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RESONANCE
IN
SINGING AND SPEAKING
BY
THOMAS FILLEBROWN, M.D., D.M.D.
TWENTY-ONE YEARS PROFESSOR OF OPERATIVE DENTISTRY AND ORAL SURGERY IN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, THE
ACADEMY OF DENTAL SCIENCE, THE NEW ENGLAND OTOLOGICAL AND
LARYNGOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, ETC.; LECTURER ON VOICE DEVELOPMENT.
THIRD EDITION
[Illustration: THE MUSIC STUDENTS LIBRARY]
BOSTON
OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
NEW YORK
CHAS. H. DITSON & CO.
CHICAGO
LYON & HEALY
_Copyright, MCMXI_
BY OLIVER DITSON COMPANY
International Copyright secured
[Transcriber's Note: Text in bold is surrounded by =. Text in italics
is surrounded by _.]
TO THE MEMORY OF
WILLIAM HASKELL STOCKBRIDGE
PUPIL OF VANNUCCINI AND MY FIRST INSTRUCTOR IN VOICE CULTURE, THIS
VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
PREFACE
Efforts to develop my own voice, and the voices of my patients after
operations for cleft palate, aided by anatomical study, resulted in a
plan for the focusing and development of the human voice quite
different from any other yet published, or, so far as I know, yet
proposed. This plan has proved so successful in my later life that I
feel emboldened to offer it for the consideration of speakers and
singers.
While twenty-five years ago few of the principles here described were
acknowledged or even recognized, within the last decade almost all
have been advocated separately by different teachers or writers. At
the present time, therefore, originality consists only in the
classification of the principles into a systematic, progressive whole,
and in arranging a simpler and more practical method of applying them,
thus making the desired results much more quickly attainable.
It is attempted in this volume only to describe the value of each
element in the production of the perfect tone and to demonstrate the
principles which, if properly and faithfully applied, will develop the
best that is possible in each individual voice and prepare the pupil
to enter upon the more advanced arts of speaking and singing.
In 1903 I prepared a series of papers on _The Art of Vocalism_, which
were published in _The Étude_ in May, June, and July of that year.
These articles are incorporated in this work. In connection with
different organs and conditions, important principles are stated and
restated. This repetition is thought desirable in order that the
fundamentals may be kept prominently before the mind and impressed
upon the attention.
I believe that a careful study of this volume will prove of essential
service to teachers and advanced pupils of singing and oratory,
especially to young teachers just entering upon their duties. Its
method will be found adapted to the instruction of pupils of all
grades, from the kindergarten to the Conservatory of Music and the
School of Oratory.
I shall be gratified if this outcome of years of experience, constant
study, and tested methods shall prove helpful to those who seek
mastery of the art of beautiful speaking and singing.
[Illustration: [signature] Thomas Fillebrown]
CONTENTS
PREFACE vii
INTRODUCTION 1
I. THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT 6
II. THE SPEAKING VOICE AND PRONUNCIATION 16
III. BREATH CONTROL 23
IV. BREATHING EXERCISES 33
V. REGISTERS 38
VI. RESONANCE IN GENERAL 43
VII. HEAD AND NASAL RESONANCE 51
VIII. PLACING THE VOICE 56
IX. THROAT STIFFNESS 74
X. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 77
XI. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VOCAL CULTURE 82
BOOKS CONSULTED 86
INDEX 89
RESONANCE
IN
SINGING AND SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION
When a youth it was my lot to be surrounded by examples of faulty
vocalism, such as prevailed in a country town, and to be subjected to
the errors then in vogue, having at the same time small opportunity
for training in the application of principles, even as then
imperfectly taught. At middle life I had given up all attempt at
singing and had difficulty in speaking so as to be heard at any
considerable distance or for any considerable length of time.
Professional obligations to my patients, however, compelled me later
to take up the subject of vocal physiology. This I did, guided by the
ideas current on the subject.
About 1880 I became satisfied that many of the current ideas were
incorrect, and determined to start anew, and to note in detail the
action of each organ used in vocalization and articulation. To this
end I sought vocal instruction and advice, which, modified by my own
observations, have produced the most gratifying results.
Up to that time it had been held that the nasal cavities must be cut
off from the mouth by the closing of the soft palate against the back
of the throat; that the passage of ever so little of the sound above
the palate would give a nasal twang, and that the sound was reinforced
and developed only in the cavities of the throat and mouth. My
practice in Oral Surgery, coupled with my own vocal studies exposed
this fallacy and revealed to me the true value of nasal resonance.
The late Mme. Rudersdorff had begun to recognize the effect of nasal
resonance, but she left no published record of her conclusions. It
does not appear that she or her contemporaries realized the true value
of the nasal and head cavities as reinforcing agents in the production
of tone, or appreciated their influence upon its quality and power.
There are perhaps few subjects on which a greater variety of opinion
exists than on that of voice culture, and few upon which so many
volumes have been written. Few points are uncontested, and exactly
opposite statements are made in regard to each.
Formerly great stress was laid upon the distinction between "head
tones" and "chest tones," "closed tones" and "open tones." The whole
musical world was in bondage to "registers of the voice," and the one
great task confronting the singer and vocal teacher was to "blend the
registers," a feat still baffling the efforts of many instructors.
Many teachers and singers have now reached what they consider a
demonstrated conclusion that registers are not a natural feature of
the voice; yet a large contingent still adhere to the doctrine of
"register," depending for their justification upon the unreliable
evidence furnished by the laryngoscope, not realizing that there will
be found in the little lens as many different conditions as the
observers have eyes to see. Garcia himself, the inventor of the
laryngoscope, soon modified his first claims as to its value in vocal
culture.
On this point we have the testimony of his biographer, M.S. McKinley:
"As far as Garcia was concerned, the laryngoscope ceased to be of any
special use as soon as his first investigations were concluded. By his
examination of the glottis he had the satisfaction of proving that all
his theories with regard to the emission of the voice were absolutely
correct. Beyond that he did not see that anything further was to be
gained except to satisfy the curiosity of those who might be
interested in seeing for themselves the forms and changes which the
inside of the larynx assumed during singing and speaking."
Of similar purport is the word of the eminent baritone, Sir Charles
Santley, who, in his _Art of Singing_, says:
"Manuel Garcia is held up as the pioneer of scientific teaching of
singing. He was--but he taught singing, not surgery! I was a pupil of
his in 1858 and a friend of his while he lived;[1] and in all the
conversations I had with him I never heard him say a word about larynx
or pharynx, glottis or any other organ used in the production and
emission of the voice. He was perfectly acquainted with their
functions, but he used his knowledge for his own direction, not to
parade it before his pupils."
[Footnote 1: Garcia died July 1, 1906, at the age of 101.]
The eminent London surgeon and voice specialist, Dr. Morell Mackenzie,
says of the laryngoscope, "It can scarcely be said to have thrown any
new light on the mechanism of the voice"; and Dr. Lennox Browne
confesses that, "Valuable as has been the laryngoscope in a
physiological, as undoubtedly it is in a medical sense, it has been
the means of making all theories of voice production too dependent on
the vocal cords, and thus the importance of the other parts of the
vocal apparatus has been overlooked."
Not only in regard to "registers" but in regard to resonance, focus,
articulation, and the offices and uses of the various vocal organs,
similar antagonistic opinions exist. Out of this chaos must some time
come a demonstrable system.
A generation ago the art of breathing was beginning to be more an
object of study, but the true value of correct lateral abdominal
breathing was by no means generally admitted or appreciated. It was
still taught that the larynx (voice-box) should bob up and down like a
jack-in-a-box with each change of pitch, and that "female breathing"
must be performed with a pumping action of the chest and the
elevation and depression of the collar bone.
Fortunately, teachers and singers recognized a good tone when they
heard it, and many taught much better than they knew, so that the
public did not have to wait for the development of accurate knowledge
of the subject before hearing excellent singing and speaking. Yet many
singers had their voices ruined in the training, and their success as
vocalists made impossible; while others, a little less unfortunate,
were still handicapped through life by the injury done by mistaken
methods in early years. Jenny Lind's perfect vocal organs were quite
disabled at twelve years of age by wrong methods, and they recovered
only after a protracted season of rest. As a consequence her beautiful
voice began to fail long before her splendid physique, and long before
her years demanded. Singers taught in nature's way should be able to
sing so long as strength lasts, and, like Adelaide Phillips, Carl
Formes, and Sims Reeves, sing their sweetest songs in the declining
years of life. Martel, at seventy years of age, had a full, rich
voice. He focused all his tones alike, and employed deep abdominal
breathing.
The whole matter of voice training has been clouded by controversy.
The strident advocates of various systems, each of them "the only true
method," have in their disputes overcast the subject with much that is
irrelevant, thus obscuring its essential simplicity.
The "scientific" teachers, at one extreme, have paid too exclusive
attention to the mechanics of the voice. The "empiricists" have gone
to the other extreme in leaving out of account fundamental facts in
acoustics, physiology, and psychology.
The truth is that no purely human function, especially one so subtle
as singing, can be developed mechanically; nor, on the other hand, can
the mere _ipse dixit_ of any teacher satisfy the demands of the modern
spirit.
PRINCIPLES ADVOCATED
The positions here advocated, because they seem both rational and
simple, are:
=1. That the singing and speaking tones are identical, produced by the
same organs in the same way, and developed by the same training.=
=2. That breathing is, for the singer, only an amplification of the
correct daily habit.=
=3. That "registers" are a myth.=
=4. That "head tones, chest tones, closed tones, open tones," etc., as
confined to special parts of the range of the voice, are distracting
distinctions arising from false education.=
=5. That resonance determines the quality and carrying power of every
tone, and is therefore the most important element in the study and
training of the voice.=
=6. That the obstacles to good speaking and singing are psychologic
rather than physiologic.=
=7. That, in the nature of things, the right way is always an easy
way.=
CHAPTER I
THE VOCAL INSTRUMENT
Since the vocal organism first became an object of systematic study,
discussion has been constant as to whether the human vocal instrument
is a stringed instrument, a reed instrument, or a whistle. Discussion
of the question seems futile, for practically it is all of these and
more. The human vocal organs form an instrument, _sui generis_, which
cannot be compared with any other one thing. Not only is it far more
complex than any other instrument, being capable, as it is, of
imitating nearly every instrument in the catalogue and almost every
sound in nature, but it is incomparably more beautiful, an instrument
so universally superior to any made by man that comparisons and
definitions fail.
ELEMENTS
The human vocal instrument has the three elements common to all
musical instruments,--a motor, a vibrator, and a resonator; to which
is added--what all other instruments lack--an articulator.
1. The respiratory muscles and lungs for a =motor=.
2. The vocal cords for a =vibrator=.
3. The throat, mouth, and the nasal and head cavities for a =resonator=.
4. The tongue, lips, teeth, and palate for an =articulator=.
These elements appear in as great a variety of size and proportion as
do the variations of individual humanity, and each element is,
moreover, variable according to the will or feeling of the individual.
This susceptibility to change constitutes a modifying power which
gives a variety in tone quality possible to no other instrument and
makes it our wonder and admiration. The modification and interaction
of these various parts produced by the emotions of the singer or
speaker give qualities of tone expressive of the feelings, as of pain
or pleasure, grief or joy, courage or fear.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Section of the head and throat locating the
organs of speech and song, including the upper resonators. The
important maxillary sinus cannot well be shown. It is found within the
maxillary bone (cheek bone). The inner end of the line marked _Nasal
cavity_ locates it.]
TIMBRE
The minute differences in these physical conditions, coupled with the
subtler differences in the psychical elements of the personality,
account for that distinctive physiognomy of the voice called =timbre=,
which is only another name for individuality as exhibited in each
person. The same general elements enter into the composition of all
voices, from the basso profundo to the high soprano.
That the reader may better understand the proportion and relations of
the different parts of the vocal apparatus, a sectional drawing of the
head is here produced, showing the natural position of the vocal
organs at rest. As the drawing represents but a vertical section of
the head the reader should note that the sinuses, like the eyes and
nostrils, lie in pairs to the right and left of the centre of the
face. The location of the maxillary sinuses within the maxillary or
cheek bones cannot be shown in this drawing.
The dark shading represents the cavities of the throat, nose, and
head. The relations of the parts are shown more accurately than is
possible in any diagram. It will be noticed that the vibrations from
the larynx would pass directly behind the soft palate into the nasal
chamber, and very directly into the mouth. The nasal roof is formed by
two bones situated between the eyes; the sphenoid or wedge-bone, which
is connected with all other bones of the head, and the ethmoid or
sieve-like bone. The structure of these two bones, especially of the
ethmoid, consists of very thin plates or laminæ, forming a mass of air
cavities which communicate by small openings with the nasal cavity
below. Thus, the vibrations in the nose are transmitted to the air
spaces above, and the effective qualities of the head vibrations are
added to the tone.
THE LARYNX
The larynx or voice-box contains the vocal cords. Just above the vocal
cords on each side is a large, deep cavity, called the ventricle.
These cavities reinforce the primary vibrations set up by the cords
and serve to increase their intensity as they are projected from the
larynx. The larynx is the vibrating organ of the voice. It is situated
at the base of the tongue and is so closely connected with it by
attachment to the hyoid bone, to which the tongue is also attached,
that it is capable of only slight movement independent of that organ;
consequently it must move with the tongue in articulation. The
interior muscles of the larynx vary the position of its walls, thus
regulating the proximity and tension of the vocal cords. The male
larynx is the larger and shows the Adam's apple. In both sexes the
larynx of the low voice, alto or bass, is larger than that of the high
voice, soprano or tenor. The larynx and tongue should not rise with
the pitch of the voice, but drop naturally with the lower jaw as the
mouth opens in ascending the scale. The proper position of the tongue
will insure a proper position for the larynx. The less attention the
larynx receives the better.
THE VOCAL CORDS
The vocal cords are neither cords nor bands, but instead are thick
portions of membrane extending across the inner surface of the larynx.
On account of familiarity the name _vocal cords_ will still be used.
They are fairly well represented by the lips of the cornet player when
placed on the mouthpiece of the instrument. The pitch of the tone is
fixed by the tension of the vocal cords and the width and length of
the opening between them. Their tension and proximity are
self-adjusted to produce the proper pitch without any conscious
volition of the singer. They can have no special training, needing
only to be left alone. The work of the vocal cords, though essentially
important, is, when naturally performed, light and consequently not
exhausting. If the larynx and all of its supporting muscles are
relaxed as they are in free and easy breathing, then when the air
passes out through the larynx, the vocal cords will automatically
assume a tension sufficient to vocalize the breath and give the note
the proper pitch. The normal action of the cords will never cause
hoarseness or discomfort. The sound should seem to be formed, not in
the throat,--thus involving the vocal cords,--but in the resonance
chambers.
THE EPIGLOTTIS
The epiglottis is the valve which closes over the upper opening of the
larynx. It not only closes the mouth of the larynx when food is
swallowed, but aids materially in converting into tone the vibrations
set up by the vocal cords.
THE PHARYNX
The pharynx extends from the larynx to the nasal cavity. The size of
the opening into the nasal chamber is controlled by the soft palate
and is frequently entirely closed. The size of the pharynx is varied
by the contraction and relaxation of the circular muscles in its
tissue; when swallowing its walls are in contact. The pharynx acts as
does the expanding tube of brass instruments. It increases the force
and depth of the tone waves. The wider the pharynx is opened, without
constraint, the fuller the resonance and the better the tone.
THE UNDER JAW
The under jaw furnishes attachment for the muscles of the tongue and
hyoid or tongue bone. It also controls, owing to the connections of
the larynx with the hyoid bone, the muscles that fix the position of
the larynx.
The pterygoid muscles, which move the under jaw forward and backward,
do not connect with the larynx, so their action does not compress that
organ or in any way impede the action of the vocal apparatus. A
relaxed under jaw allows freer action of the vocal cords and ampler
resonance. The under jaw should drop little by little as the voice
ascends the scale, thus opening the mouth slightly wider with each
rise in the pitch of the tone. In ascending the scale it is well to
open the throat a little wider as you ascend. The delivery will be
much easier, and the tone produced will be much better. At the highest
pitch of the voice the mouth should open to its full width. At the
same time care must be taken _not_ to draw the corners of the mouth
back, as in smiling, because this lessens the resonance of the tone
and gives it a flat sound.
The under jaw must have considerable latitude of motion in
pronunciation, but by all means avoid chewing of the words and cutting
off words by closing the jaw instead of finishing them by the use of
the proper articulating organs, which are the tongue and lips.
THE SOFT PALATE
Writers on the voice have almost universally claimed that the
principal office of the soft palate is to shut off the nasal and head
cavities from the throat, and to force the column of vibrations out
through the mouth, thus allowing none, or at most a very small part,
to pass into the nasal passages.
This contention implies that the vibrations are imparted to the upper
cavities, if at all, through the walls of the palate itself, and not
through an opening behind the palate. This is entirely at variance
with the facts as verified by my own experience and observation and
the observation of others who are expert specialists. The true office
of the soft palate is to modify the opening into the nose and thus
attune the resonant cavities to the pitch and timbre of the note given
by the vocal cords and pharynx. To develop the vowel sounds, the soft
palate should be drawn forward, allowing a free passage into the nose;
it should be closed only to form the consonants which require a
forcible expulsion of breath from the mouth.
The uvula, the pendulous tip of the soft palate, serves as a valve to
more accurately adjust the opening behind the soft palate to the pitch
of the voice. In producing a low tone the soft palate is relaxed and
hangs low down and far forward. As the voice ascends the scale the
tension of the soft palate is increased and it is elevated and the
uvula shortened, thus decreasing the opening behind the palate, but
never closing it. In fact the larger the opening that can be
maintained, the broader and better the tone. The author was himself
unable fully to appreciate this until he had become able to sense the
position of the soft palate during vocalization.
THE HARD PALATE AND TEETH
The hard palate and upper teeth form in part the walls of the mouth.
As they are solid fixtures, nothing can be done in the way of
training. They furnish a point of impingement in articulation, and
play their part in sympathetic resonance.
The bones which form the roof of the mouth serve also for the floor of
the nasal cavity.
The under teeth also serve as walls of resistance to support the
tongue during the performance of its functions.
THE NASAL AND HEAD CAVITIES
The nasal and head cavities are resonating chambers incapable of
special training, but their form, size, and the use made of them have
a wonderful effect upon the resonance of the voice. If the vibrations
are strong here, all other parts will vibrate in harmonious action.
When responding to the perfectly focused tone the thin walls of the
cavities and the contained air vibrate with surprising force, often
for the moment blinding the singer when sounding a note intensely.
Having in my surgical work demonstrated the existence of a hitherto
unrecognized connecting passage or canal between the air cavities of
the face and those of the forehead,[2] the play of resonance in the
cavities above the nostrils is more easily understood. The function of
the cavities known as the _frontal sinuses_ (see Fig. 1) has long been
a mystery, but now that their direct connection with the lower
cavities is proven, and the great significance of resonance is also
beginning to be recognized, the mystery disappears. The same may be
said of the other sinuses--_ethmoidal_, _sphenoidal_, and _maxillary_,
and their interconnection.
[Footnote 2: Dr. Fillebrown's paper, _A Study of the Relation of the
Frontal Sinus to the Antrum_, was read before the American Dental
Association, at Saratoga, August 5, 1895. His investigation showed
that the funnel-shaped passage known as the _infundibulum_ extends
from the _frontal sinus_ directly into the antrum or _maxillary
sinus_. This was afterwards confirmed by Dr. W.H. Cryer and others.]
INFLUENCE OF THE RESONANCE CAVITIES ON THE PITCH OF THE TONE
In instruments changes in the length and form of the resonance
chambers affect the pitch as well as the quality of the tone. This is
demonstrated in the trombone, French horn, and other wind instruments.
The lengthening of the tube of the trombone lowers the pitch of the
tone, and the projection of the hand of the performer into the bell of
the French horn has the effect of raising the pitch of the sound. If
the variation in length or form is only slight, the result is sharp or
flat, and the instrument is out of tune. In the human instrument all
the organs act together as a unit; so the fact that the cavities alone
may affect the pitch is practically of no great significance.
THE TONGUE
The tongue and the lips are the articulating organs, and the former
has an important part to play in altering through its movements the
shape of the mouth cavity.
The tip of the tongue should habitually rest against the under front
teeth. The tip of the tongue, however, must frequently touch the roof
of the mouth near the upper front teeth, as when pronouncing the
consonants _c_, _d_, _g_ or _j_, _l_, _n_, _s_, and _t_. The back part
of the tongue must rise a little to close against the soft palate when
pronouncing _g_ hard, and _k_, and hard _c_, _q_, and _x_. The soft
palate comes down so far to meet the tongue that the elevation of the
latter need be but very slight.
When speaking, the demand is not so imperative, but when singing, the
body of the tongue should lie as flat as possible, so as to enlarge
the mouth, especially when giving the vowel sounds.
If the tongue is sometimes disposed to be unruly, it is the result of
rigidity or misplaced effort in the surrounding parts. This tendency
will only be aggravated by artificial restraint of any kind. The true
way is to dismiss tongue consciousness, _let go_, and a normal
flexibility will easily manifest itself.
THE LIPS
The lips, equally with the tongue, are organs of articulation. The
upper lip is the principal factor of the two; the under lip seems to
follow the lead of the upper. The lips need much training, and it can
readily be given them. While practising to educate the lips, both lips
should be projected forward and upward, at the same time pronouncing
the word "too." Bring the edge of the upper lip as high toward the
nose as possible in practice. This will bring the corners of the mouth
forward and lift the lips clear and free from the teeth, and thus add
one more resonance cavity. This position of the lips also gives
freedom for pronunciation. "The upper lip plays the most active part
in the shaping of the vowels. It should never be drawn against the
teeth when producing vowel tones; indeed, there should be often a
little space between the upper lip and the teeth, so that the
vibrations of the sound-waves can have free play."
THE NOSTRILS
The nostrils should be dilated as much as possible, as a free, wide,
open nose gives a free, well-rounded tone, while a contracted nostril
induces the nasal tone so much dreaded. A proper training of the
facial muscles makes this dilation possible. Lifting the upper lip and
projecting it forward aids the action to a great degree.
There is a strong tendency to unity of action between the nostrils and
the lips and the soft palate. The soft palate moves downward and
forward when the upper lip protrudes and the nostrils dilate, and
moves backward and upward when the nostrils are contracted and the
upper lip allowed to rest upon the teeth.
As a rule the best singers have full, round, wide, open nostrils,
either given by nature or acquired by practice.
THE FACE
Not only must the lips and nose be trained, but the muscles of the
face also. These muscles are capable, if educated, of doing important
service.
The artist on the operatic stage or the speaker on the platform,
without facial expression begotten of muscular activity, may lessen by
half his power over an audience. To train the facial muscles is a
complicated task. To do this, stand before a mirror and make all the
faces ever thought of by a schoolboy to amuse his schoolmates. Raise
each corner of the lip, wrinkle the nose, quilt the forehead, grin,
laugh. The grimaces will not enter into a performance, but their
effect upon it will be markedly beneficial.