POPULATION—Washington, D. C., 109,199; Chicago, 298,977; New York
(including boroughs now forming Greater New York), 1,469,045; New York
(Manhattan), 942,292; London, 3,251,804; United States, 38,558,371;
Great Britain and Ireland, 31,672,678. World population,
1,310,000,000.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Spain Amadeus
is made king, and in France Napoleon III falls with the empire.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1871=]
In the United States, a great fire in Chicago destroys a large portion
of the city; property loss, one hundred and ninety million five hundred
and twenty-six thousand dollars; several hundred people are killed, and
over one hundred thousand are rendered homeless; area burned, three and
a half square miles. In the same month, October, vast fires rage in
northern Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota, with appalling loss of
life. A commission of British and American statesmen meets In Washington
and frames a treaty with reference to the claims of the United States
against Great Britain for damage done during the Civil War by the
Confederate cruiser Alabama and other Confederate vessels built and
equipped in English ports; by terms of treaty the question is submitted
to a board of arbitration to convene at Geneva next year. In New York,
the corrupt Tweed ring is broken up, and its head, William M. Tweed,
arrested and held in two million dollars bail. Under authority of
Congress, President Grant takes steps to promote improvement in the
Civil Service; he appoints a commission under George W. Curtis (see
1873). An act of Congress creates the Centennial Commission representing
all States and Territories: it is authorized to prepare for a great
international exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, in celebration of the
nation’s centennial anniversary. Passage of the Force Bill to suppress
the “Kuklux Klan” in the South. Death of George Ticknor, American writer
and philologist; Alice and Phœbe Cary, poets; Robert Anderson, American
soldier, the defender of Fort Sumter. Immigration, 321,350; exports,
$442,820,178.
In England, the system of purchasing commissions and promotions in the
army is abolished, and also the requirements of religious tests in the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Russia gives notice that she will
no longer be held by the treaty made after the Crimean War, under which
she abrogated naval rights in the Black Sea; England and other powers
acquiesce. Death of Sir John Herschel, astronomer, and of George Grote,
historian and philosopher.
In France, the siege of Paris is ended by capitulation and armistice,
pending formation of a government to negotiate peace with the victorious
Germans. A National Assembly, selected by popular vote, meets at
Bordeaux and selects M. Thiers as “executive head” of the Republic with
a coalition cabinet representing the several factions. M. Thiers
negotiates peace by which Germany annexes Alsace, except the city of
Belfort, and a part of Lorraine (Treaty of Frankfort); indemnity to
Germany, one billion dollars; German troops to occupy France pending its
final payment. M. Thiers now made President of the French Republic.
Meantime, civil war breaks out in Paris, and the Commune is established
with a reign of bloodshed, cruel reprisals, and wanton destruction of
property; burning of the Tuileries, the Louvre, Hôtel de Ville, and
leveling of the Vendôme Column; barbarous murder of the hostages,
including Archbishop Darboy. Commune is finally quelled after
bombardment, assault, and capture of city by French Government troops;
leaders of Commune executed; lives lost during the conflict, fourteen
thousand. The Mont Cenis tunnel is opened for traffic, thus piercing the
barrier of the Alps between France and Italy. Death of Auber, French
composer.
In Spain, Minister Serrano having resigned, King Amadeus first appoints
Zorilla and then Sagasta in his place. The excellent qualities of King
Amadeus fail to compensate for his being a foreigner, while his honesty
of purpose alienates him from all political factions. Meantime, the
Alfonsists and Carlists organize their hostility and raise standard of
war. In Germany, William I triumphantly returns to Berlin, after having
been proclaimed Emperor of Germany in the palace of Versailles (see
France). The first Reichstag of the new German Empire is formally
opened. In Italy, the seat of government is transferred from Florence to
Rome, the first Italian Government in Rome for many centuries. In
Mexico, Juarez is again elected President, but by a small majority,
owing to large following developed by General Diaz as a rival candidate.
Diaz party in rebellion over result (see 1872). In Africa, Stanley,
heading the New York _Herald_ expedition, finds Livingstone and relieves
his wants.
RULERS—United States, Ulysses S. Grant, President; Great Britain,
Queen Victoria; France, L. Thiers, President; Spain, Amadeus; Germany,
William I; Russia, Alexander II; Italy, Victor Emmanuel; Austria,
Francis Joseph; Pope, Pius IX.
POPULATION—Washington, D. C., 109,199; New York (including boroughs
now forming Greater New York), 1,469,045; New York (Manhattan),
942,292; Chicago, 298,977; London, 3,351,804; United States,
38,558,371; Great Britain and Ireland, 31,672,678. World population,
estimated at 1,310,000,000.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1872=]
In the United States, a general epidemic prevails among horses; business
seriously crippled by it, and great financial loss. In Boston, a great
fire destroys the business portion of the city; loss, seventy million
dollars. General U. S. Grant, Republican, is reelected President; Henry
Wilson, Vice-President; defeated candidate, Horace Greeley (Liberal
Republican and Democratic parties). Congressional investigation of the
Credit Mobilier corporation in connection with the building of the
Pacific Railway; great scandal developed from the discovery that much of
the Credit Mobilier stock is owned by members of Congress. The Geneva
arbitrators award fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars damages
to the United States for depredations committed during Civil War by
Confederate cruisers built or equipped in England; and the Emperor of
Germany arbitrates in favor of the United States in its contention with
Great Britain for ownership of the San Juan Islands, between Washington
Territory and Vancouver Island. Death of William H. Seward, American
statesman; Horace Greeley, famous American journalist and editor; James
Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York _Herald_; and Professor S. F. B.
Morse, American inventor and father of the telegraph. Important
inventions; the duplex telegraph perfected by Stearns; George
Westinghouse, Jr., produces improved air-brake for trains (see 1869);
Lyall Invents the “positive motion loom.” Immigration, 404,806; exports,
$444,177,586.
In England, Stanley returns and publishes “How I Found Livingstone.”
Deaths of Poole, English dramatist; Charles Lever, Irish novelist; Sir
John Bowring, linguist and social politician. In France, the seat of
government is transferred from Versailles to Paris. The government
revokes the proscription of the Orleans and Bourbon princes. Death of
Gautier, French novelist and essayist.
In Spain, Serrano again assumes ministry, but resigns because King
Amadeus declines to encourage civil war by taking the aggressive against
the Alfonsists and Carlists. Amadeus’s courage and coolness is exhibited
strikingly amid conspiracies that surround him and warnings and attempts
to assassinate him; but being surrounded by traitorous ministers and
generals, with the army disorganized and rule in Spain under a
constitution appearing to be impossible, the king at length decides to
abdicate (see 1873). In Germany, the meeting in Berlin of the Emperors
of Germany, Russia, and Austria establishes the “league of the three
emperors” (Drelkaiserbund), thus assuring the peace of Europe and
emphasizing the German capital as the pivot of European policy. Death of
Feuerbach, German philosopher. In Mexico, a civil War is begun by
General Diaz and his partisans, but it is ended by the sudden death of
President Juarez from apoplexy. Lerdo de Tajada, Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, assumes the Presidency; is subsequently elected, and
tranquillity is restored.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, with the exception that in
Sweden Charles XV dies, and is succeeded by his son as Oscar II.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1873=]
A great commercial panic, originating in the New York stock market,
sweeps the country (September 18 called the “Second Black Friday”). In
New York City, the stock exchange is closed, and the clearing house
suspends temporarily. Congress drops the standard silver dollar of four
hundred and twelve and one-half grains from the list of coins. Death of
Chief Justice Chase, American statesman and jurist; Agassiz, American
scientist. General Ulysses S. Grant is again inaugurated President.
Congress raises the salaries of its members and of officers of the
government (act repealed 1874; called the “salary grab”). In New York
City, the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge is begun. Great Britain pays to the
United States fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars, the award
under the Alabama claims. Alexander H. Stephens returns to Congress.
Congress establishes one-cent postal cards. Spanish authorities capture
an American steamer, the Virginius, suspected of conveying men and arms
to Cuba; thirty Americans executed; great indignation and excitement
throughout the United States; Spain tenders apology and surrenders
vessel and surviving prisoners; indemnity paid (1875), eighty thousand
dollars. Steady growth of the “Grangers” as a political factor. Congress
refuses to make further appropriation for continuing work of the Civil
Service Commission (see 1874). Organization of the “Farmers’ Alliance,”
a cooperative agricultural society. Important inventions: the automatic
self-binding harvester and the Janney automatic car-coupler.
Immigration, 459,893; exports, $522,479,922.
In England, home rule for Ireland is agitated for the first time as an
issue in politics and efforts are made to form a compact, well-guided
Irish party in Parliament to press demand for legislative independence;
the Irish Land League is organized. Gladstone endeavors to establish an
Irish university on a non-sectarian basis, but finds the project
unpopular and resigns. Disraeli declines to take the government, owing
to personnel of House of Commons, and Gladstone resumes office. Death of
Dr. Livingstone (in Africa), African explorer; Sir Edwin Landseer,
English artist; Sir H. Holland, English physician and author; John S.
Mill, English philosopher and economist.
In France, the last instalment of the billion-dollar war indemnity to
Germany is paid, and all German troops are withdrawn from French soil.
President Thiers, wearied of the controversies of seven political
parties in the Chamber and the intrigues and hostility of the
monarchists, tenders his resignation, which is accepted by a small
majority in the assembly: great dismay and regret among the people at
large. General MacMahon, favored by the monarchists, is elected
President by the assembly; the Duc de Broglie, grandson of Mme. de
Staël, is made Prime Minister. The monarchist majority negotiates with
the Comte de Chambord, heir of the Bourbon kings (the so-called Henry
V), who declines the throne, however, rather than govern under a
constitution or “abandon the Bourbon White Flag for the Revolutionary
Tri-Color.” The royalists now feel constrained to accept the Republic as
the most feasible form of government for the time being, and gradually
cooperate in strengthening it. Deaths of ex-Emperor Napoleon III, in
exile; Balrot, French statesman; Guizot and Michelet, French historians.
In Germany, Baron Liebig, the great German chemist, dies, and also A.
Rothschild, Hebrew banker (one of the five brothers), and Von Raumer,
German historian. In Spain, King Amadeus communicates his abdication to
the Cortes and leaves Spain, respected by the better class for chivalric
bearing and honesty, but hated by masses because a foreigner. The Cortes
now declares in favor of a republic, with Figueras as President, and
Castelar foreign minister; but insurrections occur, and a new Ministry
is formed. Castelar is made President amid such chaos that he proclaims
temporary military rule. Insurrections of the Carlists, Alfonsists, and
Communists are suppressed.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Spain Amadeus
abdicates and a republic is proclaimed; Figueras, President, and later
Castelar, military dictator; in France M. Thiers resigns Presidency,
and is succeeded by General MacMahon.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1874=]
In the United States, the Eads Bridge over the Mississippi River at
Saint Louis is formally opened. In New York City, the Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children is organized. In Germantown,
Pennsylvania, Charlie Ross, aged four years, is kidnaped from his
father’s home (has never been found). Death of Ezra Cornell, founder of
Cornell University; ex-President Fillmore; Charles Sumner, American
statesman and politician. Important inventions: the quadruplex telegraph
(Edison); twine binder for harvesters (Gorham); the practical
barbed-wire machine (Glidden and Vaughan). Immigration, 313,339;
exports, $586,283,040.
In England, owing to a reaction against Liberal measures, Gladstone
appeals to the country, promising abolition of the income tax and other
tax reductions, but the national elections result favorably for the
Conservatives; Gladstone resigns and Disraeli forms new government.
Termination of the celebrated Tichborne trial, the longest known in
England. In Spain, the Cortes votes a “lack of confidence,” and Castelar
resigns. The military, however, disperse the Cortes, and a military
dictatorship is formed under Marshal Serrano; European powers, except
Russia, recognize his government; the warfare against the Carlists and
Alfonsists is prosecuted with indifferent success. Finally army
officers, led by General Campos, declare for Alfonso, son of ex-Queen
Isabella (deposed); Serrano resigns, and a ministerial regency notifies
Isabella of the elevation of her son to the throne.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Spain Serrano
succeeds Castelar as dictator.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1875=]
In the United States, two rival State governments in Louisiana maintain
civil war and distract the State and nation (see 1877). Passage of new
Civil Rights Bill (see 1883). Congress provides for the gradual
resumption of specie payments; act becomes effective, 1879. Death of
Henry Wilson, Vice-President of the United States; ex-President Andrew
Johnson, and John C. Breckenridge. In Massachusetts, the Hoosac Tunnel
is opened to traffic. In Louisiana, Captain Eads begins the work of
deepening the channel of the South Pass of the Mississippi River, and in
New York City the work of excavation under the dangerous reef of Hell
Gate is completed; forty-seven thousand four hundred and sixty-one cubic
yards of rock removed (see 1876). In Massachusetts, centenary
celebrations of the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill are held. Many
government officials indicted for connection with the swindles of the
“whisky ring.” Important inventions: illuminating gas made from water
(Lowe); ice machine; sulphuric acid plant; cash-carriers for stores
(Brown); artificial ice skating-rinks (Gamgee). Immigration, 227,498;
exports, $513,442,711.
In England, the shares of the Suez Canal owned by the Khedive of Egypt
(amounting to nearly one-half interest) are purchased for four million
pounds, in order that England may protect her interests in the route to
India; the money is advanced by the Rothschilds. Departure of polar
expedition under Captain Nares (see 1876). Death of Arthur Helps,
English essayist and dramatist.
In France, the Constitution of the Republic is finally adjusted, and a
parliamentary body established (Senate and Chamber of Deputies);
Gambetta is leader of the “Left” or Republican division. Death of
Quinet, French author. In Turkey, the provinces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina revolt against the intolerable abuses of Turkish rule under
Abdul Aziz. In Germany, civil marriage legalized throughout the empire.
In Spain, the Bourbons regain power, Alfonso, son of Isabella II, being
crowned king under title of Alfonso XII. Canovas del Castillo is made
regent, and prosecutes attempts to suppress the Carlists.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Spain Alfonso
XII becomes king.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1876=]
In the United States, this, the centennial year of national existence,
is opened with a general celebration all over the country. Visit of Dom
Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, and the empress. The great national
Centennial Exhibition of arts and industries opens in Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia, and surpasses all previous world’s fairs of every land.
Massacre of General Custer and two hundred and seventy-six men of the
Seventh Cavalry by the Sioux Indians under Sitting Bull, near the Little
Big Horn River, Montana. Appearance of the Greenback party. Rutherford
B. Hayes (Republican) elected President, and William A. Wheeler
Vice-President. Defeated candidate, Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat). The
result is held to be doubtful, owing to existence of dual governments in
Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and Georgia, and a complication in
Oregon; decision is referred to Electoral Commission appointed by
Congress; decision for Mr. Hayes, March, 1877. In New York City, the
first wire is stretched between the towers of the Brooklyn Bridge, and
the blowing up and removal of part of the great reef at Hell Gate is
successfully accomplished. Colorado is admitted to Statehood. Death of
A. T. Stewart, New York merchant. In Brooklyn, New York, the burning of
the Brooklyn Theater causes a loss of over three hundred lives
(performance, Kate Claxton in “The Two Orphans”). Important inventions:
the articulating telephone (Professor Alexander Graham Bell); hydraulic
dredges (Bowers and others); machinery for making cigarettes;
photography by electric light (Vander Weyde); the electric pen (Edison);
steam-feed for saw-mill carriages; cable cars introduced (Hallidie).
Commercial failures for year, 9,092; liabilities, $191,117,786.
Immigration, 169,986; exports, $540,384,671.
In England, Disraeli secures passage of an act conferring upon Queen
Victoria the title of Empress of India. News of the unspeakable
atrocities committed under Turkish misrule in Bulgaria creates great
excitement and indignation, but Disraeli, distrustful of Russian designs
on Turkish territory, endeavors to adhere to a policy of
non-interference. Gladstone, emerging from retirement, denounces Turkish
oppression, condemns Disraeli’s inaction, and urges that the Ottoman
Government “be turned out of Europe, bag and baggage.” A conference of
great powers is held at Constantinople, England being represented by
Lord Salisbury. Turkey rejects proposals of the congress, and Russia
declares war as champion of the Christian Church (Greek).
In France, President MacMahon, as a political experiment, but against
inclination, selects M. Jules Simon, Republican, from the ranks of the
“Left” as Prime Minister in place of De Broglie, resigned. M. Simon
organizes a new cabinet. Death of Aurore Dudevant (“George Sand”),
French novelist. In Spain, the Carlists are at last subdued; Don Carlos
escapes to France. A newly elected Cortes adopts new constitution
providing for legislative bodies controlled by popular vote, also for
freedom of the press, religion, and unions.
In Turkey, a conspiracy costs the sultan his throne, and, shortly after,
his life; he is succeeded by Neurad V, and he in turn by Abdul Hamid II.
Revolt extends to Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro; massacres of native
Christians, pillage and destruction of valuable property. European
powers remonstrate and urge reforms. Turks suppress revolt in Bulgaria,
using measures of extreme cruelty and authorizing massacres by the
Bashi-Bazouks (semi-organized banditti). In Germany, the movement is
begun which ultimately results in transference of railroads to ownership
of the separate states. Death of Ehrenberg, German naturalist. In
Mexico, a rebellion breaks out and Diaz joins it, forcing President
Lerdo into exile. Diaz becomes provisional President.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1877=]
In the United States, Rutherford B. Hayes is inaugurated President. The
conflict in Louisiana between rival State governments is settled by the
President in favor of Nicholls’s government (Democratic). President
Hayes withdraws last of Federal troops from the South. Pennsylvania and
West Virginia suffer from great railway strike and riots; in Pittsburgh,
much property is destroyed and many lives are lost; freight and
passenger service demoralized, and militia has to quell riot; strike
unsuccessful. Death of Brigham Young, religionist and head of the Mormon
Church. The “trade dollar” ceases to be a legal tender. Execution of
John D. Lee, convicted of complicity in the Mountain Meadow Massacre
(1857). Ex-President Grant sails from New York upon a tour around the
world. Death of J. L. Motley, American historian. Manifestations in
California against the immigration and the labor of the Chinese (see
1888); much general agitation this year over the rights of labor.
Important inventions: the phonograph (Edison); the gas-engine (Otto);
the Sawyer-Man electric lamp; transmitter for telephone (Berliner);
carbon microphone (Edison); discovery of the two satellites of planet
Mars (Hall). Immigration, 141,857; exports, $602,475,220.
In England, a war feeling develops against Russia; jealousy and alarm
felt over her conquests in Turkey; origin of “jingoism.” A fleet is sent
through the Dardanelles as a “demonstration” against Russia. Some
disaffected burghers of the Transvaal (the South African Republic)
invite England to annex their country. This is formally accomplished,
and the annexation persisted in by England despite much controversy in
Parliament (see 1880).
In France, M. Simon, being reproached by the President for radical
tendencies, resigns as Prime Minister, together with the Cabinet. The
President challenges criticism by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and
appealing to a national election, but a strong Republican majority is
returned. Death of ex-President Thiers, French patriot and statesman. A
French physicist, M. Cailletet, accomplishes the liquification of
oxygen, hydrogen, and other gases; Pictet, in Switzerland, does the
same. Invention of the Jablochkoff electric candle, and the chain and
sprocket device for bicycles.
In Turkey, the Porte rejects the proposals of the conference at
Constantinople, including its demands for the protection of Christian
provinces, and Russia declares war against Turkey, announcing herself as
the defender and protector of the Christians. Russian troops enter
Rumania and cross the Danube; they capture Nicopolis and garrison, but
at Plevna the heroic defense of the garrison of Turks against nearly two
hundred thousand Russians and Rumanians lasts five months, the Russians
failing entirely to carry the place by assault. The garrison of forty
thousand men finally surrenders because of famine, and Turkish
resistance collapses. In Mexico, General Porfirio Diaz is proclaimed
constitutional President by the Mexican Congress, for term ending 1880.
In Italy, Schiaparelli (astronomer) discovers the “canals” of Mars.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in the United
States Rutherford B. Hayes succeeds Ulysses S. Grant as President.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1878=]
In the United States, a great yellow fever epidemic spreads through the
Southern States. Congress passes, over the President’s veto, the
Bland-Allison Silver Bill, requiring the purchase monthly by the
Secretary of the Treasury of between two and four million dollars’ worth
of silver bullion for coinage (repealed, 1890). The silver dollar of
four hundred and twelve and one-half grains is made a legal tender.
Edison produces a perfected electric light for general use. Death of
William Cullen Bryant, American poet, and of Bayard Taylor, American
poet, essayist, and traveler. Important inventions: the carbon filament
for incandescent electric lamp (Edison); Sholes’s typewriter perfected
by E. Remington & Sons; the yielding spinning spindle bearing and the
Gessner cloth-finishing press; gelatine emulsion dry plate introduced.
Immigration, 138,469; exports, $694,865,766.
In England, protest is made by Disraeli against the Russo-Turkish treaty
of San Stefano, and English diplomacy and firmness forces Russian
consent to a congress of the five great powers at Berlin for settlement
of terms. The Berlin congress cedes Island of Cyprus to England as her
share of the spoils of the Russo-Turkish War, and yields to other
demands of England. Disraeli returns from the congress, having brought
back “peace with honor” and secured a great diplomatic triumph for
England; height of Disraeli’s power. He and Bismarck the two greatest
men in the world at this time (see 1881–1884). The Ameer of Afghanistan
having rebuffed a British diplomatic mission, a force of English troops
invades the country. Flight and death of the Ameer, Shere Ali; his son
and successor, Yakoub Khan, submits to English treaty terms (see 1879).
Death of Princess Alice.
In France, a great international exhibition is held in Paris. In
Germany, the Congress of Berlin meets under the presidency of Prince
Bismarck and modifies and revises the treaty terms of Russia with
Turkey. Death of Petermann, German geographer. In Italy, King Victor
Emmanuel and Pope Pius IX die within a few days of each other. At the
last the Pope generously forgets their strife and differences, and sends
the viaticum (eucharist) to the dying king. Victor Emmanuel is succeeded
by his son, Humbert I; the Pope is succeeded by Cardinal Pecci, as Leo
XIII. Rise of Crispi to prominence and power in the Italian Cabinet. In
Mexico, under President Diaz, a stronger and abler government begins to
develop; his consolidation of power secures domestic peace (see 1880).
In Chile, a serious dispute arises with Bolivia and Peru with reference
to northern boundary line (see 1879).
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Italy Victor
Emmanuel is succeeded by Humbert I; Pope Pius IX is succeeded by
Cardinal Pecci, as Leo XIII.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1879=]
In the United States, James Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York
_Herald_, proffers the government a ship, the Jeannette, for a voyage of
Arctic exploration via Bering Strait; offer accepted, and the Jeannette
sails from San Francisco. Specie payments are resumed. Death of William
Lloyd Garrison, noted abolitionist and reformer, and of Caleb Cushing,
statesman, jurist, and diplomat. Quinine placed on free list.
Publication of Henry George’s “Progress and Poverty,” advocating the
“single tax” theory. Captain Eads completes the improvements assuring
better navigation of lower Mississippi. Important inventions: Lee
magazine rifle; blasting gelatine (Nobel), an explosive more powerful
than dynamite or gunpowder; “Standard” bicycle perfected. Immigration.
177,826; exports, 710,439,441.
In Afghanistan, the British resident at Kabul, Sir Louis Cavagnari, is
murdered; the British forces prepare to renew the campaign. An
expedition sent against the Zulus in Southeast Africa for repeated
attacks on British settlers. Zulus subdued, and their chief, Cetywayo,
captured. The Prince Imperial of France killed by Zulus while serving in
English cavalry.
In France, President MacMahon, disapproving of certain changes in the
army corps, resigns and the Senate and Chamber elect M. Jules Grévy
(Republican) as his successor. Gambetta succeeds Grévy as president of
the Chamber of Deputies, and Waddington becomes Prime Minister. M. Jules
Ferry, Minister of Education, begins an agitation to exclude the Jesuits
and all “unauthorized orders” from teaching in France; much bitter
agitation. The Bonapartist cause suffers by the death of the young
prince imperial. In Germany, great economic changes are wrought by
Bismarck, including notable increase in tariff. In Sweden, news received
that Nordenskjöld, Arctic explorer, had reached the Northeast Passage.
In Chile, war against Bolivia and Peru declared; naval struggle watched
with world-wide interest as being the first between modern iron-clads;
Chilean fleet victorious; Bolivian and Peruvian army almost annihilated
at Dolores (see 1880).
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in France
President MacMahon is succeeded by Jules Grévy.
✷ ✷ ✷ ✷
[Sidenote: =1880=]
In the United States, owing to a deadlock between Ulysses S. Grant and
James G. Blaine, the Republican National Convention nominates a “dark
horse,” James A. Garfield, who is elected President, with Chester A.
Arthur Vice-President; defeated candidates, Winfield S. Hancock and
William H. English, Democrats. Popular vote. 4,454,416 to 4,444,952;
electoral vote, 214 to 155. Samuel J. Tilden had declined the Democratic
nomination. Important inventions: the magnetic ore concentrator
(Edison); hammerless gun (Greener); spinning spindle (Rabbeth); the
“Rover” bicycle (Starley), the first of the “safeties.” Public debt
reduced to $1,915,594,813; commerce, $14,760,000,000; immigration,
457,257; exports $835,638,658 (nearly double that of 1871).
In England, unpopularity of the Zulu and Afghan wars, depression of
trade, and bad harvests develop dissatisfaction with Disraeli’s
government, and the elections for a new Parliament result in Liberal
victory; Disraeli resigns, and Gladstone, the “Grand Old Man,” again
becomes Prime Minister. The Transvaal revolts against English régime and
proclaims restoration of free Republic (see 1881).
In France, a general amnesty is proclaimed toward all political exiles,
Including those who had been Communists. The first annual celebration of
the fall of the Bastile (July 14). Suppression of the Jesuit schools,
and restrictions passed upon religious orders. France annexes the
Society Islands. Invention of the electric storage battery (Faure). In
Germany, the great Cathedral of Cologne, begun in the year 1248, is
completed. Diplomatic relations are renewed between Germany and the
Papal See. In Afghanistan, a British force is defeated at Maiwand, but
General Roberts retrieves the situation by his march to Kandahar.
Abdurrahman, nephew of Shere Ali, is installed as ameer, and the
insurrection raised by a rival claimant, Ayoub Khan, suppressed. In
Mexico, Diaz’s term as President ends, and he is peaceably succeeded by
Manuel Gonzalez (see 1884). In Chile, the United States Minister
succeeds in bringing about negotiations for peace between Chile and
Bolivia and Peru (see 1881). In Spain, the Cortes passes a law for the
gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba during the next eight years.
RULERS—The same as previous year.
POPULATION—Washington, D. C., 147,293; New York (including boroughs
now forming Greater New York), 1,935,367; New York (Manhattan),
1,206,299; Chicago, 503,185; London, 3,834,194; United States,
50,155,783; Great Britain and Ireland, 34,868,648. World population,
estimated at 1,433,000,000.
Whatever is in any way beautiful hath its source of beauty in itself,
and is complete in itself; praise forms no part of it. So it is none
the worse nor the better for being praised.—=Marcus Aurelius.=
(121–180.)