quoted.

"At the close of the meeting, Mr Gall took farewell of his young

friends, not expecting to have the pleasure of seeing them again; and

(after a promised visit to Ravenstile,) he proceeded on the following

Thursday to Rostrevor, where he found a numerous audience, (publicly

called together by Lady Lifford, the Rev. Mr Jacobs, and others, to

receive him,) already assembled.

"Here, in the course of teaching a class of children brought to him for

the first time, and explaining the nature and capabilities of the

system, reference was made to the above experiment only a few days

before in their neighbourhood at Newry. Two gentlemen,[21] officially

and intimately connected with the Kildare Place Society of Dublin, being

accidentally present, were at their own desire introduced to Mr Gall by

a clerical friend after the close of the exercises. The circumstances of

the Newry experiment, which had been mentioned during the meeting, were

strongly doubted, till affirmed by the clerical friend who introduced

them; who, having been present and witnessed it, assured them that the

circumstances connected with the event had not been exaggerated. They

then stated, that it must of necessity have been a mere transient

glimpse received of the science by the children; which, being easily

got, would be as easily lost; and that its evanescent nature would

without all question be found, by their almost immediately having

forgotten the whole of what had been told them. Mr Gall, however,

assured them, that so far from that being the case, he was convinced,

from long experience, that the information communicated would be much

more lasting than that received in any other way. That the impressions,

so repeatedly made upon their minds by the _catechetical exercises_,

would remain with them very likely through life; while the effect of the

_analytical mode_, by which he had linked the whole together, would

prevent any of the important branches from ever being separated from the

rest. If, therefore, they remembered any of the truths, they would most

probably remember all. And besides, he shewed, that the daily use, in

the ordinary business of life, which they would find for the lessons

from the truths taught, would revive part, and perhaps the whole, upon

their memories every day. But as it was of importance that they should

be satisfied, and to set the matter at rest, he agreed _to call the boys

unexpectedly together_ at another public meeting in Newry, where they

might be present and judge for themselves; and without seeing or talking

with the boys, he would examine them again publicly, and as extensively

as before; when he was convinced they would shew, that the whole was as

fresh on their memories as when they at first received it. In short,

that they would be able to undergo the most searching ordeal, with

equal, if not greater ease, than they had done formerly.

"This was accordingly done. A meeting took place next day, equally

respectable, and perhaps more numerous than the former, to which the

boys were brought from their school, without preparation, or knowing

what they were to be asked. They were then more fully and searchingly

examined than at first; and there being more time, they were much longer

under the exercise. It was then found, that the information formerly

communicated was not only remembered, but that the several truths were

much more familiar, in themselves and in their connection with each

other, than they had been at the former meeting. This had evidently

arisen from their own frequent meditations upon them since that time,

and their application of the several lessons, either with one another,

their parents, or themselves. The medical gentlemen were again present,

and professed themselves equally pleased."

From the number and variety of these facts, which might be indefinitely

extended, it is obvious, that a new path lies open to the Educationist,

which, as yet, has been scarcely entered upon. The same amount of

success is at the command of every teacher who will follow in the same

course, and keep rigidly in the path pointed out to him by Nature.

FOOTNOTES:

[18] Note P.

[19] Note Q.

[20] Complete Directory for Sunday School Teachers, vol. i. p. 267, and

Effects of the Lesson System, p. 37.

[21] Counsellor Jackson, M. P. Secretary to the Kildare Place Society,

and Mr Hamilton, brother-in-law to the Duke of Wellington, one of the

Committee.

CHAP. VII.

_On the Imitation of Nature in Teaching the Practical Use of Knowledge._

The third step in the educational process of Nature we have found to be,

the training of her pupil to the practical use of his knowledge.--All

her other processes, we have seen from numerous circumstances, are

merely preparatory and subservient to this; and therefore, the attempt

at imitation here by the teacher is of corresponding importance. The

practical application of knowledge must be the great end of all the

pupil's learning; and the parent or teacher should conduct his exercises

and labours in such a manner as shall be most likely to attain it. The

powers of the mind are to be cultivated;--but they are to be cultivated

chiefly that the pupil may be able to collect and make use of his

knowledge:--And knowledge is to be pursued and stored up;--but this is

to be done that it may remain at his command, and be readily put to use

when it is required. To suppose any thing else, is to suppose something

directly opposed to all the indications of Nature, and to the plainest

suggestions both of reason and experience.

If in this department then, the teacher is to imitate Nature with

effect, there are two preliminary objects of which he ought never to

lose sight. The first is, that he studiously select from the numerous

subjects which may form the staple of education, those only, or at least

chiefly, which are to be most useful, and which may most easily and most

frequently be put to use by the pupil;--and the second is, that whatever

be the truth or the subject taught, the child should, at the time of

learning, be instructed in the methods and the circumstances in which it

may be used. To neglect these preliminary points, is really to betray

the cause of education, and, besides inflicting a lasting injury on the

young, to deceive the public.

In our enquiries into Nature's method of applying knowledge, we found,

in a former chapter, that she employs two distinct agencies in the work.

The one we denominated the Natural, or Common Sense; and the other is

the Conscience, or Moral Sense:--the one appearing to regulate our

knowledge in so far as it refers to the promotion of our own personal

and physical comforts; and the other, in so far as it refers to the

rights and the well-being of others, and to our own moral good. The

method which she employs in working out these two principles, is, as we

before explained, very nearly the same; consisting of the perception of

some useful truth,--the deduction of a lesson from that truth,--and the

application of that lesson to corresponding circumstances. On that

account, our attempts to imitate her operations as exhibited by the one,

will, in form, be nearly the same as in the other. We shall here,

therefore, attend to the methods by which Nature may be successfully

imitated under both agencies, and shall then state a few illustrations

and facts which are more peculiarly applicable to each in particular.

Before doing this, however, we cannot help once more pressing upon the

mind of all connected with education, the great importance--the

necessity--of that part of the subject upon which we are now to enter.

We have said, and we again repeat, that _this_ is education; and every

thing else taught to a child is, or ought to be, either preliminary or

supplementary;--_belonging_ to education, perhaps, but not education

itself. It is _practice_, and not _theory_, that constitutes the basis

of all improvement, whether in the arts, or in morals and religion; and

it is to this practical application of what he learns, that every child

should be trained, by whatever name the mode of doing so may be known.

All our blessings are destined to come to us by the use of proper means;

and this general principle applies both to temporal and spiritual

matters. Now "the use of means," is only another mode of expressing "the

practical application of knowledge." And if so, what are we to think of

the philosophy or the candour of the person, who is apparently the

friend of education, but who remains indifferent or hostile to the thing

itself, merely because it is presented to him under another name. He may

be a zealous advocate for the spread of knowledge;--but that is not

education.--Knowledge is but the _means_,--the application of it is the

_end_; and when therefore he stops short at the communication of

knowledge, while he is indifferent to the teaching of its use, he

endangers the whole of his previous labour. One single truth put to use,

is of more real value to a child than a thousand are, as long as they

remain unused; and of this, every friend of the young ought to be

convinced. Our health, our food, and our general happiness depend, not

on knowledge _received_, but on knowledge _applied_; and therefore, to

teach knowledge that is inapplicable or useless, or to teach useful

knowledge without teaching at the same time how it may be put to use by

the pupil, is neither reasonable nor just. Hence the importance of our

present investigation; and hence we have no hesitation in saying, that

the enquiry, "How can Nature be most successfully imitated in her

application of knowledge?" is the most momentous question that can be

put by the teacher; and a successful answer will constitute the most

precious boon that can be afforded to education. To assist in this

enquiry is the design of the present chapter; and we shall accordingly

examine a little more in detail the circumstances that take place in the

experience of the young, when they are induced to apply their knowledge

under the guidance of Nature, and without another teacher.

For this purpose, let us suppose two children about to cross a piece of

soft ground. The one goes forward, and his foot sinks in the mud. Does

the other follow him? No indeed. The most stupid child we could find, if

within the limits of sanity, would immediately stand still, or seek a

passage at another point. Here then is an example of the way in which

children, while entirely under the guidance of Nature, make use of their

knowledge, by applying the principle of which we are here speaking in

cases of urgency and danger; and we shall now endeavour to analyse the

process, that we may the more readily arrive at some exercise, by which

it may be artificially imitated, whether the application be urgent and

required at the moment or not.

We have supposed one child going forward on the soft ground, while the

other is slowly following him. When the foot of the first sinks, the

other instantly stands still; and a spectator can perceive, better

perhaps than the child himself, that something like the following mental

process takes place on the occasion. The child thinks with himself,

"Tom's foot has sunk; if I go forward, I also will sink; I will

therefore stand still, or cross at another place." This is an exact

parallel to thousands of similar instances which come under the notice

of parents and others every day; and is a process quite familiar to

adults who have paid any attention to the operation of their own minds

when similarly circumstanced. When it is analysed, we find it to

consist, as shewn in a former chapter, of three distinct parts, not one

of which can be left out if the effect is to be produced. There is

always, at the commencement of such an operation, the knowledge of some

fact; "Tom's foot has sunk." There is, secondly, an inference or lesson

drawn from this knowledge, "If I go forward, I also will sink." And

there is, thirdly, the practical application of that lesson, or

inference, to the child's present circumstances: "I will stand still, or

cross at another place."

It is this process, or one in every point similar, that takes place in

the mind, either of the young or the old, whenever they apply the facts

gleaned by observation or experience for the guidance of their conduct.

Now what we are at present in search of, is an exercise applicable to

_reading_, as well as to observation;--to the _school_, as well as to

the play ground or the parlour;--and to knowledge whose use may not be

required at the instant, as well as that to which we are driven by

necessity.

The desideratum here desired is to be found by the teacher in the

method, now very extensively known, of drawing lessons from useful

truths, and then applying them to the future probable circumstances of

the pupils. For example, when a child reads, or is told that Jacob was

punished by God for cheating his brother and telling a lie, the great

object of the parent or teacher is to render these truths

_practical_,--which the question, "What does that teach you?" never

fails to do. The child, as soon as he knows the design of his teacher in

communicating practical truths, and is asked the above question, will

tell him, that he ought never to cheat his neighbour, or tell a lie. The

application of these lessons, when thus established as a rule of duty

founded on Scripture, is as extensive as the circumstances in which they

may be required are various;--and the teacher has only to suppose such

a case, and to ask his pupil, if he were placed in these circumstances,

what he should do. The dullest of his children will at once perceive the

duty, and the source from which he derives confidence in performing it.

There is no difficulty, as we have seen, in drawing and applying

practical lessons in cases of urgency, where experience and the common

sense of the individual prompt him to it;--and this attempt to imitate

Nature in less urgent cases, and especially in hearing, or in the more

artificial operation of reading, has been found in experience to be

completely successful. We shall endeavour to point this out by a few

familiar examples.

Let us for this purpose suppose, that one of the boys formerly mentioned

is accompanied by his teacher, instead of his companion, and is

approaching the soft ground which lies between them and the house.

Before they arrive at the spot, his teacher tells him, that the marsh

before them is so soft that even a child's foot would sink if he

attempted to tread upon it. The boy might hear, and perfectly understand

the truth, and yet he might not at the time think of the use to which it

ought to be put. But if the teacher shall immediately add, "What does

that teach you?"--his attention would instantly be called, not so much

to the truth itself, as to the uses which ought to be made of it, and

his answer in such a plain case would be ready, "We must not cross

there, but seek a road to the house by some other way." Now here the

fact was verbally communicated; and although the object was in sight,

and the use of the fact might in some measure have been anticipated so

as to suggest the answer, yet a little consideration will shew, that a

similar effect would have been produced by the question, had the parties

been in the house, or had the truth been derived from reading, and not

from the oral communication of the teacher.

It is the want of something like this in the acquisition of truth by

books, which renders that kind of knowledge in general of so little

practical benefit. The truths and facts learned while attending school,

are too often received as mere abstractions, without reference to their

uses, or to the personal application of those uses to the circumstances

of the child or his companions. Events daily occur in which the pupil's

knowledge might be of important service;--but the benefits to be derived

from it not having been taught, and the method of applying the facts

which he has acquired by reading not having been explained,--the

knowledge and its uses are seldom seen together, and the practical

benefit of the teaching is accordingly lost. This at once accounts for

the very remarkable circumstance, that children, and not unfrequently

adults also, derive far more benefit from the scanty knowledge which

they have gleaned by observation and experience, than from the many

thousands of highly useful facts which have again and again been pressed

upon their notice by reading and study. In almost every case Nature

prompts us, as we have seen, to turn to our own benefit the knowledge

which she has imparted; but as the mode of teaching reading, which is

the _artificial_ method of acquiring information, often overlooks the

use we are to make of it, we remain satisfied with the knowledge itself,

and do not think of its application. To illustrate this fact in some

measure, let us suppose a basket of filberts set down for the use of a

company of boys, and that one of them tries to crack the shells with his

front teeth. He fails. But he sees his companions put the nuts farther

back in the mouth, and succeed. Does he lose his share, by continuing to

misapply the lever-power provided for him by Nature?--No indeed. He, by

a single observation, at once draws and applies the lesson;--he

immediately cracks his nuts as readily as his companions, and he

continues to do so all his lifetime after. But the same boy may have,

that very forenoon, been reading a treatise on the power of the lever,

and might read it again and again without considering himself at all

interested in the matter, or thinking it probable that he ever would.

His reading, without the application we are here recommending, would

never have led him to perceive the slightest similarity between the

fulcrum of the lever, and the insertion of his jaw; or any connection

between the lesson of the school, and the employment of the

parlour:--But that would.

This is but one of a thousand examples that might be given, of the evils

arising from the non-application of knowledge in reading, and which are

applicable, not to children merely, but also to adults. The drawing and

applying of lessons, the exercise which we are here recommending, has

been found a valuable remedy for this defect in ordinary reading. The

object of the teacher by its use, is to accomplish in the pupil by

_reading_, what we have shewn Nature so frequently does by

_observation_;--that is, to train the child to apply for his own use, or

the use of others, those truths which he acquires from his _book_, in

the same way that he does those which he derives from _experience_. To

illustrate this, we shall instance a few cases of every day occurrence,

in which the question, "What does this teach you?" when supplemented to

the fact communicated, will almost invariably answer the purpose

desired, whether the truth from which the lesson is to be drawn, has

been received by observation, by oral instruction, or by reading.

When an observing well-disposed child sees a school-fellow praised and

rewarded for being obliging and kind to the aged or the poor, there is

formed in the mind of that child, more or less distinctly, a resolution

to follow the example on the first opportunity. Here is the fact and the

lesson, with the application in prospect. This whole feeling may be

faint and evanescent, but it is real; and it only wants the cultivating

hand of the teacher to arrest it, and to render it permanent.

Accordingly, if on the child hearing the praise given to his companion

for being kind and obliging to the poor, he had at the time been asked,

"What does that teach you?" the lesson suggested by Nature would

instantly have assumed a tangible form; and in communicating the answer

to the teacher, both the truth and the lesson would have been brought

more distinctly before the mind, and the reply, "I should be kind and

obliging to the poor," would tend to fix the duty on the memory, and

would be a good preparation for putting it in practice when the next

occasion should occur.

Again, if another thoughtful and well disposed child sees a companion

severely punished for telling a lie, the question, "What does that teach

me?" is in some shape or degree formed in his mind, and his resolution,

however faint, is taken to avoid that sin in future. This, it is

obvious, is nothing more than a practical answer to the above question,

forced upon the child by the directness of the circumstances, but which

would not have so readily made its appearance, or produced its effect,

in cases of a less obtrusive kind, or in one of more remote application;

and every person must see, that the beneficial effects desired would

have been more definite, more effectual, and much more permanent, had

this faint indication of Nature's intention been followed up by orally

asking the question at the child, and requiring him audibly to return an

answer.

Let us once more suppose a child in the act of reading the history of

Cain and Abel, in the manner in which it is commonly read by the young,

and that the child thoroughly understands all the circumstances. He may

be deeply interested in the story, while the uses to be made of it may

not be very clearly perceived. But if, after reading any one of the

moral circumstances, such as "Cain hated his brother," or after having

it announced to him by the teacher, he was asked, "What does that teach

you?" the practical use of the truth would at once be forced upon his

mind, and he would now very readily answer, "It teaches me that I should

not hate my brother." In this case also, it is quite obvious, that

without such a question having been proposed, and the answer to it

given, the practical uses of the truth recorded might have been

altogether overlooked; and even although they had not, still the

question and its answer will always have the effect of making them stand

out much more prominently before the mind, and will enable the memory to

hold them more tenaciously, and bring them forth more readily for

practice, than if such an operation had been neglected. Hence the great

importance of training the young by this exercise early to perceive the

uses of every kind of knowledge, particularly Scriptural knowledge;

because the habit formed in youth, will continue to render every useful

truth of practical benefit during life.

We may remark here, that the exercise is not limited in its application

to the young. For if an adult were first told, that the squalid beggar

before him, though once respectable and rich, had made himself wretched

by a course of idleness and dissipation, and were then asked, "What does

that teach you?" he would instantly perceive the lesson, and would be

stimulated to apply it. When, in like manner, the farmer is told that

his neighbour has ruined himself by over-cropping his ground; or the

iron master, that the use of the hot-blast has doubled the profits of

his rival; a similar question would at once lead to the legitimate

conclusion, and most likely to the proper conduct.

In all these examples, the operation of mind which we have endeavoured

to describe, is so exceedingly simple, that it is perhaps difficult to

decide how much is the work of Nature, and how much belongs to the

exercise here recommended. This at once proves its efficiency, as an

imitation of her process, in following her in the path which she has

here pointed out; and it at the same time recommends itself as strictly

accordant with observation and experience. The teacher then, in order to

render the knowledge he communicates useful, has only to do regularly

and by system, that which, under the direction of Nature, every

intelligent and enquiring mind in its best moments does for itself.

Wherever a useful truth has been communicated in the school or family,

or a moral act or precept has been read or announced, the question by

the parent or the teacher, "What does that teach you?" will lead the

pupil to reflection, not only on its nature, but on its use; and the

ability to do so, as we shall afterwards see, may be acquired by almost

any individual with ease. Regular training in this way, leads directly

to habits of reflection and observation, which are of themselves of

great value; but which, when found acting in connection with the desire

and ability to turn every truth observed into a practical channel,

become doubly estimable, and a public blessing. The pupil therefore

ought early to be trained of himself to supplement the question, "What

does this teach me?" or, "What can I learn from this?" to every

circumstance or truth to which his attention is called; because the

ability to answer it forms the chief, if not the only correct measure of

a well educated person. In proof of this it is only necessary to remark,

that as it is not the man who has accumulated the greatest amount of

anatomical and surgical knowledge, but he who can make the best use of

it, that is really the best surgeon; so it is not the man who has

_acquired_ the largest portion of knowledge, but he who _can make the

best use_ of the largest portion, that is the best scholar. Hence it is,

that all the exercises in a child's education should have in view the

practical use of what he learns, and of what he is to continue through

life to learn, as the great end to which all his learning should be

subservient.

The moral advantages likely to result from the general adoption of this

mode of teaching useful knowledge are exceedingly cheering, and the only

surprise is, that it has been so long overlooked. That the principle,

though not directly applied to the purposes of education, was well

known, and frequently practised by our forefathers, appears obvious from

many of their valuable writings. One beautiful example of its

application is familiar to thousands, though not always perceived, in

the illustration given of the Lord's prayer towards the close of the

Assembly's Larger and Shorter Catechisms. The study of the lessons there

drawn from the truths stated or implied in that prayer, will afford a

better idea of the value of this mode of teaching, than perhaps any

farther explanation we could give, and to these therefore we refer the

reader.

Before closing these general observations upon the value and necessity

of this method of training the young to the practical use of knowledge,

there is a circumstance which should not be omitted, as it tends to

double all the advantages of the exercise, both to the teacher and the

pupil. It will be found in general, especially in morals, that every

practical lesson that is drawn from a truth or passage, actually

embodies two,--both of which are equally legitimate and connected with

the subject. There is always a _negative_ lesson implied, when the

_positive_ lesson is expressed; and there is in like manner a _positive_

implied, whenever it is the _negative_ that is expressed. As for

example, when the child, from the history of Cain and Abel, draws the

negative lesson that he should _not hate_ his brother; the opposite of

that lesson is equally binding in the positive form, that he should

_love_ his brother. And when, from the history of Job, the positive

lesson is drawn that we ought to be patient; the negative of that lesson

becomes equally binding, and the child may, by the very same fact, be

taught and enjoined not to be fretful, discontented, or impatient,

during sickness or trouble. Of this method of multiplying the practical

uses of knowledge, we have a most appropriate example in the Assembly's

Larger and Shorter Catechisms, where the illustrations given of the

decalogue are conducted upon this important principle, and in a similar

way.

CHAP. VIII.

_On the Imitation of Nature in Teaching the Use of Knowledge by means of

the Animal or Common Sense._

A large portion of what has been advanced in the foregoing chapter, has

reference to the practical application of all kinds of knowledge,

whether by the Animal or Moral sense; and we shall here offer a few

additional remarks on the teaching of those branches which are more

immediately connected with the former.

When a person is sent to learn an art or trade, such as a carpenter, he

is not sent to hear lectures, or to get merely an abstract knowledge of

the several truths connected with it; but he is sent to practise the

little knowledge that he is able of himself to pick up. His is a

practical learning; ninety-nine parts in every hundred being employed in

the practice, for one that is employed in acquiring the abstract

principles of his occupation. When, on the contrary, a child is sent to

school, to prepare him for this practical application of his knowledge,

the former proportions are generally reversed, and ninety-nine parts of

his time and labour are taken up in attaining abstract knowledge, for

one that is occupied in assisting him to reduce it to practice. Both

modes of teaching the boy are obviously wrong. He would, when sent to

it, learn his business in much less time by a previous acquaintance with

its principles; and all these ought to have been furnished him as a

part of his general knowledge while he attended the school. Such

information, indeed, ought to have formed a large portion of his

education;--and it will be a matter of surprise to every one who closely

considers the subject, how soon and how easily the principles, even of

so complicated a trade as a carpenter, may be acquired when they are

taught in the right way, and at the proper time. A few of the simplest

principles in mechanics practically learned,--a knowledge of the

strength and adhesion of bodies,--of the nature of edge tools,--and the

importance of accuracy and caution, might have been made familiar to him

while attending his studies; and if carefully and constantly reduced to

practice, these would have been of the greatest service to him when

called to the work-shop.

The methods by which natural philosophy ought to be taught in schools,

must partake of all the laws which Nature employs in the several parts

of her teaching. Individuation, Grouping, and especially Analysis, must

be rigidly attended to. By dividing all the subjects of general

knowledge into the two grand divisions of Terrestrial and Celestial, and

these again into their several parts, the whole field of useful

knowledge would be mapped out, and connected together, so that each

subject would occupy a distinct place of its own, and be readily found

when it was required. The facts, or at least the most useful facts

connected with each of these, would very soon be communicated; and when

turned into a popular and useful form, by drawing and applying the

corresponding lessons, the ease and delight of laying up these precious

stores of useful knowledge by children, will not be easily conceived by

those who have not witnessed it.

With respect to _the ease_ with which this method of communicating

knowledge can be accomplished, we may remark in general, that when a

principle has been explained, and has become familiar to the child, all

the phenomena arising out of it, when pointed out, are readily perceived

and retained upon the memory in connection with it. For example, by a

knowledge of the principle which teaches that fluids press equally on

all sides, when considered in connection with the weight of the

atmosphere, a child, with very little trouble, would be put into the

full possession of the cause of many facts in natural philosophy,

exceedingly dissimilar in their appearance, but which are all mastered

with ease and intelligence by a knowledge of this law. When the

principle and its mode of working have been explained, the child is

provided with a key, by which he may, in the exercise of his own powers,

unlock one by one all the mysterious phenomena of the air and common

pump, the cupping-glass, the barometer, the old steam and fire engine,

the toy sucker and pop-gun, the walking of a fly on the ceiling, the

ascent of smoke in the chimney, the sipping of tea from a cup, the

sucking of a wound, and the true cause of the inspiration and expiration

of the air in breathing. To teach these singly, would obviously be

exceedingly troublesome to the teacher, and laborious for the child; but

when thus linked together, as similar effects from the same cause, they

are understood at once, and each of them helps to illustrate and explain

all the others. They are received without confusion, and are remembered

without difficulty. All this may in general be done even with children,

as we shall immediately prove, by the method recommended above, of

requiring, after the illustration of the principle, the lessons which it

is calculated to teach.

The results of this simple method of imitating Nature in one of the most

valuable of her processes, have been found remarkably uniform and

successful; and when it shall be regularly brought into operation in

connection with the other parts of the system, it promises to be still

more valuable and extensive. But even already, with all the

disadvantages of time, place, and persons, the importance and

efficiency of the exercise have been highly satisfactory. We shall

shortly advert to a few instances of its success, which have been

publicly exhibited and recorded.

The criminals in the jail of Edinburgh, after three weeks teaching, had

acquired a considerable degree of expertness in perceiving and drawing

lessons from the moral circumstances which they read from Scripture. In

the report of that experiment, the examinators say, "They gave a

distinct account, (from the book of Genesis,) of the prominent facts,

from Adam, down to the settlement in Goshen, and shewed by their

answers, that the circumstances were understood by them, in their proper

nature and bearings. From each peculiar circumstance, they deduced an

appropriate lesson, calculated to guide their conduct, when placed in a

like, or analogous situation. It is within the truth to allege, that in

this part of their examination, they submitted upwards of fifty palpable

lessons, that cannot fail, we would conceive, hereafter to have a

powerful influence upon their affections and deportment."

In the experiments both in Newry and London, the children were found

quite adequate to the exercise; and in the latter instance, three

children, who at their first lesson did not know they had a soul, were

able to perceive and to draw lessons from almost any moral truth or fact

presented to them. This they did repeatedly when publicly examined by

the Committee of the London Sunday School Union, in presence of a large

body of clergymen, and a numerous congregation in the Poultry Chapel.

But we shall at present direct attention more particularly to the

children selected from the several schools in Aberdeen, as given in the

Report by Principal Jack, and the Professors and Clergymen in that

place. After mentioning, that these children, so very ignorant only

eight days before, had acquired a thorough acquaintance with the

leading facts in Old Testament History, they say, "From the various

incidents in the Sacred Record, with which they had thus been brought so

closely into contact, they drew, as they proceeded, a variety of

practical lessons, evincing, that they clearly perceived, not only the

nature and qualities of the actions, whether good or evil, of the

persons there set before them, but the use that ought to be made of such

descriptions of character, as examples or warnings, intended for

application to the ordinary business of life.

"They were next examined, in the same way, on several sections of the

New Testament, from which they had also learned to point out the

practical lessons, so important and necessary for the regulation of the

heart and life. The Meeting, as well as this Committee, were surprised

at the minute and accurate acquaintance which they displayed with the

multiplicity of objects presented to them,--at the great extent of the

record over which they had travelled,--and at the facility with which

they seemed to draw useful lessons from almost every occurrence

mentioned in the passages which they had read."

They were able also to apply this same principle,--the practical

application of useful knowledge,--to the perusal of civil history, and

also biography. The report states, that "they were examined on that

portion of the History of England, embraced by the reign of Charles I.

and the Commonwealth; and from the details of this period, they drew

from the _same circumstances_, or announcements, political, domestic,

and personal lessons, as these applied to a nation, to a family, and to

individuals;--lessons which it ought be the leading design of history to

furnish, though, both by the writers and readers of history, this

Committee are sorry to say, they are too generally overlooked.

"They were then examined on biography,--the Life of the late Rev. John

Newton being chosen for that purpose; from whose history they also drew

some very useful practical lessons, and seemed very desirous of

enlarging, but had to be restrained, as the time would not permit."

The practicability and the importance of teaching children to apply the

same valuable principle to every branch and portion of natural

philosophy were also ascertained. The same report, after stating the

fact, that the children scientifically described to the meeting numerous

objects presented to them from the several kingdoms of Nature, goes on

to say, that "here also they found no want of capacity or of materials

for practical lessons. A boy, after describing copper as possessing

poisonous qualities, and stating, that cooking utensils, as well as

money, were made of it, was asked what practical lessons he could draw

from these circumstances, replied, That no person should put halfpence

in his mouth; and that people should take care to keep clean pans and

kettles."

The common school boys in Newry also found no difficulty in the

exercise, as applied to the abstruse and difficult sciences of anatomy

and physiology. The account of that experiment, says, that they were

"examined as to the _uses_ which they ought to make of all this

information, by drawing practical lessons from the several truths.

Accordingly, announcements from the different branches of the science

were given, from which they now very readily drew numerous and valuable

practical lessons, several of which were given at this time of

themselves, and which had not been previously taught them. These were

drawn directly from the announcements; and all, according to their

nature, calculated to be exceedingly useful for promoting the health,

the comfort, and the general happiness of themselves, their friends, or

their companions."

But by far the most extensive and satisfactory evidence of the value and

efficiency of this exercise, in the mental and moral training of the

young, was afforded by the experiment undertaken at the request of the

Lesson System Association of Leith, and conducted in the Assembly Rooms

there, in the presence of the Magistrates and Clergy of that town, of

Bishop Russell, Lord Murray, (then Lord Advocate,) and a numerous

meeting of the friends of education. The children were those connected

with a Sabbath school, who had been regularly trained by their teacher,

a plain but pious workman of the town, to draw lessons every Sabbath

from the several subjects and passages of Scripture taught them. To give

all the specimens which afford evidence of the value and efficiency of

this exercise in the education of children, would be to transcribe the

report of the Association; we shall therefore confine ourselves to a few

of the circumstances only, which were taken in short-hand by a public

reporter who was present.

After some important and satisfactory exercises on the being and

attributes of God, from which the children drew many valuable practical

lessons, it is said, that the examinator "expressed his entire

satisfaction with the result, and remarked, that he himself was

astonished, not only at the immense store of biblical knowledge

possessed by these children, but the power which they possessed over it,

and the facility with which they could, on any occasion, use it in

'giving a reason for the hope that is in them.' He then proceeded to the

next subject of examination which had been prescribed to him, which was,

to ascertain the extent of their mental powers and literary attainments,

which would be most satisfactorily shown by their ability to read the

Bible profitably; and for this purpose he requested that some of the

clergymen present would suggest _any_ passage from the New Testament on

which to exercise them. The Rev. Dr Russell (now Bishop Russell,)

suggested the parable of the labourers hired at different hours, Matt.

xx. 1-16. Mr Gall accordingly read it distinctly, verse by verse,

catechising the children as he proceeded, and then made them relate the

whole in their own words, which they did most correctly.

"Mr Gall then selected some of the verses, and called upon them to

separate the circumstances, or parts of each verse, and to state each as

a separate proposition. This also they did with the greatest ease; and

in some cases a variety of divisions were brought forward, thus proving

the high intellectual powers which they had acquired, and the ease with

which they could analyse any passage, however difficult.

"It was next to be ascertained what power the children had acquired of

drawing lessons from Scripture; and for this purpose, Mr Gall, in order

to husband the time of the meeting, confined the children's attention to

one verse only, and proposed to submit each of the moral circumstances

contained in that verse, one by one, as they themselves had divided it.

The following are the lessons drawn by the children, as taken down in

short-hand by the Reporter.