PART II.

VENOMS

VENOMOUS ANIMALS

AND ANTIVENOMOUS

SERUM-THERAPEUTICS

BY

A. CALMETTE, M.D.

Corresponding Member of the French Institute and of the Academy

of Medicine, Director of the Pasteur Institute, Lille

TRANSLATED BY ERNEST E. AUSTEN, F.Z.S.

NEW YORK

WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY

MDCCCCVIII

PREFACE TO ENGLISH EDITION.

Mr. E. E. Austen, of the British Museum, has been good enough to

undertake the translation of my book on “Venoms.” For the presentation

of my work to the scientific public in an English dress I could not

have hoped to find a more faithful interpreter. To him I express my

liveliest gratitude for the trouble that he has so kindly taken, and

I thank Messrs. John Bale, Sons and Danielsson for the care they have

bestowed upon the preparation of this edition.

A. CALMETTE, M.D.

_Institut Pasteur de Lille,

June 17, 1908._

INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH EDITION.

In the month of October, 1891, during the rains, a village in the

vicinity of Bac-Lieu, in Lower Cochin-China, was invaded by a swarm of

poisonous snakes belonging to the species known as _Naja tripudians_,

or Cobra-di-Capello. These creatures, which were forced by the deluge

to enter the native huts, bit four persons, who succumbed in a few

hours. An Annamese, a professional snake-charmer in the district,

succeeded in catching nineteen of these cobras and shutting them up

alive in a barrel. M. Séville, the administrator of the district,

thereupon conceived the idea of forwarding the snakes to the newly

established Pasteur Institute at Saigon, to which I had been appointed

as director.

At this period our knowledge of the physiological action of venoms was

extremely limited. A few of their properties alone had been brought

to light by the works of Weir Mitchell and Reichard in America, of

Wall and Armstrong in India and England, of A. Gautier and Kaufmann in

France, and especially by Sir Joseph Fayrer’s splendidly illustrated

volume (“The Thanatophidia of India”), published in London in 1872.

An excellent opportunity was thus afforded to me of taking up a study

which appeared to possess considerable interest on the morrow of the

discoveries of E. Roux and Behring, with reference to the toxins of

diphtheria and tetanus, and I could not allow the chance to escape.

For the last fifteen years I have been occupied continuously with

this subject, and I have published, or caused to be published by my

students, in French, English, or German scientific journals, a fairly

large number of memoirs either on venoms and the divers venomous

animals, or on antivenomous serum-therapeutics. The collation of these

papers is now becoming a matter of some difficulty, and it appeared to

me that the time had arrived for the production of a monograph, which

may, I hope, be of some service to all who are engaged in biological

research.

* * * * *

_Antivenomous serum-therapy_, which my studies, supplemented by those

of Phisalix and Bertrand, Fraser, George Lamb, F. Tidswell, McFarland,

and Vital Brazil, have enabled me to establish upon scientific bases,

has now entered into current medical practice. In each of the countries

in which venomous bites represent an important cause of mortality in

the case of human beings and domestic animals, special laboratories

have been officially organised for the preparation of antivenomous

serum. All that remains to be done is to teach its use to those who are

ignorant of it, especially to the indigenous inhabitants of tropical

countries, where snakes are more especially formidable and deadly.

This book will not reach such people as these, but the medical men,

naturalists, travellers, and explorers to whom it is addressed will

know how to popularise and apply the information that it will give

them.

I firmly believe also that physiologists will read the book with

profit. Its perusal will perhaps suggest to them the task of

investigating a host of questions, which are still obscure, relating

to toxins, their mode of action upon the different organisms, and

their relations to the antitoxins. There is no doubt that in the study

of venoms a multitude of workers will, for a long time to come, find

material for the exercise of their powers of research.

* * * * *

At the moment of completing this work I would like to be allowed to

cast a backward glance upon the stage that it marks in my scientific

career, and to express my heartfelt gratitude to my very dear master

and friend, Dr. Émile Roux, to whom I owe the extreme gratification

of having been able to dedicate my life to the study of experimental

science, and of having caused to germinate, grow, and ripen a few of

the ever fertile seeds that he sows broadcast around him.

* * * * *

I am especially grateful to those of my pupils, C. Guérin, A. Deléarde,

F. Noc, L. Massol, Bernard, and A. Briot, who have helped me in my

work, while showering upon me the marks of their confidence, esteem,

and attachment; to my former chiefs, colleagues, and friends of the

Colonial Medical Staff, Drs. G. Treille, Kermorgant, Paul Gouzien,

Pineau, Camail, Angier, Lépinay, Lecorre, Gries, Lhomme, and Mirville;

and to my numerous foreign or French correspondents, George Lamb,

Semple, C. J. Martin, Vital Brazil, Arnold, de Castro, Simon Flexner,

Noguchi, P. Kyes, Morgenroth, J. Claine, Piotbey, and R. P. Travers,

several of whom have come to work in my laboratory, or have obligingly

procured for me venoms and venomous animals.

I have experienced at the hands of a large number of our ministers,

consuls, or consular agents abroad the most cordial reception on

repeatedly addressing myself to them in order to obtain the papers or

information of which I was in need. It is only right for me to thank

them for it, and to acknowledge the trouble that M. Masson has most

kindly taken in publishing this book.

A. CALMETTE.

_Institut Pasteur de Lille,

March 10, 1907._

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.

Page

CHAP. I.--I. General notes on poisonous animals 1

II. General classification of poisonous snakes. Their

anatomo-physiological characters 3

CHAP. II.--Habits of poisonous snakes. Their capture 17

CHAP. III.--Description of the principal species of poisonous

snakes. Their geographical distribution 22

A. _Europe_ 22

B. _Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands_ 30

C. _Africa_ 57

D. _Australia and adjacent large islands_ 81

E. _America_ 100

F. _Hydrophiidæ_ (_sea-snakes_) 131

G. _Geographical distribution of the principal genera

of poisonous snakes in the five divisions of the

world_ 142

PART II.

CHAP. IV.--Secretion and collection of venom in snakes 147

CHAP. V.--Chemical study of snake-venoms 159

CHAP. VI.--Physiological action of snake-venoms 168

A. Physiology of poisoning in man and in animals bitten

by the different species of poisonous snakes

(_Colubridæ_, _Viperidæ_, _Hydrophiidæ_) 168

B. Physiology of experimental poisoning 170

C. Determination of the lethal doses of venom for

different species of animals 173

D. Effects of venom in non-lethal doses 177

CHAP. VII.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Effects

of the various venoms on the different tissues

of the organism 179

(1) Action upon the liver 182

(2) Action upon the kidney 183

(3) Action upon the spleen, heart and lungs 183

(4) Action upon the striated muscles 184

(5) Action upon the nervous centres 185

CHAP. VIII.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Action of

venoms on the blood 188

A. Effects of venom on the coagulation of the blood 188

I. Coagulant venoms 190

II. Anticoagulant venoms 192

III. Mechanism of the anticoagulant action of

venoms on the blood 195

B. Effects of venom on the red corpuscles and on the

serum 196

(1) Hæmolysis 196

(2) Precipitins of venoms 202

(3) Agglutinins of venoms 202

C. Effects of venom upon the white corpuscles: Leucolysin 203

CHAP. IX.--Physiology of poisoning (_continued_). Proteolytic,

cytolytic, bacteriolytic, and various diastasic

actions of venoms: diastasic and cellular actions

on venoms 204

A. Proteolytic action 204

B. Cytolytic action 206

C. Bacteriolytic action 206

D. Various diastasic actions of venoms 212

E. Action of various diastases upon venoms 214

CHAP. X.--Toxicity of the blood of venomous snakes 217

CHAP. XI.--Natural immunity of certain animals with respect

to snake-venoms 222

CHAP. XII.--Snake-charmers 228

PART III.

ANTIVENOMOUS SERUM-THERAPEUTICS.

CHAP. XIII.--Vaccination against snake-venom--Preparation of

antivenomous serum--Its preventive properties

as regards intoxication by venom 241

Specificity and polyvalence of antivenomous serums 248

CHAP. XIV.--Neutralisation of venom by antitoxin 253

CHAP. XV.--Treatment of poisonous snake-bites in man and

animals. Objects of the treatment. Technique of

antivenomous serum-therapy 259

PART IV.

VENOMS IN THE ANIMAL SERIES.

CHAP. XVI.--Venoms in the animal series.

1.--Invertebrates 269

A. _Cœlenterates_ 269

B. _Echinoderms_ 273

C. _Arthropods_: (_a_) _Araneids_ 274

(_b_) _Scorpions_ 276

(_c_) _Myriopods_ 280

(_d_) _Insects_ 281

D. _Molluscs_ 286

CHAP. XVII.--Venoms in the animal series (_continued_).

2.--Venomous fishes 288

A. _Teleostei. Acanthopterygii_: 1. _Triglidæ_ 290

-- -- 2. _Trachinidæ_ 297

-- -- 3. _Gobiidæ_ 300

-- -- 4. _Teuthididæ_ 301

-- -- 5. _Batrachiidæ_ 302

-- -- 6. _Pediculati_ 303

B. _Teleostei. Plectognathi_: 305

C. _Teleostei. Physostomi_: 307

-- -- 1. _Siluridæ_ 308

-- -- 2. _Murænidæ_ 309

CHAP. XVIII.--Venoms in the animal series (_continued_).

3.--Batrachians; Lizards; Mammals 312

A. Batrachians 312

B. Lizards 321

C. Mammals (_Ornithorhynchus_) 323

PART V.

DOCUMENTS.

I.--_A few notes and observations relating to bites of

poisonous snakes treated by antivenomous serum-

therapeutics_ 326

II.--_A few notes and observations relating to domestic

animals bitten by poisonous snakes and treated

with serum_ 356

III.--_Note on the collection of cobra-venom and the treatment

of poisonous bites in the French Settlements in India

(by Dr. Paul Gouzien)_ 359

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Fig. 1.--A. Skull of one of the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_

(_Ptyas mucosus_) 7

B. Skull of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_

(_Naja tripudians_) 7

C. Skull of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_

(_Bungarus fasciatus_) 7

D. Skull of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_) 7

E. Skull of one of the _Viperidæ Crotalinæ_ (_Crotalus

durissus_) 7

F. Skull of one of the _Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ_

(_Hydrophis pelamis_) 7

Fig. 2.--A. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Viperidæ_

(_Vipera russellii_) 8

B. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_

(_Naja tripudians_) 8

C. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_

(_Bungarus fasciatus_) 8

D. Maxillary bone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous

_Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_) 8

Fig. 3.--A. Fang of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_) 8

D. Transverse section of the fang 8

Fig. 4.--B. Fang of one of the _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_) 9

E. Transverse section 9

Fig. 5.--C. Fang of one of the _Hydrophiinæ_

(_Hydrophis pelamis_) 9

F. Transverse section 9

Fig. 6.--Three transverse sections of a poison-fang of one of

the _Colubridæ_ 9

Fig. 7.--Marks produced on the skin by the bites of different

species of snakes 10

Fig. 8.--Poison-gland and fangs of a venomous snake (_Naja

tripudians_) 11

Fig. 9.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Vipera

russellii_ 12

Fig. 10.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Vipera

russellii_ 12

Fig. 11.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Naja

tripudians_ 13

Fig. 12.--Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of _Naja

tripudians_ 13

Fig. 13.--Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the

non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_) 14

Fig. 14.--Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the

poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_) 15

Fig. 15.--Feeding a poisonous snake (first stage) 18

Fig. 16.--Feeding a poisonous snake (second stage) 18

Fig. 17.--Capture of a _Naja tripudians_ (first stage) 19

Fig. 18.--Capture of a _Naja tripudians_ (second stage) 20

Fig. 19.--Hindu carrying two captured Cobras in “chatties” 21

Fig. 20.--Maxillary bone, mandible, and head of _Cœlopeltis

monspessulana_ 23

Fig. 21.--(1) _Vipera berus_; (2) _Vipera aspis_; (3) _Vipera

ammodytes_; (4) _Vipera ammodytes_ 25

Fig. 22.--_Vipera aspis_, from the Forest of Fontainebleau 28

Fig. 23.--Skull of _Bungarus_ 31

Fig. 24.--_Bungarus fasciatus_ (India) 32

Fig. 25.--Skull of _Naja tripudians_ 34

Fig. 26.--_Naja tripudians_ (Cobra-di-Capello) on the defensive,

preparing to strike 35

Fig. 27.--_Naja tripudians_ (Cobra-di-Capello) 36

Fig. 28.--_Vipera russellii_ (Daboia) 45

Fig. 29.--_Pseudocerastes persicus_ 47

Fig. 30.--_Echis carinatus_ (India) 48

Fig. 31.--_Ancistrodon hypnale_ (Carawalla, of Ceylon) 50

Fig. 32.--_Lachesis okinavensis_ 52

Fig. 33.--_Lachesis flavomaculatus_ 55

Fig. 34.--Skull of _Dendraspis viridis_ 65

Fig. 35.--Skull of _Causus rhombeatus_ 68

Fig. 36.--Skull of _Bitis arietans_ (Puff Adder) 70

Fig. 37.--_Bitis arietans_ (Puff Adder) 71

Fig. 38.--_Bitis cornuta_ 73

Fig. 39.--_Bitis rasicornis_ 74

Fig. 40.--_Cerastes cornutus_ 75

Fig. 41.--_Echis coloratus_ 77

Fig. 42.--Skull of _Atractaspis aterrima_ 79

Fig. 43.--Skull of _Glyphodon tristis_ (Australian Colubrine) 83

Fig. 44.--_Pseudelaps krefftii_ 85

Fig. 45.--_Pseudelaps harriettæ_ 85

Fig. 46.--_Pseudelaps diadema_ 85

Fig. 47.--_Diemenia psammophis_ 86

Fig. 48.--_Diemenia olivacea_ 86

Fig. 49.--_Diemenia textilis_ 86

Fig. 50.--_Diemenia nuchalis_ 87

Fig. 51.--_Pseudechis porphyriacus_ (Black Snake) 87

Fig. 52.--_Denisonia superba_ (Copperhead) 89

Fig. 53.--_Denisonia coronoides_ 89

Fig. 54.--_Denisonia ramsayi_ 90

Fig. 55.--_Denisonia signata_ 90

Fig. 56.--_Denisonia maculata_ 91

Fig. 57.--_Denisonia gouldii_ 91

Fig. 58.--_Hoplocephalus bitorquatus_ 94

Fig. 59.--_Notechis scutatus_ (Tiger Snake) 95

Fig. 60.--Skull of _Acanthophis antarcticus_ (Death Adder) 96

Fig. 61.--_Acanthophis antarcticus_ 97

Fig. 62.--_Rhynchelaps australis_ 98

Fig. 63.--Skull of _Furina occipitalis_ 99

Fig. 64.--_Furina occipitalis_ 99

Fig. 65.--Skull of _Elaps marcgravii_ 101

Fig. 66.--_Elaps fulvius_ (Harlequin Snake) 105

Fig. 67.--Head and Skull of _Crotalus horridus_ (Horrid

Rattle-snake) 109

Fig. 68.--_Ancistrodon piscivorus_ (Water Viper) 110

Fig. 69.--_Lachesis lanceolatus_ (Fer-de-Lance) 112

Fig. 70.--_Lachesis neuwiedii_ (Urutù) 116

Fig. 71.--_Sistrurus catenatus_ (Prairie Rattle-snake) 121

Fig. 72.--A. Horny appendage (rattle) of a _Crotalus horridus_ 122

B. Horny appendage, longitudinal section 122

C. Separated segments of the appendage 122

Fig. 73.--_Crotalus terrificus_ (Dog-faced Rattle-snake) 123

Fig. 74.--_Crotalus scutulatus_ (Texas Rattle-snake) 126

Fig. 75.--_Crotalus confluentus_ (Pacific Rattle-snake) 128

Fig. 76.--_Crotalus cerastes_ (Horned Rattle-snake) 130

Fig. 77.--Skull of _Hydrus platurus_ 132

Fig. 78.--_Hydrus platurus_ 133

Fig. 79.--_Hydrophis coronatus_ 134

Fig. 80.--_Hydrophis elegans_ 135

Fig. 81.--Skull of _Distira_ 137

Fig. 82.--_Enhydrina valakadien_ (_E. bengalensis_) 138

Fig. 83.--Skull of _Platurus colubrinus_ 139

Fig. 84.--_Platurus laticaudatus_ (_P. fischeri_) 140

Fig. 85.--Collecting venom from a _Lachesis_ at the

Serotherapeutic Institute of São Paulo (Brazil) 154

Fig. 86.--Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at

Pondicherry (first stage) 155

Fig. 87.--Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at

Pondicherry (second stage) 157

Fig. 88.--Collecting Cobra-venom at Pondicherry (third stage) 158

Fig. 89.--Mongoose seized by a Cobra 225

Fig. 90.--Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) 230

Fig. 91.--Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) 231

Fig. 92.--Musical instrument used by Indian snake-charmers to

charm Cobras 232

Fig. 93.--Vaccinating a horse against venom at the Pasteur

Institute, Lille 244

Fig. 94.--Aseptically bleeding a horse, vaccinated against

venom, in order to obtain antivenomous serum, at

the Pasteur Institute, Lille 245

Fig. 95.--Technique of injecting antivenomous serum beneath

the skin of the abdomen 264

Fig. 96.--_Lactrodectus mactans_ 275

Fig. 97.--_Scorpio occitanus_ 277

Fig. 98.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ 280

Fig. 99.--Poison-apparatus of the bee 281

Fig. 100.--Interior of the gorget of the Bee 282

Fig. 101.--_Synanceia brachio_ var. _Verrucosa_ 291

Fig. 102.--_Cottus scorpius_ (Sea Scorpion, or Father Lasher) 292

Fig. 103.--_Scorpæna grandicornis_ 293

Fig. 104.--_Scorpæna diabolus_ 294

Fig. 105.--_Pterois artemata_ 295

Fig. 106.--_Pelor filamentosum_ 296

Fig. 107.--_Trachinus vipera_ (Lesser Weever) 297

Fig. 108.--Operculum and opercular spine of the Lesser Weever 298

Fig. 109.--_Callionymus lyra_ (Dragonet) 300

Fig. 110.--_Batrachus grunniens_ 302

Fig. 111.--_Thalassophryne reticulata_ 302

Fig. 112.--_Lophius setigerus_ 303

Fig. 113.--_Serranus ouatabili_ 304

Fig. 114.--_Holacanthus imperator_ 305

Fig. 115.--_Tetrodon stellatus_ 306

Fig. 116.--_Tetrodon rubripes_ 306

Fig. 117.--_Chilomycterus orbicularis_ 307

Fig. 118.--_Chilomycterus tigrinus_ 307

Fig. 119.--_Silurus glanis_ 308

Fig. 120.--_Muræna moringa_ 310

Fig. 121.--_Salamandra maculosa_ (Spotted Salamander) 314

Fig. 122.--_Triton marmoratus_ (Marbled Newt) 314

Fig. 123.--_Cryptobranchus japonicus_ (Great Japanese

Salamander) 315

Fig. 124.--_Heloderma horridum_ 322

Fig. 125.--_Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_ (Duck-billed Platypus) 324

VENOMS.

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

_GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS--POISONOUS SNAKES: GENERAL

CLASSIFICATION AND ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS._

I.--GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS.

A large number of animals possess special glandular organs capable of

secreting toxic substances called _venoms_.

Sometimes these substances are simply discharged into the surrounding

medium, and serve to keep off enemies (_toad_, _salamander_); sometimes

they mingle with the fluids and digestive juices, and then play an

important part in the nourishment of the animal that produces them

(_snakes_); in other cases, again, they are capable of being inoculated

by means of _stings_ or _teeth_ specially adapted for this purpose,

and then they serve at once as a means of attack or defence, and as a

digestive ferment (_snakes_, _spiders_, _scorpions_, _bees_).

An animal is said to be _venomous_ when it possesses the power of

_inoculating_ its venom.

Venomous species are met with in almost all the lower zoological

groups, in the _Protozoa_, _Cœlenterates_, _Arthropods_, _Molluscs_,

and in a large number of _Vertebrates_ (fishes, amphibians, and

reptiles).

The _reptiles_ are best endowed in this respect, and it is in this

class of creatures that we meet with the species most dangerous to

man and to mammals in general. The study of their venom, too, is of

considerable interest, since it should lead to the quest of means of

protection sufficiently efficacious to preserve us from their attacks.

* * * * *

Venomous reptiles are not always easy to distinguish from those devoid

of any inoculatory apparatus. For this reason both classes alike have

at all times inspired mankind with a lively dread, which is displayed

among the various races in legends and religious beliefs.

In ancient days the cult of the snake occupied a prominent place. In

_Genesis_ the serpent is the incarnation of the Evil One, tempting and

deceitful. In Greece it was the symbol of wisdom and prudence. In Egypt

it was associated with the Sacred Scarabæus and the flowers of the

lotus to represent Immortality!

At Rome epidemics ceased when the snake sacred to Æsculapius was

brought from Epidaurus.

According to Kraff, the Gallas of Central Africa consider the snake as

the ancestor of the human race, and hold it in great respect.

In India the cult of the Seven-headed _Naja_, or serpent-god, was

formerly almost as flourishing as that of Buddha. It is still regarded

as a crime to kill a Cobra when it enters a hut; prayers are addressed

and food is offered to it. Its presence is an omen of happiness and

prosperity; it is believed that its death would bring down the most

terrible calamities on whomsoever should have brought it about, and on

his family.

Nevertheless, in the Indian Peninsula alone, the Cobra, the Krait, and

a few other extremely poisonous species of snakes cause every year an

average of _25,000_ deaths. The number of fatalities from the same

cause is likewise considerable in Burma, Indo-China, the Dutch Indies,

Australia, Africa, the West Indies and Tropical America generally.

The temperate regions of the globe are less severely affected; North

America the Rattle-snake and the Moccasin are especially deadly.

In France the Common Viper abounds in Jura, Isère, Ardèche, Auvergne,

Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau. _Three hundred thousand_ have

been killed in twenty-seven years in the Department of Haute-Saône

alone. Every year this snake causes the death of some sixty persons.

Cow-herds, shepherds, and sportsmen fear it greatly, since it is very

dangerous to cattle, sheep, and dogs.

II.--GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR

ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.

Poisonous snakes are divided by naturalists into two great Families,

the COLUBRIDÆ and VIPERIDÆ, distinguished from each

other by certain anatomical characters, and especially by the dentition.

The COLUBRIDÆ resemble harmless snakes, which renders them all

the more dangerous.

They are divided into two groups: OPISTHOGLYPHA (ὄπισθεν,

behind; γλυφὴ, a groove) and PROTEROGLYPHA (πρότερον, before;

γλυφὴ, a groove).

The OPISTHOGLYPHA have the upper jaws furnished in front with

smooth or non-grooved teeth, but _behind_ with one or several rows of

long, canaliculate teeth.

This group includes three _Sub-families_:--

A. The _Homalopsinæ_, having valved nostrils, placed above the snout.

B. The _Dipsadomorphinæ_, in which the nostrils are lateral in

position, and the dentition is highly developed.

C. The _Elachistodontinæ_, which have but rudimentary teeth only on

the posterior portion of the maxillary, on the palatine and on the

pterygoid bones.

Almost all the snakes belonging to these three sub-families are

poisonous, but only slightly so. They are not dangerous to man. Their

venom merely serves to paralyse their prey before deglutition takes

place; it does not afford them an effective means of defence or attack.

All the _Homalopsinæ_ are aquatic; they bring forth their young in

the water, and are met with commonly in the Indian Ocean, starting

from Bombay, and especially in the Bay of Bengal, on the shores of

Indo-China and Southern China, from Singapore to Formosa, in the

Dutch Indies, in Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and the Papuan

Archipelago, and as far as the north of Australia.

The _Dipsadomorphinæ_ comprise a large number of highly cosmopolitan

genera and species, found in all the regions of the earth except the

northerly portions of the Northern Hemisphere. None of these reptiles

is capable of causing serious casualties among human beings, owing

to the peculiarly defective arrangement of their poison-apparatus.

I therefore do not think it worth while to linger here over their

description.

The _Elachistodontinæ_ are of even less importance; at the present time

only two species are known, both of small size and confined to Bengal.

* * * * *

The PROTEROGLYPHA group of the _Colubridæ_ is of much greater

interest to us, since all the snakes belonging to it are armed with

powerful fangs, in front of the upper maxillaries. These fangs, which

are provided with a channel in the shape of a deep groove, communicate

at the base with the efferent duct of poison glands, which are often of

very large size.

The group is composed of two _Sub-families_:--

A. The _Hydrophiinæ_ (sea-snakes), provided with a flattened

_oar-shaped_ tail. The body is more or less laterally compressed; the

eyes are usually small, with circular pupils; the scales of the nose

have two notches on the upper labial border.

The normal habitat of all the members of this sub-family is the sea,

near the shore, with the exception of the genus _Distira_, which is

met with in the fresh water of a lake in the Island of Luzon, in the

Philippines. They are frequently found in very large numbers in the

Indian seas and throughout the tropical zone of the Pacific Ocean, from

the Persian Gulf to the west coast of the American Continent, but they

are entirely absent from the West Coast of Africa.

B. The _Elapinæ_ (land-snakes), with a cylindrical tail, and covered

with smooth or carinate scales. These serpents are frequently adorned

with brilliant colours. Some of them (belonging to the genus _Naja_)

have the faculty of expanding the neck in the shape of a parachute, by

spreading out the first pairs of ribs when they are alarmed or excited:

the breadth of the neck then greatly exceeds that of the head. They are

distributed throughout Africa, Asia, and North and South America, and

are also found in Australia, where almost all the snakes that are known

belong to this sub-family.

* * * * *

The Family VIPERIDÆ is characterised by a triangular head,

which is widened posteriorly, and by the general aspect of the body,

which is usually thick-set and terminated by a short tail. The bones

of the face are movable. The præfrontal bone is not in contact with

the nasal; the maxillary is greatly shortened and may be articulated

perpendicularly to the ectopterygoid; it bears a pair of large

poison-fangs, one on each side, and these are always accompanied by

several teeth to replace them, folded back in the gum; these latter

teeth come in succession to take the place of the principal tooth, when

this is broken or falls out of itself when the snake sheds its skin.

The poison-fangs are not _grooved_, as in the _Proteroglyphous

Colubridæ_; they are pierced by a perfectly formed canal, the upper

end of which inosculates with the efferent duct of the corresponding

poison-gland, while its lower extremity opens to the exterior a little

above and in front of the tip. The latter is always very sharp.

The palate and lower jaw are furnished with small hooked teeth, which

are solid and non-venomous.

With the exception of the species of _Atractaspis_, these snakes

are all ovoviviparous. The majority are terrestrial; a few lead a

semi-aquatic existence, while others are arboreal.

Their distribution includes Europe, Asia, Africa (with the exception

of Madagascar), and North and South America. They do not exist in

Australia.

They are divided into two _Sub-families_:--

A. The _Viperinæ_, in which the head, which is very broad and covered

with little plates and scales, has no pit between the nose and the eyes;

B. The _Crotalinæ_ (κρὁταλον, a rattle), in which the head is

incompletely covered with scales, and exhibits a deep pit on each side,

between the eye and the nostril.

* * * * *

Among snakes, the characters that serve as a basis for the

determination of genera and species are the general shape of the body,

especially that of the head, the arrangement of the cephalic scales,

the cranial skeleton, and the dentition.

* * * * *

_Cranial Skeleton._--The cranium is composed of a certain number of

bones, the homologues of which are found in the mammalian skeleton; but

the bones are complex, and subject to modifications according to the

structure and habitat of each species.

The special arrangement of the bones of the face is above all

characteristic of the poisonous snakes. Those forming the upper jaw,

the palate and the mandibles or “inter-maxillaries” are movable upon

each other and on the cranium. The upper and lower maxillaries are

united by an extensile ligament and articulated with the tympanic

bone, which permits the mouth to be opened very widely when the animal

swallows its prey.

* * * * *

_Dentition._--The _non-poisonous_ snakes have two rows of teeth in

the upper jaw--one external, the _maxillary_, usually composed of

from 35-40 small, backwardly curved teeth; the other internal, the

_palatine_, which only numbers from 20-22 teeth, having the same

curvature (fig. 1, A).

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--A, Cranial skeleton of one of

the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_); B, cranial

skeleton of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_);

C, cranial skeleton of one of the poisonous _Colubridæ_

(_Bungarus fasciatus_); D, cranial skeleton of one of the

_Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); E, cranial skeleton of one

of the _Viperidæ Crotalinæ_ (_Crotalus durissus_); F, cranial

skeleton of one of the _Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ_ (_Hydrophis pelamis_).]

In the _poisonous_ snakes the maxillary bones are shorter, and the

_outer_ row is represented by a single long and tubular or grooved

tooth (the fang), fused with the maxillary bone, which is itself

movable (fig. 1, B, C, D, E,

F).

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A, Maxillary bone and fangs

of one of the _Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); B, maxillary

bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_);

C, maxillary bone and fangs of one of the _Colubridæ_

(_Bungarus fasciatus_); D, maxillary bone and teeth of one

of the non-poisonous _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_). (After Sir Joseph

Fayrer.)]

Certain species (_Dipsas_) have maxillary teeth which increase in size

from front to rear; the longest teeth are _grooved_ and serve for the

better retention of prey, and also to impregnate it with saliva; but

they are not in communication with the poison-glands.

The _poison-fangs_ are normally covered with a fold or capsule of

mucous membrane, in which they are sheathed. This fold conceals a whole

series of _reserve_ teeth in different degrees of development, which

eventually become attached to the extremity of the maxillary when the

principal tooth falls out or is broken (fig. 2).

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Fang of one of the

_Viperidæ_ (_Vipera russellii_); D, transverse section of the

fang.]

_Poison Apparatus._--The grooved or furrowed teeth in the

_Proteroglypha_ and the canaliculate teeth in the _Solenoglypha_ are

arranged, not for the purpose of seizing prey, but in order to deal it

a mortal blow by injecting the venom into its flesh.

In the normal position they lie almost horizontally, and exhibit no

mobility of their own. But, when the animal prepares to bite, their

erection is effected by the snake throwing its jaw back; and this

movement, which is always very sudden, enables it at the same time to

compress its poison-glands, by the aid of special constrictor muscles.

On examining the various species of poisonous snakes, we observe very

sharply marked differences in the arrangement and dimensions of the

teeth. Thus, in the VIPERIDÆ they are long, extraordinarily

sharp, and capable of producing deep wounds (fig. 2, A, and

fig. 3). They are traversed by an almost completely closed canal, from

the base, which communicates with the poison-duct, to the neighbourhood

of the point, where it opens very obliquely on the convex surface (fig.

3, A and D).

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--B, Fang of one of the

_Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_); E, transverse section.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--C, Fang of one of the

_Hydrophiinæ_ (_Hydrophis pelamis_); F, transverse section.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Three transverse sections of a

poison-fang of one of the _Colubridæ_, through A A, B

B, C C; P P, pulp cavity; V V V,

poison-canal (groove). (After C. J. Martin.)]

* * * * *

In the _Elapinæ_ sub-family of the _Colubridæ_, and especially in

the _Hydrophiinæ_, the teeth are much shorter and simply grooved or

canaliculate; that is to say, the canal communicates with the exterior

throughout its extent by a narrow slit, which traverses the entire

convex surface of the tooth (figs. 4, 5, and 6).

It does not follow from this that the bites of these reptiles are less

dangerous; the contrary, indeed, is the case, for their venom is

infinitely more active.

These differences, as well as the particular mode of arrangement of the

other little non-poisonous teeth in both jaws, enable us in many cases

to recognise, by the mere appearance of the bite, the species of snake

by which the bite has been inflicted.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--MARKS PRODUCED ON THE SKIN BY THE

BITES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SNAKES.

I. _Non-venomous Colubrine._--The bite is marked only by the imprint of

from 35-40 small palatine or pterygoid teeth, and 20-22 upper maxillary

teeth (on the outside of the foregoing) on each side.

II. _Venomous Colubrine_ (_Naja tripudians_,

PROTEROGLYPHA).--The bite exhibits 25 or 26 punctures from

the pterygoid or palatine teeth, and, on each side, one or two, rarely

three, circular wounds produced by the principal poison-fangs and by

the reserve teeth.

III. _Viperidæ_ (SOLENOGLYPHA).--The sole indication of the

bite consists of 8 or 10 punctures from the palatine or pterygoid

teeth, and one little round wound, on each side, produced by the

poison-fangs.

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

Fig. 7, above, shows how it is possible to distinguish the marks left

by a _non-venomous_ reptile, and by one of the _Proteroglypha_ or

_Solenoglypha_ respectively.

_Poison-glands._--The poison-glands occupy an extensive inter-muscular

space behind the eyes, on each side of the upper jaw. They are oval in

shape, and may, in _Naja tripudians_ for example, attain the size of a

large almond (fig. 8).

Their structure is the same as that of the salivary glands of the

larger animals. The poison that they secrete accumulates in their

_acini_ and in the efferent duct that opens at the base of the

corresponding fang.

Each gland is surrounded by a capsule, to which are partly attached

the fibres of the masseter muscle, which violently compresses it and

drives the poison, just as the piston of a syringe would do, into the

canaliculi or groove of the fang.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--POISON-GLAND AND FANGS OF A

VENOMOUS SNAKE (_Naja tripudians_, _Colubridæ_). (Natural size.)

L, Lobe of the gland; D, poison-duct; F,

fang attached to the maxillary bone; G G, gland; M,

capsule of mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; R, reserve

fangs; A A, muscular fascia covering the gland.

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

In a few venomous snakes the gland is developed to such an extent that

it extends as far as the first ribs.

The species, on the contrary, that have the poison-teeth placed in

the hinder part of the mouth (_Opisthoglypha_) have glands but little

developed.

* * * * *

_Muscular Apparatus of the Head._--Figs. 9 and 10, 11 and 12 show the

arrangement of the principal muscles that work the jaws and glandular

organs in _Vipera russellii_ and _Naja tripudians_, which respectively

represent the most formidable types of _Viperidæ_ and venomous

_Colubridæ_.

It is not necessary to give a detailed description of each of these

muscles. Let it suffice to point out that all contribute in giving

the greatest elasticity to the jaws, and at the same time strength

sufficient to retain the prey and to cause it to pass from front to

rear towards the œsophagus, by a series of alternate antero-posterior

movements and analogous lateral ones. By means of these movements,

which are participated in by the upper and lower maxillary bones, the

palatines, mandibles or inter-maxillaries, and the pterygoids, the

animal in a manner _draws itself_ over its prey _like a glove_, since

the arrangement of its dentition does not admit of _mastication_.

[Illustration: A A, Fascia covering the anterior and posterior

temporal muscles; B, small gland; C, tendinous

insertion of the fascia; D, poison-duct; E,

poison-fang; F, reserve fangs; G, mandible;

H, ectopterygoid muscle; J, poison-gland covered

by the masseter; K, masseter inserted in the mandible;

L, insertion of the temporal muscle; M, digastric

muscle.

A A, Ectopterygoid muscle; B, præ-spheno-pterygoid

muscle; C, intermandibular muscle; D,

præ-spheno-palatine muscle; E præ-spheno-vomerine muscle;

F, capsule of mucous membrane surrounding the fangs;

G, long muscle of the neck.

FIGS. 9 AND 10.--MUSCULAR APPARATUS AND POISON-GLAND

OF _Vipera russellii_ (_Viperidæ_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

[Illustration: A, Tracheo·mastoid muscle; B B,

digastric muscle; C C, posterior temporal muscle; D

D, anterior temporal muscle; E E, masseter; F,

poison-gland, covered by the masseter and fascia; G,

poison-duct; H, maxillary bone; I, neuro-mandibular

muscle; J, costo-mandibular muscle.

A, Entopterygoid muscle; B, poison-gland; C,

poison-duct; D, poison-fangs; E, præ-spheno-palatine

muscle; F, præ-spheno-vomerine muscle; G, capsule of

mucous membrane surrounding the fangs; H, præ-spheno-pterygoid

muscle (which erects the fangs); J, inter-mandibular muscle;

K, ectopterygoid muscle; L, long muscle of the neck

(_longus colli_).

FIGS. 11 AND 12.--MUSCULAR APPARATUS AND POISON-GLAND

OF _Naja tripudians_ (_Colubridæ_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF THE

HEAD IN ONE OF THE NON-POISONOUS _Colubridæ_ (_Ptyas mucosus_).

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)

A, Rostral scale; B, anterior frontals; B^1,

posterior frontals; C, vertical; D, occipitals;

E, supra-ciliaries; F, temporals; L,

M, nasals; N, loreals, or frenals; O,

anterior oculars, or præ-orbitals; P, posterior oculars, or

post-orbitals; Q, supralabials; G, median infralabial; H H,

lateral infralabials; I K, mentals.]

The enormous extensile power of the mouth and œsophagus thus enables

snakes to swallow animals, the size of which is several times in excess

of their own diameter.

Deglutition is slow and painful, but the gastric and intestinal juices

are so speedy in action, that the digestion of the most resistant

substances rapidly takes place. The very bones are dissolved, and the

fæces, which are voided some days later, contain only a few osseous

remains and a felt-like material composed of hair or feathers.

_Scales._--The skin of snakes, which is very elastic and extensile, is

covered with scales, small on the back, and in great transverse plates

on the entire ventral surface.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SCALES OF

THE HEAD IN ONE OF THE POISONOUS _Colubridæ_ (_Naja tripudians_,

OR _Cobra-di-Capello_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

The shape and dimensions of the scales of the head are highly

characteristic in each species. It is therefore necessary to know their

names and the arrangement that they exhibit: these details are shown

with sufficient clearness in figs. 13 and 14.

_Coloration._--The colouring exhibited by the scales of snakes is

governed generally by the biological laws of _mimicry_. It is therefore

not a character of specific value, and may be modified several times

in the course of the existence of the same reptile, according to the

surroundings in which it is obliged to live.

“Nature,” write Dumeril and Bibron, “seems to have caused the tints

and colours of snakes to vary in accordance with their habits and

modes of life. Generally speaking, the colours are greyish or dull in

species that are wont to live among sand, or which bury themselves in

loose earth, as also in those that lie in wait on the trunks or large

boughs of trees; while these hues are of a bluish-green, resembling the

tint of the leaves and young shoots of plants, in snakes that climb

among bushes or balance themselves at the end of branches. It would

be difficult to describe all the modifications revealed by a general

study of the colours of their skins. Let us imagine all the effects

of the decomposition of light, commencing with white and the purest

black, and passing on to blue, yellow, and red; associating and mixing

them together, and toning them down so as to produce all shades, such

as those of green, of violet, with dull or brilliant tints more or

less pronounced, and of iridescent or metallic reflections modified by

spots, streaks, and straight, oblique, undulating, or transverse lines.

Such is the range of colours to be found in the skin of snakes.”

This skin is covered by a thick epidermis, which is periodically

detached in its entirety, most frequently in a single piece. Before

effecting its _moult_, the reptile remains in a state of complete

repose for several weeks, as if asleep, and does not eat. Its scales

grow darker and its skin becomes wrinkled. Then one day its epidermis

tears at the angle of the lips. The animal thereupon wakes up, rubs

itself among stones or branches, divests itself entirely of its

covering as though it were emerging from a sheath, and proceeds

forthwith in quest of food.

The _moult_ is repeated in this way three or four times every year.

CHAPTER II.

_HABITS OF POISONOUS SNAKES. THEIR CAPTURE._

All poisonous snakes are _carnivorous_. They feed on small mammals

(rats, mice), birds, batrachians, other reptiles or fish, which they

kill by poisoning them by means of their fangs.

They almost always wait until their prey is dead before swallowing it.

Some of them are very fond of eggs, which they well know how to find in

the nests of birds, and swallow whole.

When a poisonous snake wishes to seize its prey, or strike an enemy,

it raises its head, and depresses the lower and elevates the upper jaw

in such a way that the _fangs_ are directed straight forward. Then,

with the quickness of a spring when it is released, the reptile makes a

sudden dart and strikes its victim. After inflicting the wound it draws

back, doubles up its neck and head, and remains prepared to strike

again.

So rapid is the action of the venom, that the wounded animal falls to

the ground almost immediately; it is forthwith stricken with paralysis,

and dies in a few moments. In most cases the snake holds it in its

mouth until death ensues; the reptile then sets to work to swallow its

victim, an operation which is always slow and painful.

In captivity poisonous snakes almost always refuse to take any food

whatever. If it be desired to keep them for a long time, it is often

necessary to resort to artificial feeding. For this purpose the snake

is seized by the head by means of a strong pair of long forceps; it is

then grasped by the neck with the left hand without squeezing too

hard (fig. 15), taking care at the same time not to give the body a

chance of coiling itself round anything. Next, one or more lumps of

beef or horse-flesh are introduced into the jaws, and gently forced

down deep into the œsophagus by means of a glass rod, which is polished

in order not to injure the mucous membrane. The œsophagus is then

gently massaged in a downward direction, in order to cause the bolus of

food to descend into the stomach (fig. 16). This operation is repeated

every fortnight.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--FEEDING A POISONOUS SNAKE, FIRST

STAGE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--FEEDING A POISONOUS SNAKE, SECOND

STAGE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CATCHING A

_Cobra-di-Capello_ (_Naja tripudians_), FIRST STAGE. (At the

French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)]

In this way, at my laboratory, I have been able to preserve, in perfect

condition for more than two years, Indian _Cobras_ and _Fers-de-lance_

from Martinique, taking care to keep them in a hothouse, at a

temperature of about 82° to 86° F.

It is also very important to place inside the cases a vessel full of

water, which should be frequently changed, for almost all snakes drink

often and like to bathe for whole days at a time.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CATCHING A

_Cobra-di-Capello_ (_Naja tripudians_), SECOND STAGE. (At the

French Settlement of Pondicherry, in India.)]

Within their reach should be placed in addition branches and rockwork,

against which they rub at the _moulting_ times, in order periodically

to rid themselves of their scarf-skin.

While moulting, snakes must neither be touched nor fed, since to force

them to take food at such a time would be fatal.

_Snake-catching._--The capture of poisonous snakes, in order to keep

them alive, can only be performed without danger by skilful persons,

who are possessed of much coolness.

The best way of securing them is suddenly to pin the neck to the ground

by means of a stick held horizontally, or a small two-pronged fork of

wood or metal (fig. 17).

The stick is rolled along until close to the occiput (fig. 18). The

animal can then be seized with the hand immediately behind the head, in

such a way that it is impossible for it to turn and bite. It is then

put into a wire cage, provided with a small movable trapdoor, with the

fastening on the outside.

In this way poisonous snakes can be sent to a distance, and left

without food for one or even two months, provided that they be kept in

a place which is somewhat moist and sufficiently warm.

Fig. 19 shows how captured cobras are carried in India, in the environs

of Pondicherry. They are enclosed in earthern _chatties_, or in baskets

of plaited bamboo, which are provided with covers, and are very

convenient for carrying snakes short distances.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--HINDU CARRYING TWO CAPTURED

COBRAS IN “CHATTIES.”]

CHAPTER III.

_DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF POISONOUS SNAKES.

THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION._

Poisonous snakes are especially common in the tropical zones of the

Old and New Worlds. The species found in Europe are but of small size

and not very formidable. In hot countries, on the other hand, they

attain large dimensions, their venom is much more active, and, although

they hardly ever attack man, and in most cases avoid him, they cause a

considerable number of fatal accidents.

It is sometimes a rather difficult matter to recognise from the mere

appearance of a snake whether it is poisonous or not. Naturalists

themselves are occasionally deceived. It is therefore useful to

learn to distinguish the most dangerous species by their external

characters, and to know in what countries there is a risk of their

being encountered.

_A.--EUROPE._

Of the continents of the Old World, the poorest in poisonous snakes

is Europe. The only species found there are a CŒLOPELTIS

(belonging to the Sub-family _Dipsadomorphinæ_ of the _Opisthoglypha_),

and certain VIPERINÆ, which rarely exceed 75 centimetres in

length.

CŒLOPELTIS, the cranial skeleton and head of which are

represented in fig. 20, is characterised by a narrow, concave frontal

shield, projecting supraciliaries, short snout, large eyes, with round

pupils, two poison-fangs at the back of the upper maxillaries, and a

cylindrical body. The scales of the back are finely grooved, and in the

adult slightly concave.

FIG. 20.--MAXILLARY, MANDIBLE, AND HEAD OF

_Cœlopeltis monspessulana_.

The coloration, olivaceous-brown, or deep red on the back, becomes on

the ventral surface pale yellow with brown streaks, and from five to

seven longitudinal series of small spots, which are blackish and edged

with yellow on the sides.

The mean total length is 1,800 millimetres. The tail is somewhat

tapering, and about 350 millimetres long.

The only European species is _Cœlopeltis monspessulana_, which is met

with pretty commonly in France, in the neighbourhood of Montpellier,

and Nice, near Valencia in Spain, and in Dalmatia. It is likewise found

throughout North Africa, and in Asia Minor.

A second species, _Cœlopeltis moilensis_, occurs in Southern Tunis,

Egypt, and Arabia.

The European VIPERINÆ belong exclusively to the Genus

VIPERA, the principal zoological characters of which are as

follows:--

Head distinct from the neck, covered with small scales, with or without

frontal and parietal shields; eyes small, with vertically elongate

pupils, separated from the labials by scales; nostrils lateral. Body

cylindrical. Scales keel-shaped, with an apical pit, in from 19-31

rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; subcaudal scales in two rows.

The Genus _Vipera_ is represented in Europe by several species, which

are likewise found in Western Asia and North Africa.

These species are:--

_V. ursinii_, _V. berus_, _V. aspis_, _V. latastii_, and _V.

ammodytes_. [1]

Vipera ursinii.

Snout obtuse, soft on its upper surface, with the frontal and parietal

shields distinct, the former about one and a half times as long as

broad, and almost always longer than the parietals. A single series of

scales between the eyes and the free margin of the lips.

Temporal shields smooth. Body scales in from 19 to 21 rows, strongly

keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides.

Colour yellowish or pale brown above, grey or dark brown on the sides,

sometimes uniform brown; spots more or less regular on the vertebral

column, oval, elliptic or rhomboidal, dark brown or flecked with white,

sometimes forming an undulous or zigzag band; two or three longitudinal

series of dark brown or black spots on the sides; small dark dots

running obliquely from the eye to the angle of the mouth; nose and lips

white, and one or two dark angular streaks on the head; chin and throat

yellowish; belly black, with transverse series of white or grey dots.

No sexual differences in coloration.

Total length from 420-500 millimetres; tail 50-55.

_Habitat_: South-east France (Basses-Alpes); Italy (Abruzzi); Istria;

Mountains of Bosnia; Plains of Lower Austria; Hungary (environs of

Buda-Pesth).

Vipera berus (_Common Viper_, or _Adder_).

Snout rounded, short and truncate; pupil vertically elongate; vertical

diameter of the eyes equal to or greater than the distance separating

them from the mouth; frontal and parietal shields distinct, the former

as long as broad, usually shorter than the space separating it from the

rostral shield; 6-13 scales round the eyes; one or rarely two series of

scales between the eyes and the lips; nasal shield single, separated

from the rostral by a naso-rostral shield; temporal scales smooth. Body

scales in 21 rows (exceptionally 19 or 23), strongly keeled; 132-150

ventral shields; 38-36 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--(_1_) _Vipera berus_; (_2_) _Vipera

aspis_; (_3_, _4_) _Vipera ammodytes_.

(Natural size.)]

Colour very variable, grey, yellowish, olive, brown, or red above,

generally with an undulating or zigzag band along the vertebral column,

and a series of lateral spots. A black spot shaped like a =V=, an

=X=, or a circumflex accent, on the head. The tip of the tail is

yellow or reddish. Some specimens are entirely black.

Total length from 350 to 700 millimetres; tail 75 to 90.

_Habitat_: Northern Europe, and especially the mountains of Central

Europe; irregularly distributed in Southern Europe; Northern Spain and

Portugal, Northern Italy, Bosnia, Caucasus.

* * * * *

This viper, which is very common in France, ranges as far as the

Scandinavian Peninsula to about the 65th parallel of North Latitude. It

is sometimes met with among the mountains at an altitude of about 6,500

feet (2,000 metres). It is found on heaths, in grass-lands, vineyards,

and forests. Certain parts of the sandy moors of North Germany are

literally infested with it. It abounds in the Jura, Isère, Ardèche,

Auvergne, Brittany, Vendée, and the Forest of Fontainebleau.

It seeks its prey by night, and feeds on voles, small birds, frogs,

lizards, and small fish. During the summer it shows a preference for

moist places, often even remaining in the water, in which it swims with

ease.

Light and fire attract it. It does not climb trees, but is frequently

found coiled up on boughs of dead wood scattered on the ground.

When on the defensive, and preparing to bite, it throws its head back,

and makes a sudden dart of from a foot to sixteen inches. If irritated

it makes a sort of hissing noise.

To pass the winter it retires into the crevices of rocks or into old

tree-trunks, where it entwines itself closely with a number of its

congeners. In this way ten or fifteen vipers are frequently found

together in the same hole.

In April, the whole company awakes, and copulation then takes place.

The eggs are laid in August and September, and the young immediately

crawl out of the shell, already prepared to bite, and capable

of finding their own food. Their length at birth amounts to 230

millimetres.

The two glands of an adult adder contain about 10 centigrammes of

poison. This small quantity is sometimes sufficient to cause death; out

of 610 persons bitten, Rollinger returns 59 deaths, or about 10 per

cent.

In the departments of Vendée and Loire-Inférieure alone, Viaud Grand

Marais has noted during a period of six years 321 cases of bites from

adders, 62 of which were followed by death. In Auvergne, Dr. Fredet[2]

(of Royat) returns 14 cases, which caused 6 deaths.

Vipera aspis (_Asp_, or _Red Viper_).

(Fig. 21, _2_, and fig. 22.)

Snout slightly turned up, soft and squarely truncate; vertical diameter

of the eyes equal to the space separating them from the mouth; upper

surface of the head usually covered with small, imbricate, smooth or

feebly keeled scales, in 4-7 series, between the supraocular shields,

which are prominent. The frontal and parietal shields are usually

wanting; sometimes they are distinct, but small and irregular; the

former are separated from the supraoculars by two series of scales;

8-13 scales round the eyes; two (rarely three) series of scales between

the eyes and the labials; nasal shield single, separated from the

rostral by a naso-rostral shield. Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly

keeled; 134-158 ventrals; 32-49 subcaudals.

Coloration very variable, grey, yellowish, brown, or red above, with a

zigzag band as in _V. berus_. Usually a black =U=-shaped mark on

the hinder part of the head, with a longitudinal black streak behind

the eyes; upper lip white, or yellowish. Ventral surface yellow, white,

grey, or black, with lighter or darker markings.

Total length, 620-675 millimetres; tail 75-95.

_Habitat_: France (especially Vendée, the Forest of Fontainebleau, and

the South), Pyrenees, Alsace-Lorraine, the Black Forest, Switzerland,

Italy and Sicily, and the Tyrol.

This viper especially frequents dry, rocky, and arid hillsides, which

are exposed to the sun. Like the adder, it hibernates in tree-trunks

and old walls. It lays from 6 to 15 eggs, from which the living young

immediately issue, provided with poison. It feeds upon small rodents,

worms, insects, and young birds. Raptorial birds, storks, and hedgehogs

pursue it and devour it in large numbers.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Vipera aspis._ (Natural size.) (From

the Forest of Fontainebleau.)]

Vipera latastii.

Intermediate between _V. aspis_ and _V. ammodytes_. Snout less turned

up into a corneous appendage than in the latter. Head covered with

small, smooth, or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, among which

an enlarged frontal shield may sometimes be distinguished; 5-7

longitudinal series of scales between the supraocular shields; 9-13

scales round the eyes; 2 or 3 series between the eyes and the labials;

nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body

scales in 21 rows, strongly keeled; 125-147 ventrals; 32-43 subcaudals.

Coloration grey or brown above, with a longitudinal zigzag band,

usually spotted with white; head with or without spots on the vertex;

black streak behind the eyes; ventral surface grey, spotted with black

and white; tip of the tail usually yellow or with yellow spots.

Total length, 550-610 millimetres; tail 80-85.

_Habitat_: Spain and Portugal.

Vipera ammodytes.

(Fig. 21, _3_ and _4_).

Snout terminated in front by a horny appendage covered with 10-20

small scales; vertical diameter of the eyes less than the distance

separating them from the mouth; upper surface of the head covered

with small, smooth, or feebly keeled scales, among which an enlarged

frontal and a pair of parietal shields are sometimes distinguishable;

5-7 longitudinal series of scales between the supraoculars; 10-13

scales round the eyes; two series between the eyes and the labials;

nasal shield entire, separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral.

Body scales in 21-23 rows, strongly keeled; 133-162 ventrals; 24-38

subcaudals.

Coloration grey, brown, or reddish above, with a zigzag dorsal band,

usually spotted with white; black streak behind the eyes; belly grey or

violaceous; end of the tail yellow, orange, or coral-red.

Total length, 550-640 millimetres; tail 70-80.

_Habitat_: Southern Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, Hungary, Danubian

principalities and kingdoms, Turkey. Does not pass beyond the 48th

parallel of North Latitude.

This viper loves very sunny places, and hillsides planted with vines.

It rarely hibernates.

In districts in which it is plentiful, it is only necessary to light a

fire at night in order to attract this species in swarms; this is the

best method of taking it.

Its food consists of small rodents, lizards, and birds.

_B.--ASIA, DUTCH INDIES, AND PHILIPPINE ISLANDS._

The species of snakes most dangerous to man are found in the

warmer regions of Asia. India especially is infested by the famous

Cobra-di-Capello (_Naja tripudians_), which possesses the highly

remarkable faculty of dilating its neck in the form of a hood when

irritated, and whose sculptured image appears on almost all the Hindu

monuments.

We shall describe in a separate section (see below, F.) the

HYDROPHIINÆ, or _Sea-snakes_, a large number of species of

which frequent the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca,

the China Sea, the Moluccas, Celebes, and North Australia. In the case

of certain species the area of distribution includes the whole of

the tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Pacific Ocean, as far as

the West Coast of America. It is therefore preferable to group them

together for the purpose of comprehensive study.

Besides the above, the continent of Asia harbours a multitude of

poisonous snakes belonging to the two Families COLUBRIDÆ and

VIPERIDÆ.

The genera and species belonging to these are so diverse, that we must

confine ourselves to mentioning the essential characters of those that

present most interest.

I.--FAMILY COLUBRIDÆ.

{ (a) _Bungarus_.

{ (b) _Naja_.

Subfamily ELAPINÆ: Genera { (c) _Hemibungarus_.

{ (d) _Callophis_.

{ (e) _Doliophis_.

(a) Bungarus.

Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with round or

vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Two

large poison-fangs followed by one or two small, slightly grooved

teeth (fig. 23). Scales smooth, oblique, in 13-17 rows, enlarged and

hexagonal in shape on the vertebral column; ventral scales round. Tail

relatively short; subcaudal scales in one or two rows.

Two very dangerous snakes found in India and Indo-China belong to this

genus, _B. fasciatus_ and _B. candidus_ (var. _cæruleus_). Both are

fairly common. In Ceylon _B. ceylonicus_ is met with, and in South

China _B. candidus_ (var. _multicinctus_). The length of these snakes

is from 1,000-1,500 millimetres. The back is compressed in the shape of

a keel. The neck is not dilatable.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--SKULL OF _Bungarus_. (After

G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

1. _B. fasciatus_ (_Banded Krait_).

Colour bright yellow, ringed with black, with a black band commencing

between the eyes, and broadening behind upon the nape and neck (fig.

24).

Especially abundant on the Coromandel Coast, in Bengal, and in Burma.

In the North-west Provinces of India it is known as the _Koclia-Krait_.

Its bite is very serious, but does not cause nearly so many fatalities

as that of the _Cobra_, since its fangs are smaller.

Dogs bitten by _B. fasciatus_ die in from four to five hours.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Bungarus fasciatus_ (India). (After

Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

2. _B. candidus._

Blackish-brown or bluish, with narrow transverse white streaks, or

small white spots, or alternate rings of yellow and dark brown; belly

white. Smaller than the foregoing, scarcely exceeding 1,000 millimetres

in length. It is known as the “Krait” in India, where, after the

Cobra, the variety _cæruleus_ causes most deaths among human beings.

It is found in jungles and rice-fields, and commonly secretes itself

in old trees and old walls. It frequently penetrates into houses,

verandahs, bathrooms, and even beds. Sir Joseph Fayrer relates the

story of a lady, who, when travelling in a palanquin, found on arriving

at her destination a “Krait” coiled up in her luggage, the snake having

thus made the journey with her throughout a whole night.

The Krait may easily be confused with _Lycodon aulicus_, a harmless

snake which closely resembles it, though it can at once be

distinguished by examining its mouth.

(b) Naja.

(Fig. 25.)

Head scarcely distinct from the neck; eyes with round pupils; nostril

between two nasal shields and an internasal. A pair of solid grooved

poison-fangs. Body elongate, cylindrical, terminated by a conical and

pointed tail. Scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15-25 rows. Ventral

scales round.

_N. tripudians_ (_Cobra-di-Capello_). (Fig. 26.)

Head small, covered with large shields, a frontal as long as broad, a

supraocular, a præocular, 3 postoculars, 2 + 3 or 3 + 3 temporals, 7

upper labials, 4 lower labials. Neck dilatable by the separation of

the first cervical ribs; 21-35 scales round the neck, 17-25 round the

middle of the body; 163-205 ventrals; 42-75 subcaudals.

Total length, 1,500-1,900 millimetres; tail 230.

Coloration very variable, usually cinereous grey or almost black

with a bluish sheen; belly lighter, sometimes tinted with red. The

head is frequently tinged with golden-yellow; it is spotted with

yellowish-white above, and is pure white underneath.

This species is distributed throughout the whole of Southern Asia, from

the south of the Caspian Sea to South China and the Malay Archipelago.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Skull of _Naja tripudians_. (After G.

A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

Several varieties occur, and of these the principal are:--

(1) Var. _Typica_ (fig. 27), with a black-and-white spectacle-shaped

mark on the middle of the dorsal surface of the most dilatable portion

of the neck, and one or more dark transverse bands on the ventral

surface, behind the head.

_Habitat_: India, Ceylon.

(2) Var. _Cæca_.--Colour, pale brown or uniform dark grey, without mark

on the neck, and with one or more dark transverse bands on the anterior

part of the belly.

_Habitat_: Transcaspian region, India, Java.

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Naja tripudians_

(_Cobra-di-Capello_) ON THE DEFENSIVE, PREPARING TO STRIKE.]

(3) Var. _Fasciata_.--Colour, brown, olive, or black, with more or less

distinct light transverse bands. White spot edged with black in the

shape of a ring or of a U on the neck, behind; a black spot on each

side in front.

_Habitat_: India, Indo-China and South China, Hainan, Cambodia, Siam,

Malay Peninsula.

(4) Var. _Sputatrix_.--Black or dark brown, with yellow or

orange-coloured spots on the sides of the head and neck. The young have

a pale spot in the shape of a U or an O on the middle of the dorsal

surface of the neck, and the throat is whitish.

_Habitat_: Chusan Islands and South China, Burma, Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra, Java.

(5) Var. _Leucodira_.--Brown or black, without mark on the neck. Throat

yellowish-white, followed by a black transverse band.

_Habitat_: Sumatra, Malay Peninsula.

(6) Var. _Miolepis_.--Brown or black; sides of the head and throat

yellowish, no mark on the neck. Young with white rings completely

encircling the body and tail.

_Habitat_: Sarawak, Labuan, Borneo.

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Naja tripudians_

(_Cobra-di-Capello_). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

_Naja samarensis._

Internasal shields shorter than the præfrontals, and in contact with

the præoculars; 1-3 large occipital shields behind the parietals; 1

præocular and 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 temporals; 7 supralabials,

4 infralabials; 21-23 scales across the neck, 17-19 across the middle

of the body; 159-175 ventrals; 45-50 subcaudals.

Coloration black or sometimes yellowish above; pale brown or yellowish

on the belly; neck black.

Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 160.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

_Naja bungarus_ (_Ophiophagus_ or _Hamadryas elaps_).

(King Cobra or Hamadryad.)

A pair of large occipital shields; 1 præocular; 3 postoculars; 2 + 2

temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 19-21 scales across the

neck, 15 across the middle of the body; 215-262 ventral scales, 80-117

subcaudals. Neck dilatable.

Coloration very variable, yellowish, brown, olive, or black, with or

without dark transverse bands.

Total length, 3,900 millimetres; tail 630.

_Habitat_: India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Southern China, Malay

Peninsula and Archipelago.

* * * * *

The species of _Naja_ are oviparous, and usually lay some twenty eggs,

elliptical in shape and as large as those of a pigeon, with a soft

shell.

These snakes do not fear the proximity of man, and feed upon rats,

mice, and birds; they seek their prey chiefly in the evening, after

sunset.

They swim extremely well, and frequent the neighbourhood of

water-courses.

Indian legends relate that Brahma, having descended on earth and fallen

asleep one day at high noon, a _Naja_ placed itself in front of him

and, dilating its broad neck, procured for him kindly shade. In order

to repay it for the service rendered, Brahma gave _Naja_ the marks

that it bears on its neck, intended to frighten the kites and other

birds of prey, which are implacable enemies of this snake.

When a native of the Malabar Coast finds a _Naja_ in his dwelling, he

begs it in a friendly way to depart; if the request be without avail,

he offers it food in order to attract it outside; if the snake still

does not move, the Hindu goes in search of the pious servitors of

one of his divinities, who, procuring an offering, address the most

touching supplications to it (_Brehm_).

The mortality due to the bite of this snake, which is by far the most

common in India, is considerable. In the course of a period of eight

years, from 1880 to 1887, it amounted on the average to 19,880 human

beings and 2,100 head of cattle every year.

In 1889, 22,480 persons and 3,793 head of cattle perished from

snake-bite. Since then, the annual tale of fatalities always fluctuates

between 16,000 and 22,000, in spite of the rewards for the destruction

of snakes which the Indian Government has been obliged to institute,

which represent an expenditure of about £10,000 per annum.

For every 100 persons bitten, it is estimated that on an average from

25 to 30 die, and in most cases death supervenes in from two to twelve

hours after the bite.

_Naja bungarus_, or the Hamadryad, is the largest and most formidable

of poisonous snakes. It is very vigorous and very aggressive, but is

more rarely met with than _Naja tripudians_. It loves the vicinity of

rivers and streams, lives in forests and jungles, and climbs trees with

facility. It feeds upon other snakes (whence its name _Ophiophagus_),

and also on birds, fish, and small mammals.

Hindu snake-charmers assert that it is very difficult to capture, and

dangerous owing to its strength; they handle it only after having

extracted its poison-fangs.

A very intelligent Hindu told Torrens how he had seen the way in which

the Hamadryad procures the snakes that form its favourite food. The

Hindu in question happened to be on the flat roof of his house, when

a young Hamadryad appeared quite close to him. The snake raised its

head, expanded its neck, and emitted a shrill hissing noise. Thereupon

a dozen snakes came crawling up from all directions and assembled round

the Hamadryad, when the latter made a dart at one of them and hastened

to devour it (_Fayrer_).

The Hamadryad is dreaded with good reason, for not only is it

aggressive, and hurls itself boldly upon its adversary, but it also

pursues him, a trait exhibited by no other poisonous snake.

Cantor relates that in Assam an officer met with several young

Hamadryads which were being watched over by their mother. The latter

turned towards its enemy, who took to his heels with all speed, pursued

by the terrible reptile. The course taken led to a river, which the

fugitive did not hesitate to swim in order to gain the opposite bank,

hoping thus to make good his escape; all, however, to no purpose.

The snake still pursued him, and the officer saved himself only by a

stratagem. He dashed his turban on the ground; the snake threw itself

upon it and savagely bit it several times, thus giving the officer time

to reach a place of safety.

Cantor’s experiments show that the venom of the Hamadryad is extremely

rapid in its action. A dog usually dies a quarter of an hour after

being bitten, and Nicholson states that he has seen an elephant bitten

by a snake of this species die in three hours.

(c) =Hemibungarus.=

This genus includes several species of snakes of somewhat small

size, rarely exceeding 700 millimetres in length, with an elongate,

cylindrical body; the head is scarcely distinct from the neck, the

pupil round, and the tail short, while the nostril is situate between

two nasal shields. The temporal shields are arranged in a single row.

The poison-glands sometimes extend into the abdominal cavity. Scales

in 13 or 15 rows; 190-260 ventrals, 12-44 subcaudals in 2 rows.

Four species belonging to this genus are known:--

(1) _H. calligaster._--2 + 3 temporal scales, 6 supralabials.

Colour purple, with black transverse bands separated by narrow white

bars; belly and end of tail red; snout yellow, with a black band on the

upper lip below the eyes.

Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

(2) _H. collaris._--No anterior temporal scales.

Colour black on the back, with black and red bands on the belly; a

yellow collar on the occiput.

Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 15.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

(3) _H. nigrescens._--Scales in 13 rows. A single temporal scale;

218-251 ventrals; 33-44 subcaudals.

Belly uniformly red; upper lip yellow in front of and behind the eyes.

Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 115.

_Habitat_: Hills of Western India, from Bombay to Travancore.

(4) _H. japonicus._--Scales in 13 rows; 190-216 ventrals; 28-29

subcaudals; temporals 1 + 1.

Colour red on the back, with 1-5 black bands crossed by other black

bands edged with yellow. Snout and sides of head black. Belly yellow,

with large black spots alternating with black transverse bands.

Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands.

(d) =Callophis.=

This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards

beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs, but without

other teeth. Head and eyes small, pupils round; nostril between two

nasal shields. Body cylindrical, greatly elongate. Scales smooth, in 13

rows; ventrals rounded; subcaudals in 2 rows.

Five species are known:--

(1) _C. gracilis._--Red or pale brown, with three longitudinal black

lines passing through brown, or black spots; the lateral spots

alternating with the vertebræ. Black and yellow bands under the tail

and on the belly.

Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: Malay Peninsula, Sumatra.

(2) _C. trimaculatus._--Head and nape black, with a yellow spot on each

side of the occiput; belly uniform red; tail with two black rings.

Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 21.

_Habitat_: India and Burma.

(3) _C. maculiceps._--Head and nape black, with one or two yellow bands

on each side. Belly red, two black rings on the tail. Diameter of the

eyes equal to two-thirds of the space separating them from the mouth.

Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.

(4) _C. macclellandii._--Head and neck black, with a yellow transverse

band behind the eyes. The space separating the eyes equal to that

separating them from the mouth. Colour reddish-brown on the back, with

regular and equi-distant black streaks; belly yellow, with black bands

or quadrangular spots. The head exhibits two black transverse bands

separated by a yellow band.

Total length, 620 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Southern China.

(5) _C. bibronii._--Met with by Beddome in the forests of Malabar, at

an altitude of 3,280 feet. Back purplish-brown, with a pearly lustre,

and about forty irregular black transverse bands, extending to the tip

of the tail. Head black in front, cherry-red on the occiput.

Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Malabar.

* * * * *

All the snakes belonging to the genus _Callophis_ are remarkable

for their bright and varied colours, whence the generic name, which

signifies “_beautiful snakes_.”

They feed exclusively on other snakes belonging to the Family

_Calamaridæ_; consequently they are not found in regions where

_Calamaridæ_ do not occur, as, for instance, in Ceylon.

They are essentially terrestrial, and live in old tree-trunks, or

clefts in rocks. They are sluggish, slow-moving, and chiefly nocturnal.

As a rule they do not seek either to defend themselves or to bite;

consequently fatal accidents caused by them are scarcely known in the

case of human beings. Their venom, however, is very toxic to animals.

(e) =Doliophis.=

This genus exhibits the same characters as _Callophis_, except that the

poison-glands, instead of being confined to the temporal region, extend

a very long way on each side of the body, to about one-third of its

length, gradually growing thicker and terminating at the base of the

heart.

It includes four species:--

(1) _D. bivirgatus._--Colour reddish-purple or black on the back, red

on the head, tail, and belly.

Total length, 1,610 millimetres; tail 190.

_Habitat_: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and

Borneo.

(2) _D. intestinalis._--Brown or black on the back, with darker or

lighter longitudinal streaks; tail red beneath; belly red, crossed with

black streaks.

Total length, 580 millimetres; tail 45.

_Habitat_: Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes.

(3) _D. bilineatus._--Black on the back, with two white streaks along

the whole length of the body. Snout white; belly striped with black and

white bands. Tail orange, with two or three black rings or spots.

Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 45.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

(4) _D. philippinus._--Back with dark brown cross-bands, merging into

black transverse ventral streaks, which are separated by yellow or red

interspaces. Head brown, with small yellow spots.

Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

II.--FAMILY VIPERIDÆ.

The Family VIPERIDÆ is represented in Asia by a considerable

number of snakes belonging to the two Subfamilies VIPERINÆ and

CROTALINÆ.

The Asiatic VIPERINÆ belong to the genera:--

(a) _Vipera._

(b) _Pseudocerastes._

(c) _Cerastes._

(d) _Echis._

The CROTALINÆ consist of only two genera:--

(e) _Ancistrodon._

(f) _Lachesis._

1.--VIPERINÆ.

(a) =Vipera.=

We shall not recapitulate here the characters of the Genus _Vipera_,

which we described in dealing with the vipers of Europe. The genus is

represented by several species, the geographical range of which is

chiefly confined to Eastern and Central Asia.

* * * * *

(1) _Vipera renardi._--Resembles _V. berus_, but the snout is pointed

and soft, with a turned-up tip; a single series of scales between the

eyes and the lips; nostril pierced in the lower half of a single nasal

shield; 8-9 supralabial shields; 4 infralabials. Body scales in 21

rows; 130-150 ventrals; 24-37 subcaudals.

Coloration the same as in the European _V. ursinii_, but the snout and

lips are spotted with black or brown.

Total length, 395-620 millimetres; tail 40-75.

_Habitat:_ Central Asia, Turkestan.

* * * * *

(2) _V. raddii._--Snout rounded; supraocular shields erectile; eyes

surrounded by a complete circle of 14-17 scales; 9-10 supralabials;

body scales in 23 rows; 150-180 ventrals; 23-32 subcaudals.

Coloration pale brown or grey on the back, with a dorsal series of

small reddish spots arranged in alternating pairs. A black mark like

a circumflex accent on the occiput, and a black band behind the eyes.

Belly yellow, speckled with black and white.

Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Armenia.

* * * * *

(3) _V. lebetina._--Snout rounded and obtuse, with a well-marked

prominence; 7-12 longitudinal series of scales between the eyes;

supraocular shields well developed or narrow, or broken up into several

small portions; 12-18 scales round the eyes; 9-12 supralabials; 4-5

infralabials; body scales in 23-27 rows; 147-180 ventrals; 29-51

subcaudals.

Coloration variable, grey or pale brown on the back, with a series of

large dark spots. Large brown mark like a circumflex accent on the

crown of the head and another on the occiput. Belly whitish, speckled

with grey-brown; end of tail yellow.

Total length, 960 millimetres; tail 120. The female may attain the

length of 1,350 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Cyprus, Galilee, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, Persia,

Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Cashmir.

* * * * *

(4) _V. russellii_ (Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). (Fig. 28.)--This

viper, which may attain a length of as much as 2,000 millimetres, is

magnificently coloured. Its dorsal surface is brownish-yellow, marked

with large oval spots of blackish-brown, edged with yellow or white.

The belly is covered with transverse bands, with beautiful triangular

black spots, bordered with white. The head, which is long, ends in

front in a thick, rounded snout; it is covered above with small keeled

scales. The nostril, which is large and laterally placed, is surrounded

by three shields and soft smooth skin.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Vipera russellii_ (Syn. _Vipera

elegans_. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India.

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

The species is found throughout India, from Bombay to Bengal, in

Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It is particularly common in Burma, around

Rangoon. For walking in the jungle and rice-fields, the natives of this

region encase their feet and legs in a special kind of jack-boots made

of coarse jute-cloth, in order to protect themselves from the bites of

this snake, which cause a large number of fatal accidents.

The Daboia ascends the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,250 feet. It lives

in thickets, under stones, and in the clefts of rocks. When disturbed

it makes a terrible hissing, but bites only when attacked or irritated.

It feeds upon small vertebrates, such as mice, rats, birds, and frogs,

and often enters houses in pursuit of rats.

“Schrott had the opportunity of observing a Daboia on the defensive. A

lady carrying a child on her arm was returning home towards evening;

she had almost reached her house when a bulldog accompanying her

began to bark furiously. Although the lady saw nothing, she was,

nevertheless, frightened and called for help. Schrott, who was not

far away, ran to the spot, and saw a Daboia lying across the path by

which the lady had to proceed. The reptile had its neck thrown back and

its head in a horizontal position; its bright eyes followed all the

movements of the dog, to whose barks it replied by shrill hisses. It

was only waiting for an opportunity to strike. Schrott called off the

dog, and the snake at once disappeared among the high grass close by.

Next day it was killed at the same spot” (_Brehm_).

The venom of this viper is terribly potent. According to Russell, a

large dog exhibited symptoms of poisoning five minutes after being

bitten. At the end of a quarter of an hour it lay down, uttering

heartrending cries, began to breathe with difficulty and noisily, was

seized with spasms of the jaws and cramps, and died in frightful agony

less than half an hour after the wound was inflicted. Fowls in most

cases die in less than two minutes. A horse succumbed in half an hour,

and another in eleven hours.

It appears that in India many cattle are killed by Daboias while

grazing (_Fayrer_).

(b) =Pseudocerastes.=

(Fig. 29.)

This genus is represented by a single species (_Pseudocerastes

persicus_), which appears to be exclusively confined to Persia.

The head is very distinct from the neck, and covered with small

imbricate scales; the eyes, which are small, have vertical pupils;

they are separated from the lips by small scales. The nostrils are

directed upwards and outwards. The snout is very short and rounded.

The cylindrical body has 23-25 rows of scales; 151-156 ventrals; 43-49

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Pseudocerastes persicus._ (After

Duméril and Bibron.)]

The coloration is gray or brown, with four series of large black spots,

and the head exhibits two longitudinal black streaks behind the eyes.

The belly is whitish, dotted with black.

Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 110.

(c) =Cerastes.=

The vipers belonging to this genus are much more common in North

Africa, and we shall therefore study them in conjunction with the

African snakes. _Cerastes cornutus_ alone, the special habitat of which

is Egypt, is sometimes met with in Arabia and on the eastern bank of

the Suez Canal.

(d) =Echis.=

_Echis carinatus_ (the Phoorsa). (Fig. 30).--This viper is

characterised by the subcaudal shields being arranged in a single row.

It is savage and very aggressive, being always ready to attack. Its

length does not exceed 600 millimetres at the most. The colour of the

body is grey, more or less dark and adorned with streaks, spots, and

dots of blackish-brown. The back displays yellowish-white wavy lines,

forming X-shaped markings. The upper side of the head exhibits a yellow

spot surrounded by brown, and other small black spots, the whole

arrangement forming a fairly good representation of a cross.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Echis carinatus._ India. (After Sir

Joseph Fayrer.)]

This species is found in India, Persia, Baluchistan, Arabia, and

Palestine; while, as we shall see, it also occurs in Africa. It is

fairly common in the environs of Aden.

In moving over the ground a peculiar sound is produced by the friction

of its scales. It is capable of springing with great agility a fairly

long distance on to its prey. When it believes itself in danger it

coils up, doubling its body twice in the shape of a crescent, in the

middle of which it places its head, ready to strike. Its venom is very

rapid in taking effect.

2.--CROTALINÆ.

(e) =Ancistrodon.=

The snakes belonging to this genus of _Crotalinæ_ are found in Central

and Eastern Asia, but three important species occur in the New World,

in the United States and Central America. The head is covered with

nine large symmetrical shields, but the internasals and præfrontals

are sometimes broken up into scales. The body is cylindrical; the tail

rather short; the subcaudal scales are arranged in one or two rows.

* * * * *

_A. acutus._--The snout of this snake is prolonged into an appendage

directed forwards. The head-shields are finely granulate. Body scales

arranged in 21 rows; 162-166 ventrals; 58-60 subcaudals.

Coloration brown on the back, with blackish-brown X-shaped spots; head

dark brown, yellow on the cheeks, with a black band running from the

eye to the angle of the jaw; belly yellowish, spotted with brown, with

a series of large black transverse blotches.

Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 200.

_Habitat_: Upper Yang-tse, China.

_A. halys._--Snout prolonged into an upturned appendage, blunt at the

tip; 7-8 supralabial scales, the third of which forms part of the

margin of the eye; body scales in 23 rows; 149-174 ventrals; 31-44

subcaudals.

Coloration yellowish, grey, red, or pale brown above, with darker spots

or cross-bars. A black spot on the snout; two black spots on the

vertex; a dark, light-edged band on the temple; belly whitish, more or

less speckled with grey or brown.

Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: From the borders of the Caspian Sea and the Ural River to

the Upper Yenisei; Turkestan.

_A. intermedius._--Resembles the foregoing very closely, but the snout

is not turned up at the end.

Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 85.

_Habitat_: Central Asia, Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, and Japan.

* * * * *

_A. blomhoffii._--Similar to _A. halys_, but the snout is not turned up

at the end, and the body scales are in 21 rows; 137-166 ventral scales;

29-55 subcaudals.

Coloration very variable; grey, brown, or red above, with large

black-edged spots arranged in pairs; black, light-edged band on the

temple; upper lip uniformly yellow or red; belly yellow or reddish,

more or less spotted with black, or almost entirely black.

Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, China, Japan, Siam.

* * * * *

_A. himalayanus._--Snout scarcely turned up, with a hard tip; 5-7

supralabial shields. Body scales in 21 (rarely 23) rows; 144-166

ventrals; subcaudals in 35-51 pairs.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Ancistrodon hypnale._

(The _Carawalla_ of Ceylon.)

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

Coloration brown, with black spots or transverse bands; black,

light-edged band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly dark

brown, or more or less whitish.

Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Himalayas (5,000 to 10,000 feet), especially in the

North-west; Khasi Hills.

This snake feeds chiefly on mice.

* * * * *

_A. rhodostoma._--Snout pointed, somewhat turned up at the tip: 7-9

supralabial shields; body scales in 21 rows; 138-157 ventrals; 34-54

subcaudal pairs.

Coloration reddish, grey, or pale brown above, with large angular, dark

brown, black-edged spots arranged in pairs or alternating. Vertebral

line almost black; lips yellow, speckled with brown; brown, black-edged

band, running from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Belly yellowish,

spotted with greyish-brown.

Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Java.

* * * * *

_A. hypnale_ (fig. 31).--Snout more or less turned up, with a hard,

pointed end; 7-8 supralabial shields; body scales in 17 rows; 125-155

ventrals; 28-45 subcaudal pairs.

Coloration very variable; brown, yellowish, or greyish above, sometimes

with dark brown spots or transverse bands. Cheeks brown, with a

longitudinal, white, black-edged streak on each side of the neck. Belly

more or less speckled with dark brown.

Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: Ceylon, and Western Ghats of India as far north as Bombay.

In Ceylon this snake is known as the _Carawalla_. It is much dreaded,

but its bite is not rapidly fatal.

(f) =Lachesis.=

This genus has many representatives in Asia and the New World. The

American species are for the most part of larger size and more

formidable.

They are characterised by a triangular head, covered with small scales

or small shields, and by a cylindrical or compressed body. The Asiatic

species have the subcaudal scales in two rows and the tail short, and

often prehensile, which enables them to climb trees or bushes, where

they lie in wait for their prey.

Their classification is based upon the following characters:--

A. First infralabial scale in contact with its fellow.

I. Scales in 21-25 (rarely 27) rows; 129-158 ventrals; 21-57

subcaudals; 5-9 series of scales between the supraocular shields; tail

_non-prehensile_.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Lachesis okinavensis._ (After G. A.

Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

(1) _L. monticola._--Supraocular shields large, separated by 5-8

scales; snout obtuse.

Colour brown or yellowish above, brown or pale yellow on the sides,

with a brown temporal streak. Belly white, spotted with brown.

Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 115.

_Habitat_: Tibet, Himalayas (2,000 to 8,000 feet), Hills of Assam,

Burma, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra.

(2) _L. okinavensis_ (fig. 32).--Supraocular shields large, separated

by a transverse series of 6-9 scales; end of snout pointed and turned

up.

Colour brown above, with dark transverse bands and a light temporal

streak. Belly brown, spotted with black, especially on the sides.

Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Okinawa, Loo Choo Islands.

(3) _L. strigatus._--Supraocular shields small, sometimes broken up,

separated by 8-11 convex scales in juxtaposition.

Colour brown above, with black spots often forming a median zigzag

band; temporal band black; belly whitish, spotted with grey or black;

end of tail yellow or reddish.

Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Hills near Bombay, Deccan, Anamallays and Nilgherries.

* * * * *

II. Scales in 27-37 rows; 174-231 ventrals; 54-90 subcaudals; tail

_non-prehensile_.

(4) _L. flavoviridis._--Scales in 33-37 rows; 222-231 ventrals; 75-90

subcaudals; 8-9 supralabials.

Coloration pale brown or greenish-yellow above, marbled with black;

longitudinal black streaks symmetrically disposed on the head; belly

yellow or greenish, with darker spots.

Total length, 1,215 millimetres; tail 220.

_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands.

This snake is not infrequently termed by naturalists _Trimeresurus

riukianus_.

(5) _L. cantoris._--Scales in 27-31 rows; 174-184 ventrals; 55-76

subcaudals; 13 supralabials.

Coloration pale brown or dull green, with small black spots; a whitish

streak along the sides of the body; belly white or greenish.

Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 140.

_Habitat_: Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

III. Scales in 21-27 rows; 160-218 ventrals; 54-92 subcaudals; tail

_not or scarcely prehensile_.

(6) _L. jerdonii._--7-9 scales in a line between the supraocular

shields; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 164-188 ventrals; 54-67 subcaudals.

Coloration greenish-yellow or olive above, mixed with black, a dorsal

series of reddish-brown transverse rhomboidal spots; upper lip yellow,

with one or two black spots; belly yellow, more or less marbled with

black.

Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 145.

_Habitat_: Assam, Tibet, Upper Yang-tse.

(7) _L. mucrosquamatus._--10-15 scales in a line between the

supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; 183-218 ventrals; 72-92

subcaudals. Colour brownish-grey above, with a series of large black

median spots and smaller ones on the sides; a black streak from the eye

to the angle of the mouth; belly brownish, spotted with white.

Total length, 1,050 millimetres; tail 210.

_Habitat_: Formosa, Assam.

(8) _L. luteus._--12 or 13 scales in a line between the supraocular

shields; scales in 23-25 rows; 182-186 ventrals; 72-74 subcaudals;

supraocular shields large.

Colour yellow above, with a series of dark rhomboidal spots, and a

dorsal, black-spotted zigzag band; a black streak on each side of the

head behind the eyes; belly yellowish, spotted with grey.

Total length, 945 millimetres; tail 164.

_Habitat_: Loo Choo Islands.

(9) _L. purpureomaculatus._--12-15 scales in a line between the

supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; ventrals 160-182; subcaudals

55-76; supraocular shield very narrow, sometimes broken up.

Coloration purplish-black above, sometimes variegated with pale green;

flanks pale green; belly olive or greenish-white, uniform or spotted

with black. Some specimens are entirely green.

Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.

_Habitat_: Himalayas, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, Pulo-Pinang, Sumatra.

IV. Scales in 21 rows (rarely 19 or 23); 7-13 series of scales between

the supraoculars; tail _more or less prehensile_.

(10) _L. gramineus_ (Syn. _Trimeresurus gramineus_. The Green Pit

Viper).--145-175 ventral scales; 53-75 subcaudals; snout slightly

projecting; supraocular shield narrow.

Colour bright green, rarely olive or yellowish, with or without darker

transverse bands; end of tail yellow or red; belly green, yellow, or

white.

Total length, 870 millimetres; tail 150.

_Habitat_: South-eastern Asia, Darjeeling, Himalayas, Ganges Delta,

Siam, Southern China, Hong Kong, Formosa, Java, Sumatra, Timor.

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Lachesis flavomaculatus._ (After G.

A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

(11) _L. flavomaculatus_ (fig. 33).--170-187 ventral scales; 53-73

subcaudals; snout projecting, obliquely truncate; supraocular shield

narrow.

Colour bright green or olive, sometimes barred with reddish-brown;

belly green, olive, or greenish-yellow; end of tail sometimes red.

Total length, 1,060 millimetres; tail 160.

_Habitat_: Philippine Islands.

(12) _L. sumatranus._--180-191 ventral scales; 58-82 subcaudals;

supraocular shield large.

Coloration bright green, with or without black transverse bands;

yellowish band on each side; belly yellow or green, with or without

black speckles; end of tail red.

Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 180.

_Habitat_: Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Palawan.

(13) _L. anamallensis._--138-158 ventral scales; 44-58 subcaudals.

Colour green, olive, yellowish, or reddish-brown; a black temporal

band; belly pale green, olive, or yellow; tail usually black and yellow.

Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 110.

_Habitat_: Anamallay and Nilgherry Hills, South India.

(14) _L. trigonocephalus._--Scales in 17-19 rows, 145-170 ventrals;

53-67 subcaudals.

Coloration green, with or without black transverse bands or spots; a

black temporal streak; belly green or yellow; end of tail usually black.

Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 130.

_Habitat_: Ceylon.

(15) _L. macrolepis._--Scales in 13-15 rows; 134-143 ventrals; 48-56

subcaudals.

Colour bright green or olive; belly pale green.

Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 120.

_Habitat_: Southern India.

B. First lower labial shield divided; the portion separated off forms

a pair of small supplementary dental shields; 144-176 ventral scales;

38-57 subcaudals; tail _prehensile_.

(16) _L. puniceus._--Scales in 21-23 rows; 12-14 series of scales

between the supraocular shields.

Colour grey, brown, or red; belly spotted with brown; end of tail red.

Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Natuna Islands.

(17) _L. borneensis._--Scales in 19-21 rows; 10-11 series of scales

between the supraocular shields; 152-168 ventrals; 43-65 subcaudals.

Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 105.

_Habitat_: Borneo, Sumatra.

C. (18) _L. wagleri._--Scales in 19-27 rows, 127-154 ventrals; 45-55

subcaudals; tail _prehensile_.

Colour green, with darker or lighter markings, black and yellow, or

nearly entirely black.

Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.

_Habitat_: Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.

_C.--AFRICA._

In Africa, poisonous snakes abound throughout the whole of the tropical

and sub-tropical zones. The fatal accidents to human beings caused by

them in this continent are fewer than in India, since the population of

Africa is less dense, but several species occur, the venom of which is

especially dangerous to life.

These species belong in nearly equal numbers to the Families

COLUBRIDÆ and VIPERIDÆ.

I.--COLUBRIDÆ.

The poisonous COLUBRIDÆ of Africa are all included in the

Subfamily _Elapinæ_, of which the following are the eight principal

genera:--

(a) _Boulengerina._

(b) _Elapechis._

(c) _Naja._

(d) _Sepedon._

(e) _Aspidelaps._

(f) _Walterinnesia._

(g) _Homorelaps._

(h) _Dendraspis._

(a) =Boulengerina.=

A small snake 240 millimetres in length, the principal characters of

which are as follows:--

Maxillary bones equal to the palatines in length, with a pair of

relatively large poison-fangs, followed by three or four small teeth.

Head hardly distinct from the neck. Eye small, with round pupil;

nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in

21 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.

The only known species, _B. stormsi_, is brown, with black transverse

bars on the neck; tail black; belly white in front, brown behind, with

a black border to the scales.

It is found in the region of Lake Tanganyika.

(b) =Elapechis.=

This genus is characterised by the size of the maxillary bones, which

is equal to that of the palatines; a pair of large poison-fangs

followed by two to four small teeth; head not distinct from the

neck; eye small with round pupil; nostril between two nasal shields.

Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth, in 13 or 15 rows; ventrals

rounded. Tail very short, subcaudal shields in 2 rows.

Six species are known:--

(1) _E. guentheri._--Scales in 13 rows. Snout short, rounded;

first lower labial shield in contact with its neighbour behind the

symphysis. Internasal shorter than the præfrontals; length of frontal

three-fourths of that of the parietals.

Coloration whitish or grey above, with black, white-edged cross-bands.

Belly dirty white, brownish, or grey.

Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Gaboon, Congo, Angola, Central Africa.

(2) _E. niger._--Snout and arrangement of scales as before. Internasal

shields three-fourths of the length of the præfrontals; frontal

two-thirds of the length of the parietals.

Colour, black all over.

Total length, 420 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: Zanzibar.

(3) _E. hessii._--Snout as in foregoing. Symphysial shield of the lower

lip in contact with the anterior chin-shields.

Colour grey, with black cross-bars; a series of black spots on the

sides, between the bars; large black blotch on nape; belly white.

Total length, 160 millimetres; tail 12.

_Habitat_: Congo.

(4) _E. decosteri._--Snout obtusely pointed.

Colour, dark grey, each scale edged with black; belly white.

Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 38.

_Habitat_: Delagoa Bay.

(5) _E. sundevallii._--Snout obtusely pointed.

Colour reddish-brown, with yellow transverse bands, the scales in which

are edged with reddish-brown; upper lip and belly yellow.

Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 43.

_Habitat_: Caffraria.

(6) _E. boulengeri._--Scales in 15 rows.

Colour black on the back, with narrow white transverse bands;

head white, with a black streak along the parietal suture; belly

blackish-grey.

Total length, 170 millimetres; tail 14.

_Habitat_: Zambesi.

(c) =Naja.=

(For the characters of this genus, see Asia, p. 33.)

Six species of _Naja_ are found in Africa:--

(1) _N. haje_ or _haie_.--Scales in 21-23 rows on the neck, which is

dilatable, although slightly less so than that of _N. tripudians_, the

Cobra-di-Capello of India.

Six or seven large supralabial shields, sixth or seventh in contact

with the lower postocular. Eyes separated from the labial shields by

the suboculars. 191-214 ventral scales; 53-64 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish, olive, or uniform black; belly yellowish; black or

brown band on the neck; head sometimes blackish.

Total length, 1,180 millimetres; tail 290.

_Habitat_: Borders of the Sahara, Egypt, Southern Palestine, East

Africa as far south as Mozambique.

* * * * *

_Naja haje_ (the Egyptian Cobra) is common throughout the Nile Basin,

the Sudan and Central Africa. Livingstone mentions it several times.

In Egypt it is met with in the vicinity of ruined monuments, under the

large blocks of stone or among brushwood.

The Egyptians are greatly in dread of it, and hunt it down as often

as possible. When pursued, _N. haje_ turns bravely and faces its

adversary, raising itself upon its tail, puffing out its neck and

hissing fiercely. If too hard pressed it strikes at its enemy.

“A friend of mine,” writes Anderson, “had great difficulty in escaping

from one of these snakes. While botanising one day a _Naja_ passed

quite close to him. My friend darted backwards with all speed, but the

_Naja_ pursued and was about to attack him, when he stumbled against

an ant-hill and fell flat on his back. This, no doubt, frightened the

snake, which disappeared in a twinkling.”

Another case of the same kind is narrated by Waller, who writes: “A

young girl met with her death in a truly dramatic fashion. She was

walking behind some porters on a narrow path, when suddenly an Aspic

came out of a thick bush, attacked and bit her in the thigh; in spite

of all efforts to save her the unfortunate girl died in less than ten

minutes.” This instance, which is absolutely authentic, proves the

truth of the statements made by various travellers. Natives assert

that a full-grown _Naja_ invariably pursues either a man or an animal,

however large, when either passes within its range (Brehm).

Snake-charmers, of whom there are many in Egypt, always employ _Naja

haje_ for their performances. They know how to capture it, and tear out

its fangs by making it bite a bundle of rags.

This species rarely lives more than six or eight months in captivity,

and is quite untamable. It is fond of bathing, and remains in the water

for hours together.

“The Ancient Egyptians,” write Duméril and Bibron,[3] “are known to

have worshipped the _Naja_, which they regarded as the protector of

their crops. They allowed it to live and multiply among the cultivated

lands, which they apparently entrusted to the care of their tutelary

guardian, recognising that this snake freed them from the ravages

of the rats, the immense number of which otherwise caused terrible

destruction and even actual famine. It was, therefore, from motives of

gratitude that the Egyptian Cobra was venerated in this way; that its

image was hung up in the temples; that its skin was embalmed; and that

its effigy, so easy to recognise and to reproduce roughly, was graven

or sculptured on the stones of their monuments. This is the explanation

of the fact that paintings representing _N. haje_ are frequently

reproduced in hieroglyphics and on Egyptian sarcophagi.”

The _Naja_ was the tutelary deity of the temples, whose duty was to

prevent the profane from entering. Thus, in one of the crypts of

Denderah we find represented _Serpent-genie_, figures with a head like

that of a _Naja_ supported by the body of a man, with the hands armed

with enormous cutlasses (Mariette, _Dendérah_, p. 91, 1875).

* * * * *

(2) _N. flava._--Same arrangement of scales. Neck dilatable. 200-227

ventrals; 50-67 subcaudals.

Colour very variable, yellowish, reddish, brown, or black, uniform or

with light spots; sometimes a black transverse band on the neck.

Total length, 1,470 millimetres; tail 230.

_Habitat_: South Africa.

(3) _N. melanoleuca._--Coloration very variable. Sides of the head

yellow or whitish; labial shields tinged with black on the posterior

edge.

Total length, 2,400 millimetres; tail 400.

_Habitat_: Tropical Africa.

(4) _N. nigricollis._--Third supralabial shield the deepest, sixth and

seventh not in contact with the postoculars; 183-228 ventral scales;

55-68 subcaudals.

Coloration very variable; lower surface of the neck with a black

transverse bar.

Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 300.

_Habitat_: From Senegambia and Upper Egypt to Angola and the Transvaal.

(5) _N. anchietæ._--Scales in 17 rows on the neck and on the body;

181-192 ventrals; 52-62 subcaudals.

Colour blackish or brown above; end of snout and cheeks yellow; belly

yellow or pale brown, with or without black cross-bar under the neck.

Total length, 1,800 millimetres; tail 340.

_Habitat_: Angola and Ovamboland.

(6) _N. goldii._--Eyes large, two-thirds the length of the snout

in adults. Scales in 15 rows on the neck and on the body; 194--195

ventrals; 88 subcaudals.

Colour black, uniform, or with transverse series of small whitish

spots; cheeks and end of snout white, with a black border at the margin

of the shields; belly white in front, black behind; subcaudal scales

black.

Total length, 1,750 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Lower Niger.

(d) =Sepedon.=

Maxillary bones projecting considerably beyond the palatines, with a

pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head not distinct

from neck; eyes of moderate size, with round pupils; nostril between

two nasal shields and an internasal. Body cylindrical; scales oblique,

keeled, in 19 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales

in 2 rows.

_S. hæmachates_ (The Spitting Snake, or Ring Hals Slang).--This snake,

which is about 700 millimetres in length, is of a bluish-brown colour,

with numerous narrow, undulating and denticulate cross-bands of yellow

or yellowish-white. The throat is black or dark red; the belly grey.

It is met with throughout West, East, and South Africa, as far as the

Cape of Good Hope, where it is very common. It lives among bushes in

sandy places, where the ground is full of the holes of rats, moles,

and small rodents, upon which it feeds. It is very active and exhibits

great ferocity.

Natives at the Cape declare that this snake is able to project its

venom to a distance of more than a yard, especially if the wind is

blowing in the same direction, and that, if the poison happens to enter

the eye, the inflammation that results therefrom often leads to loss of

sight (Smith).

As to this, a very definite statement is given by Bavay,[4] on the

authority of Le Naour:--

“While hunting in Dahomey,” wrote Le Naour to Bavay, “I thrice met with

the snake called the _Spitter_. On two occasions my dog was struck

in both eyes by the liquid projected by the reptile. Immediately

(less than two minutes afterwards), symptoms of conjunctivitis

manifested themselves, with considerable swelling of the pupils; the

conjunctivitis seemed as though it were going to be very serious, and

yielded only after twelve days’ treatment with boracic lotion, aided

by a few cauterisations with sulphate of copper.

“During my sojourn at Porto-Novo, a store-keeper at the Dogba trading

station was a victim of the _Spitter_. While working at his store

he received in his eye a jet of liquid, which produced violent

conjunctivitis.”

(e) =Aspidelaps.=

Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, as in

_Sepedon_, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth.

Head slightly distinct from the neck. Eyes of moderate size, with round

or vertically elliptic pupils. Rostral shield very large, detached on

the sides. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth or keeled, in 19-23

rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short, obtuse; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.

(1) _A. lubricus._--146-167 ventral scales; 20-28 subcaudals.

Colour orange or red, with black rings; a black bar below the eyes;

upper surface of head sometimes entirely black.

Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Cape Colony and Namaqualand.

(2) _A. scutatus_ (Fula-fula of Mozambique).--115-135 ventrals; 24-38

subcaudals.

Colour pale grey, with black spots or cross-bars, and a black mark

shaped like a circumflex accent on the head. A black collar encircling

the neck, and a black vertical streak below the eye. Belly whitish.

The total length may be as much as 520 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Natal, Delagoa Bay, Mozambique.

(f) =Walterinnesia.=

Maxillary bones prolonged forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of

large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head distinct from the

neck; eyes rather small, with round pupils; nostril between two or

three nasal shields and the internasal. Body cylindrical; scales smooth

or feebly keeled, in 23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail rather short;

subcaudal scales for the most part in 2 rows.

_W. ægyptia._--Colour blackish-brown on the back, paler on the belly.

Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 170.

_Habitat_: Egypt.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--SKULL OF _Dendraspis

viridis_ (Poisonous West African Colubrine). (After G. A. Boulenger,

_op. cit._)]

(g) =Dendraspis.=

(Fig. 34.)

Maxillary bone curved upwards, bearing a pair of powerful poison-fangs,

not fissured, and not followed by other teeth; a long tooth at

the end of each ramus of the mandible. Head narrow, elongate; eye

moderate, with round pupil; nostril between two shields. Body slightly

compressed; scales smooth, narrow, very oblique, in 13-23 rows;

ventrals rounded. Tail long; subcaudals in 2 rows.

(1) _D. viridis._--211-225 ventral scales; 107-119 subcaudals.

Colour uniform olive-green. Shields on the head edged with black; lips

yellow; belly and tail yellow, with scales and shields bordered with

black.

Total length, 1,830 millimetres; tail 460.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Senegal to the Niger; St. Thome Island.

(2) _D. jamesonii._--Coloration as before. Scales in 15-19 rows (19-21

on the neck); 210-235 ventrals; 99-121 subcaudals. Tail sometimes black.

Total length, 2,100 millimetres; tail 560.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Niger to Angola; Central Africa.

(3) _D. angusticeps_ (The Mamba).--202-270 ventral scales; 99-121

subcaudals.

Colour green, olive, or blackish, uniform; belly yellowish or pale

green; caudal scales and shields not bordered with black.

Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 430.

_Habitat_: West Africa, south of the Congo; Central Africa, East

Africa, Transvaal, Natal.

(4) _D. antinorii._--Scales in 21-23 rows; 248 ventrals; 117

subcaudals. Colour olive on the back, yellowish on the belly.

Total length, 2,690 millimetres; tail 545.

_Habitat_: Abyssinia.

II.--VIPERIDÆ.

The African _Viperidæ_ all belong to the Subfamily _Viperinæ_, of which

the following are the seven principal genera:--

(a) _Causus_.

(b) _Vipera_.

(c) _Bitis._

(d) _Cerastes._

(e) _Echis._

(f) _Atheris._

(g) _Atractaspis._

(a) =Causus.=

(Fig. 35.)

Head distinct from the neck, covered with symmetrical shields; nostril

between two nasal shields, and the internasal; eyes moderate, with

round pupils, separated from the lips by subocular shields. Body

cylindrical; scales smooth or keeled, oblique on the sides, in 15-22

rows; ventral scales rounded. Tail short; subcaudals in 2 rows or

single.

Four species:--

(1) _C. rhombeatus._--Snout obtuse, moderately prominent. Scales in

17-21 rows; 120-155 ventrals; 15-29 subcaudals.

Colour olive or pale brown, usually with a series of V-shaped brown

spots bordered with white, and a large spot in the form of a circumflex

accent at the back of the head; lips bordered with black; belly

yellowish or grey.

Total length, 700 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: Tropical and South Africa, from the Gambia to the Cape.

(2) _C. resimus._--Snout prominent, more or less turned up; scales in

19-22 rows; 134-152 ventrals; 17-25 subcaudals.

Colour greyish-olive on the back; uniform white on the belly.

Total length, 470 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Central and East Africa, Angola.

(3) _C. defilipii._--Snout prominent, more or less turned up. Scales in

17 rows; 113-125 ventrals; 10-18 subcaudals.

Colour grey or pale brown above, with a series of large rhomboidal or

V-shaped blackish-brown spots; a large A-shaped dark brown mark on the

occiput; an oblique dark streak behind the eye; supralabial shields

edged with black; belly yellowish.

Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 22.

_Habitat_: Central and East Africa, Transvaal.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--SKULL OF _Causus

rhombeatus._ (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit_.)]

(4) _C. lichtensteinii._--Snout obtuse; scales in 15 rows; 142-144

ventrals; subcaudals 15-21, single.

Colour greyish, with rather indistinct darker chevron-shaped

cross-bands.

Total length, 413 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: West Africa (Gold Coast), Congo.

(b) =Vipera.=

(For the characters of this genus, see p. 23,--Europe.)

In North Africa are found _Vipera latastii_, _V. ammodytes_, and

especially _V. lebetina_, the range of which extends from Morocco to

Northern India. _Vipera superciliaris_, which occurs on the coast of

Mozambique, has the snout rounded, and the head covered with small,

imbricate, keeled scales, with a large supraocular shield; nostril very

large, between two nasal shields; scales on the body strongly keeled,

in 27 rows; 142 ventrals; 40 subcaudals.

The colour is pale reddish-brown or orange, with blackish transverse

bars broken by a longitudinal yellow band on each side; the belly is

white, spotted with black.

Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 77.

(c) =Bitis.=

(Fig. 36.)

The _Viperidæ_ belonging to this genus have the head very distinct from

the neck, covered with small imbricate scales; the eyes rather small,

with vertical pupils, separated from the lips by small scales; the

nostrils directed upwards and outwards, usually pierced in a single

nasal shield, with a rather deep pit above, closed by a valvular

supranasal. The postfrontal bones are very large, in contact with

the ectopterygoids. Scales keeled, with apical pits, in 22-41 rows;

ventrals rounded. Tail very short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.

(1) _B. arietans_ (the Puff Adder; fig. 37).--This viper has the

nostrils on the upper surface of the snout, and two series of scales

between the supranasal shields; 12-16 supralabials; 3-5 lower labials.

The scales on the body are in 29-41 rows, and strongly keeled; ventrals

131-145; subcaudals 16-34.

The body is thick, the head large and triangular, and the tail very

short. The colour is dirty yellow or orange, with large, transverse

or oblique, chevron-shaped black bands; an oblique black band extends

behind the eye. The belly is dirty yellow, uniform, or marked with

small black spots.

Total length, 1,350 millimetres, sometimes more; tail 160.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--SKULL of _Bitis arietans_

(the Puff Adder). (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

_Habitat_: This snake is met with throughout Africa, from Southern

Morocco, Kordofan, and Somaliland, to the Cape of Good Hope, and also

in Southern Arabia. It is especially common near the Niger and on the

Congo.

When irritated, it puffs itself out to such an extent that its body

becomes twice the ordinary size. It then doubles back its head and

neck in the shape of an S, and emits a loud and prolonged hiss. Before

biting, it first strikes a blow with its head as with a battering-ram,

thus justifying its French name, _vipère heurtante_ (Striking Viper).

[Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Bitis arietans_ (the Puff Adder).

(After Duméril and Bibron.)]

The natives of South Africa assert that this Viper is able to spring

high enough to strike a rider on horseback. It feeds upon rats and

mice, in search of which it often approaches habitations.

The Hottentots hunt it in order to obtain its venom; they pound its

head between stones, and mix the pulp with the juice of certain plants

for the purpose of poisoning their arrows.

It lives for a fairly long time in captivity. At the Pasteur Institute

at Lille I have succeeded in keeping one of these snakes for two years,

feeding it by forcing milk and eggs down its throat.

(2) _B. peringueyi._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. Head

covered with small, strongly keeled scales, which are smallest on the

vertex; 11 scales round the eye; 3 series of scales between the eye and

the lip; 11-14 supralabials. Scales on the body in 25-27 rows, strongly

keeled; 130-132 ventrals; 19-28 subcaudals.

Colour greyish-olive, with 3 longitudinal series of grey or blackish

spots; head sometimes with a trident-shaped dark mark, followed by a

cross; under surface whitish, with small dark spots.

Total length, 325 millimetres; tail 26.

_Habitat_: Angola and Damaraland.

(3) _B. atropos._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards, 13-16 scales

round the eye; 2-5 series of scales between the supranasals; 10-12

supralabials; 3-4 infralabials. Scales on the body in 29-31 rows, all

strongly keeled; 124-145 ventrals; 18-29 subcaudals.

Colour brown or grey-brown, with 4 longitudinal series of dark spots,

edged with black and white; two large black marks on the head; belly

grey or brown, with darker spots.

Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 25.

_Habitat_: Cape of Good Hope.

(4) _B. inornata._--Eyes smaller than in _B. atropos_, and separated

from the lips by 4 series of scales; supraorbital region raised, but

without erect horn-like scales; 15-17 scales across the head; 13-14

supralabials; 3 lower labials. Scales on the body in 27-29 rows, all

keeled; 126-140 ventrals; 19-26 subcaudals.

Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: Cape of Good Hope.

(5) _B. cornuta_ (fig. 38).--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards.

Head covered with small, imbricate, strongly keeled scales; 2-5 raised

scales, like horns, above each eye; 12-14 scales round the eye; 12-15

supralabials; 2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body keeled, in 25-29

rows; 120-152 ventrals; 18-36 subcaudals.

Colour grey or reddish-brown, with black spots, edged with white and

arranged in 3 or 4 longitudinal series; a dark, oblique streak from the

eye to the mouth; belly yellow or brown, uniform or spotted.

Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 35.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Bitis cornuta._ (After Duméril and

Bibron.)]

_Habitat_: Cape Colony, Namaqualand, Damaraland.

(6) _B. caudalis._--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards. 12-16 scales

from one eye to the other across the head; above each eye a single,

erect, horn-like scale; 10-16 scales round the eye; 10-13 supralabials;

2-3 infralabials. Scales on the body in 22-29 rows, strongly keeled;

112-153 ventrals; 18-33 subcaudals.

Colour reddish or sandy-grey, with 2 series of brown spots with light

centres, and frequently a vertebral series of narrow spots; belly dull

yellow, uniform, or with small black spots on the sides.

Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 25.

_Habitat_: South-west Africa, from Angola to Namaqualand.

(7) _B. gabonica_ (Gaboon Viper, or River Jack Viper).--Nostrils

directed upwards and outwards. Head covered with small, moderately

keeled scales, smallest on the vertex, 13-16 from eye to eye; 15-19

scales round the eye; a pair of erectile, triangular, nasal “horns,”

consisting of sometimes tricuspid shields, between the supranasals;

13-16 supralabials; 4-5 infralabials. Scales on the body in 33-41

rows, strongly keeled; lateral scales slightly oblique; 125-140

ventrals; 17-33 subcaudals.

This viper, which often attains a length of 1,200 millimetres, is

brown, with a vertebral series of quadrangular, yellowish, or light

brown spots connected by black markings; the belly is dull yellow, with

small brown or blackish spots.

_Habitat_: Tropical Africa (West Africa, from Liberia to Damaraland;

Zanzibar, Mozambique).

This species, which is nocturnal, is often met with on the Gaboon, and

in the forests near the banks of the Ogowai. Its head is enormous,

triangular in shape, and wider above; it has a bulky body, and a very

short tail, terminating abruptly in a point.

The Gaboon Viper is a savage snake, with very active venom, and its

poison-glands are of the size of large almonds. It lives in virgin

forests, among dead wood and rocks. I have several times met with it in

manioc plantations on the edge of the woods. In broad daylight it is

sluggish, moves somewhat slowly, and never attacks man. It bites only

when surprised.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Bitis nasicornis._ (After Duméril

and Bibron.)]

(8) _B. nasicornis_ (fig. 39).--Nostrils opening upwards and outwards.

Head covered with small strongly keeled scales, smaller on the vertex,

14-16 from one eye to the other; 2 or 3 pairs of compressed, erectile,

horn-like shields between the supranasals, usually separated in the

middle by 1 or 2 series of small scales; 15-18 supralabials; 4-6

infralabials. Scales on the body in 35-41 rows, strongly keeled;

124-140 ventrals; 16-32 subcaudals.

Colour purple or reddish-brown above, with pale olive or dark brown

spots; a vertebral series of brown, black-edged spots, which assume a

rhomboidal form; sides of head dark brown, with a triangular light mark

in front of the eye, and an oblique light streak from behind the eye to

the mouth; belly pale olive, spotted with black or yellow.

Total length, 1,250 millimetres; tail 125.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon.

(d) =Cerastes.=

Head very distinct from the neck, covered with small juxtaposed or

slightly imbricate scales; eyes small, with vertical pupils, separated

from the lips by small scales; nostrils opening upwards and outwards.

Body cylindrical; scales keeled, with apical pits, in 23-35 rows. Tail

short; subcaudals in 2 rows.

(1) _C. cornutus_ (fig. 40).--Snout very short and broad; two erectile

horns above the eyes, which are separated by 15-21 scales and

surrounded by 14-18; 4-5 series of scales between the eyes and the

lips; 12-15 supralabials; 3 infralabials; scales on the body in 27-35

rows; 130-165 ventrals; 25-42 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Cerastes cornutus._ (After Duméril

and Bibron.)]

Colour yellowish-brown or grey, with or without brown spots, forming

4-6 regular series, the two middle ones sometimes forming cross-bars;

an oblique dark streak behind the eye; belly white; end of tail

sometimes black.

Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Northern border of the Sahara, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and

Southern Palestine.

(2) _C. vipera._--Snout very short and broad; head covered with small,

tubercularly keeled scales, to the number of 9-13 from eye to eye;

no “horns”; 9-14 scales round the eye; nostril between two small

shields, separated from their neighbours by 5-6 series of scales; 10-12

supralabials; 3 infralabials. Scales on the body in 23-27 rows; 102-122

ventrals, rather strongly keeled at the sides; 18-26 subcaudals. Colour

dull yellow, pale brown or reddish, with or without black spots; end of

tail often black above; ventral surface white.

Total length, 340 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: Northern border of the Sahara, from Algeria to Egypt.

The snakes belonging to this genus live constantly hidden in the

sand, lying in wait for small birds, which alight beside them without

suspicion, mistaking their horns for insects or larvæ; they also feed

upon mice. Their poison-fangs are of relatively large size.

These small and exceedingly active vipers, whose colour harmonises

marvellously with their surroundings, are very dangerous to the Arabs

and blacks, who walk barefooted; they frequently cause fatal accidents.

They are able to exist for a very long time without drinking. They

are attracted by the fires which are lighted at night round caravan

encampments.

(e) =Echis.=

(See Asia, p. 48.)

(1) _E. carinatus_ (Efa, Viper of the Pyramids).--The same as met with

in Persia, Arabia, and India. Very common in the environs of Cairo, and

throughout Egypt and Abyssinia. It often makes its way into towns and

villages. Brehm records that he more than once found an _Efa_ in his

house at Khartoum, and that on one occasion he discovered one of these

vipers coiled up beneath the covering of his bed. At another time,

getting up in the night, he put his foot on one of these animals and

was not bitten, the reptile being very fortunately just at that moment

in the act of devouring a tame bird which it had seized.

It hardly ever happens that a native of Egypt can bring himself to

destroy an _Efa_, of which he has the greatest dread. If, as often

occurs, he finds one of these reptiles in his house, he addresses

himself to the _Hani_ or juggler, in order that, by his magic art, he

may expel the dangerous visitor. From this custom the juggler evidently

derives no small advantage, for, as is only right, he does not ply his

craft for nothing. In many cases, indeed, the juggler releases a snake

in a house, and then goes and informs the owner that he knows that a

reptile is concealed in his dwelling, and that, in consideration of a

stipulated reward, he will rid him of it (Brehm).

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Echis coloratus._ (After G. A.

Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

(2) _E. coloratus_ (fig. 41).--Scales on the snout and vertex convex,

smooth or bluntly keeled, 13-15 from eye to eye; no supraocular shield;

17-22 scales round the eye; 12-15 supralabials; scales on the body in

31-35 rows; 174-205 ventrals; 42-52 subcaudals. No cruciform mark on

the head.

Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Palestine, Arabia, Socotra.

(f) =Atheris.=

Head very distinct from neck, covered with imbricate scales; eyes

large, with vertical pupils, usually separated from the labial shields

by small scales; nostrils lateral. Body slightly compressed; scales

keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate, _prehensile_; subcaudal scales

in a single row.

(1) _A. chlorechis._--No supraciliary horn-like scales; 9-11 scales

from eye to eye; 25-36 rows of scales in the middle of the body,

strongly keeled; 154-165 ventrals; 53-62 subcaudals.

Colour green, uniform or with small yellow spots; end of tail yellowish

or blackish.

Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 85.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from Liberia to the Ogowai.

(2) _A. squamiger._--No supraciliary horn-like scales; 7-8 scales from

eye to eye; 15-25 rows of scales in the middle of the body, strongly

keeled; 153-173 ventrals; 51-95 subcaudals.

Colour olive, uniform or with more or less regular, narrow yellow

cross-bands, or yellow with green spots; belly pale olive, marbled with

black or yellow, or uniform yellow.

Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Cameroons to Angola.

(3) _A. ceratophorus._--Several erect, supraciliary horn-like scales;

9-10 scales from eye to eye; 25 rows of scales in the middle of the

body, strongly keeled; 142 ventrals; 55 subcaudals.

Colour dark olive, with black spots forming cross-bands; belly pale

olive, speckled with black.

Total length, 210 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: East Africa.

(g) =Atractaspis.=

(Fig. 42.)

This genus is characterised by enormous poison-fangs, a few teeth on

the palatines, and none on the pterygoids. The mandible, which is

edentulous in front, has only two or three small teeth in the middle

of the dentary bone. Head small, not distinct from the neck, covered

with large symmetrical shields; nostril between two nasal shields; eyes

minute, with round pupils; postfrontal bone absent. Body cylindrical;

scales smooth, in 17-37 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short; subcaudals

in 1 or 2 rows.

(1) _A. hildebrandtii._--Six supralabials; no præocular shields;

frontal shorter than the parietals; scales on the body in 17 rows;

ventrals 167-174.

Colour uniform dark brown.

Total length, 450 millimetres; tail 53.

_Habitat_: East Africa.

(2) _A. congica._--Five supralabials, of which the fourth is the

larger; postocular in contact with a large temporal; one præocular;

frontal as long as or slightly shorter than the parietals. Scales on

the body in 19-21 rows; 209-230 ventrals; 19-23 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--SKULL OF _Atractaspis

aterrima_ (African Viperine). (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

Colour uniform dark brown or black.

Total length, 450 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: Congo, Angola.

(3) _A. irregularis._--Characters as before, but scales on the body in

25-27 rows; 220-257 ventrals, subcaudals 22-28 pairs.

Colour uniform black or dark brown.

Total length, 560 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: West Africa, from the Gold Coast to the Congo; Central

Africa.

(4) _A. corpulenta._--Postocular shield in contact with a large

temporal; second lower labial very large, fused with the chin-shields.

Scales on the body in 23-27 rows; 178-193 ventrals; 23-27 subcaudals.

Colour uniform blackish-brown; tail sometimes white.

Total length, 345 millimetres; tail 33.

HABITAT: West Africa, from Liberia to the Gaboon.

(5) _A. rostrata._--Snout very prominent, cuneiform. Third lower labial

very large; first lower labial in contact with its fellow, behind the

symphysial. Scales on the body in 19-23 rows; ventrals 227-248.

Colour uniform dark brown, or blackish.

Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 37.

_Habitat_: East and Central Africa.

(6) _A. bibronii._--Characters as before. Snout prominent,

subcuneiform. Ventral scales, 221-260.

Colour dark purplish-brown above, dull yellow or pale brown on the

belly.

Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 25.

_Habitat_: Eastern districts of Cape Colony, Natal, Namaqualand, Angola.

(7) _A. aterrima._--Characters as before. Snout rounded; 251-300

ventral scales.

Colour uniform dark brown or black.

Total length, 650 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: West and Central Africa.

(8) _A. dahomeyensis._--Characters as before. Symphysial shield in

contact with the chin-shields. Scales on the body in 31 rows; 240

ventrals; 24 subcaudals.

Colour black above, brown on the belly.

Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 32.

_Habitat_: Dahomey.

(9) _A. micropholis._--Temporal shields small, 2 + 3 or 4; fourth

or fifth infralabial larger; scales on the body in 25 rows; 210-215

ventrals; 29-30 subcaudals. Frontal shield slightly longer than broad,

much longer than the parietals.

Colour uniform dark brown.

Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 28.

_Habitat_: Cape Verd.

(10) _A. leucomelas._--Characters as before. Frontal one and two-fifths

as long as broad, as long as the parietals.

Colour black, with a vertebral white line, occupying one row and two

half rows of scales; ventrals and subcaudals white; neck black, head

white, with a black spot covering the nasals and upper head-shields.

Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Somaliland.

(11) _A. microlepidota._--Characters as before. Scales on the body in

29-37 rows; 212-245 ventrals; 26-37 subcaudals.

Colour uniform dark brown.

Total length, 540 millimetres; tail 45.

_Habitat_: Central and East Africa.

_D.--AUSTRALIA AND THE LARGE ADJACENT ISLANDS._

The Sunda Islands and the whole of Malaysia are rich in poisonous

snakes. Those that are found there belong for the most part to species

that we have already met with in India or the Malay Peninsula. We shall

therefore not describe them again here.

All those that inhabit Australia are included in the great Family

COLUBRIDÆ and the Subfamily _Elapinæ_. There are no

VIPERIDÆ; but certain genera of poisonous COLUBRIDÆ

are peculiar to this continent.

These reptiles have been particularly well studied by Gérard Krefft,

formerly Director of the Australian Museum at Sydney, from whose

work[5] we shall borrow a considerable portion of the following notes,

and the figures accompanying them.

The genera represented in Australia are:--

(a) _Ogmodon._

(b) _Glyphodon._

(c) _Pseudelaps._

(d) _Diemenia._

(e) _Pseudechis._

(f) _Denisonia._

(g) _Micropechis._

(h) _Hoplocephalus._

(i) _Tropidechis._

(j) _Notechis._

(k) _Rhinhoplocephalus._

(l) _Brachyaspis._

(m) _Acanthophis._

(n) _Elapognathus._

(o) _Rhynchelaps._

(p) _Furina._

(a) =Ogmodon.=

This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards

as far as the palatines, and bearing, in addition to the poison-fangs,

6-7 grooved teeth. The head is not distinct from the neck; the eyes are

very small. The body is cylindrical, and covered with smooth scales in

17 rows. Tail short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.

_O. vitianus._--Snout elongate, pointed; 139-152 ventral scales; 27-38

subcaudals.

Colour dark brown, lighter on the sides; belly brown or white, more or

less spotted with black; tail black.

Total length, 360 millimetres; tail 45.

_Habitat_: Fiji Islands.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--SKULL OF _Glyphodon tristis_

(Australian Colubrine).

(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

(b) =Glyphodon.=

General characters the same; snout rounded; poison-fangs followed,

after a wide interspace, by 6 small grooved teeth; anterior mandibular

teeth strongly developed (fig. 43). Head and eyes small; pupils round

or vertically subelliptic; nostrils pierced between 2 nasal shields.

Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 17 rows; tail short; subcaudals in

2 rows.

_G. tristis._--Ventral scales 165-179; subcaudals 38-52.

Colour dark brown; occiput often yellowish, or pale reddish-brown;

belly yellow.

Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 125.

_Habitat_: North-eastern Australia and South-eastern New Guinea.

(c) =Pseudelaps.=

Maxillaries extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair

of large grooved poison-fangs, and, after a wide interval, 8-12 small

grooved teeth. The anterior mandibular teeth are of large size, almost

like fangs. Head hardly distinct from the neck; eyes small, with

vertically elliptic pupils. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-17

rows. Tail moderate or short; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.

(1) _P. muelleri._--Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, in contact

with the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; 139-176 ventral scales; 21-35

subcaudals.

Colour brown, with a light vertebral line; a more or less distinct

dark, light-edged streak on each side of the head, passing through the

eye; belly yellowish or coral-red; uniform or spotted with black.

Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain.

(2) _P. squamulosus_.--Scales in 15 rows. Nasal shield divided, in

contact with the præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 170-183 ventrals; 34-52

subcaudals.

Colour brown, with a yellowish streak round the snout and through the

eyes to the nape; belly whitish, with confluent black spots forming

lines on each side.

Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: New South Wales.

(3) _P. krefftii_ (fig. 44).--Nasal shield entire, in contact with the

præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 146-156 ventrals; 26-38 subcaudals.

Colour dark brown, with a light longitudinal line on each scale; a

yellowish cross-band on the occiput, connected with another yellow band

which encircles the snout.

Belly yellowish in front, black behind; subcaudals white, with a

longitudinal black band running between them.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Pseudelaps krefftii._]

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Pseudelaps harriettæ._]

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Pseudelaps diadema._]

Total length, 255 millimetres; tail 33.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(4) _P. harriettæ_ (fig. 45).--Nasal shield entire, in contact with

or narrowly separated from the præocular; 1 + 2 temporals; 176-193

ventrals; 29-35 subcaudals.

Colour dark brown, with a light longitudinal line on each scale; a long

yellow blotch on the nape, and, connected with this, a yellow ring

round the snout; ventrals and subcaudals brown or black, edged with

white.

Total length, 415 millimetres; tail 45.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(5) _P. diadema_ (fig. 46).--Nasal shield entire, widely separated

from the præocular; 2 + 2 temporals; third and fourth upper labials

entering the eye; 164-203 ventrals; 40-62 subcaudals. Colour pale brown

or reddish, with a brown edging to each scale forming a reticulate

pattern; a yellow cross-band on the occiput; belly uniformly white.

Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Eastern, Northern, and Western Australia.

(6) _P. warro._--Characters the same as in the previous species; 143

ventrals. Colour brown; a broad lunate black collar on the nape; head

black above, but paler than the collar.

_Habitat_: Port Curtis, Queensland.

(7) _P. sutherlandi._--Characters as before. Scales on the body in 17

rows; 160 ventrals; 40 subcaudals. Colour red-brown on the back, yellow

on the belly; a broad lunate black collar on the nape, with a lighter

edging; light bars across the head, body, and tail.

_Habitat_: Norman River, Queensland.

(d) =Diemenia.=

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Diemenia psammophis._]

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--_Diemenia olivacea._ (Northern

Australia and New Guinea).

(After Krefft.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Diemenia textilis._]

Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a

pair of large grooved poison-fangs, followed, after an interspace, by

7-15 small grooved teeth; anterior mandibular teeth much elongated,

resembling poison-fangs. Head scarcely distinct from the neck: eyes

rather large, with round pupils; nasal shield entire or divided;

frontal elongate.

Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-19 rows (more on the neck). Tail

moderate or long; subcaudals all or for the most part in 2 rows.

Coloration very variable, orange-yellow, olive, red-brown, or pale

brown.

Average length, 1,000-1,700 millimetres.

_Habitat_: South-eastern New Guinea, and Australia.

Seven species of this genus are known, divided into two groups as

follows:--

(1) Scales on the body in 15 rows.

_D. psammophis._ (fig. 47).--Internasal shields at least half as long

as the præfrontals.

_D. torquata._--Internasals more than half as long as the præfrontals.

_D. olivacea._ (fig. 48).--Internasals not more than half as long as

the præfrontals; snout broad.

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Diemenia nuchalis._]

(2) Scales in 17 or 19 rows.

_D. modesta._--154-165 ventrals.

_D. textilis_ (Brown Snake, fig. 49).--190-232 ventrals.

_D. nuchalis_ (fig. 50).--184-224 ventrals.

(e) =Pseudechis.=

Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a

pair of large grooved poison-fangs followed by 2-5 small solid teeth;

anterior mandibular teeth long. Head distinct from the neck; eyes

rather small, with round pupils; nostril between two nasal shields.

Body cylindrical. Scales smooth, in 17-23 rows (more on the neck). Tail

moderate; subcaudals in 2 rows, or partly single, partly in 2 rows.

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--_Pseudechis porphyriacus._]

Total length, 1,500-2,000 millimetres, sometimes more.

_Habitat_: Australia and New Guinea.

This genus includes eight species.

(1) _P. porphyriacus_ (Black Snake; fig. 51).--Frontal shield longer

than broad; 180-200 ventrals; 50-60 subcaudals.

Colour black on the back; outer row of scales red at the base; ventrals

red, edged with black.

(2) _P. cupreus._--199-210 ventrals; 57-72 subcaudals.

Colour coppery above, brown or orange below, all the scales and shields

edged with brown.

(3) _P. australis._--199-220 ventrals; 57-70 subcaudals; frontal shield

once and two-thirds to twice as long as broad.

Colour pale brown on the back, yellowish on the belly.

(4) _P. darwiniensis._--Frontal as broad as long; 212 ventrals; 54-64

subcaudals.

Colour reddish-brown; head pale brown; belly yellowish-white.

(5) _P. papuanus._--Scales in 19-21 rows (26 or 27 on the neck);

221-224 ventrals; 49-55 subcaudals.

Colour uniform black; chin white.

(6) _P. scutellatus._--Subcaudal shields in 2 rows; scales on the body

in 23 rows (25-30 on the neck); 230-233 ventrals; 61-78 subcaudals.

Colour pale brown or dark brown; snout and cheeks pale brown or

yellowish; belly yellow.

(7) _P. microlepidotus._--30-36 scales across the neck, 23 across the

middle of the body; 232-237 ventrals; 61-66 pairs of subcaudals.

Colour dark brown on the back, yellowish-grey on the belly; head

sometimes blackish.

(8) _P. ferox._--Snout very broadly rounded. Scales on the body in 23

rows; 235 ventrals; 60 pairs of subcaudals.

Colour black above, yellowish beneath.

(f) =Denisonia.=

Maxillary bones prolonged as far as the palatines, with a pair of large

grooved poison-fangs, followed by 3-5 small solid teeth; anterior

mandibular teeth greatly developed. Head fairly distinct from the body;

eyes small, with round or vertically elliptic pupils; nasal shield

entire or divided. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-19 rows; tail

moderate or short; subcaudals in a single row, except in one species.

According to the British Museum Catalogue, the genus _Denisonia_

includes twenty-one species, the principal characters of which are as

follows:--

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Denisonia superba_ (The Copperhead).]

(1) _D. superba_ (The Copperhead. Fig. 52).--Scales in 15-17 rows;

nasal shield entire, in contact with the præocular; ventral scales

145-160; subcaudals 41-50.

Colour brownish to dark olive on the back, often yellow or salmon-red

on the sides; belly yellowish or greyish-olive.

Total length, 1,010 millimetres; tail 160.

_Habitat_: New South Wales, Southern Australia, Tasmania.

(2) _D. coronata._--Scales in 15 rows; 138-151 ventrals; 38-51

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Denisonia coronoides._]

Colour olive, with a black streak on each side of the head; belly

yellowish or pale olive.

Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 95.

_Habitat_: Western Australia and New South Wales.

(3) _D. coronoides_ (fig. 53).--Scales in 15 rows; 136-151 ventrals;

39-57 subcaudals.

Colour brown, lips yellow; belly salmon-red to dark olive-grey; end of

tail salmon-red.

Total length, 440 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Southern Australia and Tasmania.

(4) _D. muelleri._--Scales in 17 rows; 118 ventrals; 38 subcaudals.

Colour grey-brown; lips and chin with yellow spots; belly grey.

Total length, 292 millimetres; tail 52.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(5) _D. frenata._--Scales in 19 rows; 167 ventrals; 35 subcaudals.

Colour olive-brown; upper lip yellow; belly white.

Total length, 390 millimetres; tail 54.

_Habitat_: Lake Elphinstone, Queensland.

(6) _D. ramsayi_ (fig. 54).--Scales in 15 rows; 164 ventrals; 51

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Denisonia ramsayi._]

Colour dark olive-green above, yellow beneath; subcaudals nearly black.

Total length, 265 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: New South Wales.

(7) D. signata (fig. 55).--Scales in 17 rows; 153-170 ventrals; 41-56

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Denisonia signata._]

Colour dark olive or black, head brown; belly dark grey or black.

Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 120.

_Habitat_: Queensland, New South Wales.

(8) _D. daemelii._--Scales in 17 rows; 147-168 ventrals; 33-45

subcaudals.

Colour olive, head darker; belly yellowish-white.

Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(9) _D. suta._--Scales in 19 rows; 157-164 ventrals; 25-30 subcaudals.

Colour pale olive-brown, head dark brown, nape black; upper lip and

belly yellow.

Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 23.

_Habitat_: Southern Australia.

(10) _D. frontalis._--Scales in 19 rows; 154 ventrals; 30 subcaudals.

Colour light brown, with a vertebral black line; belly pearly-white,

with a median bronze-coloured band.

Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: New South Wales.

(11) _D. flagellum._--Scales in 17 rows; 132-138 ventrals; 25-27

subcaudals.

Colour pale brown; vertex, occiput, and nape black; upper lip and belly

white.

Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Victoria.

(12) _D. maculata._ (fig. 56).--Scales in 17 rows; 121-136 ventrals;

20-30 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Denisonia maculata._]

Colour dark grey-brown, or brown; a large dark olive-green or brown

blotch on the head, with two or three unequal light grey spots; belly

white.

Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(13) _D. punctata._--Scales in 15 rows; 160 ventrals; 25 subcaudals.

Colour pale brown; head and nape orange; upper lip and belly yellow.

Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 36.

_Habitat_: North-Western Australia.

(14) _D. gouldii_ (fig. 57).--Scales in 15 rows; 140-170 ventrals;

22-23 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Denisonia gouldii._]

Colour brownish-yellow; nape black; head covered with a broad

greenish-blue blotch, extending from the nose to the neck; upper lip

and belly yellow.

Total length, 435 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Western and Southern Australia.

(15) _D. nigrescens._--Scales in 15 rows; 170-200 ventrals; 30-46

subcaudals.

Colour dark olive; head black; belly yellow.

Total length, 545 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: New South Wales and Queensland.

(16) _D. nigrostriata._--Scales in 15 rows; 180-184 ventrals; 50-64

subcaudals.

Colour yellow, streaked with black; head dark brown; upper lip and

belly yellowish-white.

Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 52.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(17) _D. carpentariæ._--Scales in 15 rows; 166-183 ventrals; 31-43

subcaudals.

Colour brown; upper lip and belly yellowish-white.

Total length, 285 millimetres; tail 47.

_Habitat_: Northern Queensland.

(18) _D. pallidiceps._--Scales in 15 rows; 170-178 ventrals; 37-38

subcaudals.

Colour dark olive-brown; head somewhat paler; belly yellowish. Total

length, 590 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Northern Australia.

(19) _D. melanura._--Scales in 15 or 17 rows; 165-171 ventrals; 38-48

subcaudals.

Colour dark brown; head and sides usually reddish; belly yellow; tail

black.

Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 140.

_Habitat_: Solomon Islands.

(20) _D. par._--Scales in 16 rows; 164-166 ventrals; 40-49 subcaudals.

Colour reddish-brown, in broad bands with white intervals; head

blackish-brown; belly white; tail with red rings.

Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 110.

_Habitat_: Faro and Howla Islands, Bougainville Straits, Solomon

Islands.

(21) _D. woodfordii._--Scales in 17 rows; 166-172 ventrals; 41-45

subcaudal pairs.

Colour brownish-white, with a reticulate pattern; head dark brown;

belly white.

Total length, 670 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: New Georgia, Solomon Islands.

(g) =Micropechis.=

Maxillary bones extending forward as far as the palatines, with a pair

of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by three small solid teeth;

mandibular teeth longer in front. Head distinct from the neck; eyes

very small, with round pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Body

cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 or 17 rows. Tail short; subcaudals in

2 rows.

(1) _M. ikaheka._--Scales in 15 rows; 180-223 ventrals; 39-55

subcaudals.

Colour yellow and black, in irregular cross-bars; head and tail black

above; belly yellow.

Total length, 1,550 millimetres; tail 180.

_Habitat_: New Guinea.

(2) _M. elapoides._--Scales in 17 rows; 208 ventrals; 35 subcaudals.

Colour cream, with 22 black bands, broader than the interspaces between

them; snout and ocular region black.

Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: Florida Island, Solomon Group.

(h) =Hoplocephalus.=

Characters the same as in _Micropechis_. Scales in 21 rows; ventrals

angulate and notched laterally. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a single

row.

(1) _H. bungaroides_ (Syn. _H. variegatus_. The Broad-headed

Snake).--204-221 ventrals; 40-56 subcaudals.

Colour black on the back, with yellow spots forming more or less

regular cross-bands on the body; upper lip yellow, margined with black;

belly blackish, yellow on the sides.

Total length, 1,620 millimetres; tail 210.

_Habitat_: New South Wales.

(2) _H. bitorquatus_ (fig. 58).--Ventral scales strongly angulate

laterally, 191-227; subcaudals 44-59.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Hoplocephalus bitorquatus._]

Colour olive-green; head pale olive, with a bright yellow occipital

blotch, and a large black blotch on each side of the nape; a pair of

small spots in front of and between the eyes; three black transverse

blotches on the vertex; belly greyish-olive or brown.

Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 95.

_Habitat_: Queensland, New South Wales.

(3) _H. stephensii._--239 ventrals; 60 subcaudals.

Body barred alternately with black and white; the black bars are twice

as broad as the white ones; head dark, spotted with yellow; a W-shaped

yellow mark on the back of the head.

Total length, 760 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Port Macquarie, New South Wales.

(i) =Tropidechis.=

Same general characters; nasal shield entire; scales on the body

strongly keeled, in 23 rows. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a single row.

_T. carinatus._--Colour dark olive, with darker cross-bands; belly

yellow, more or less tinged with olive-green.

Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 120.

_Habitat_: New South Wales, Queensland.

(j) =Notechis.=

Same general characters; pupil round; nasal shield entire. Body

cylindrical; scales smooth, disposed obliquely, in 15-19 rows, the

lateral scales shorter than the dorsals. Tail moderate; subcaudals in a

single row.

_N. scutatus_ (Syn. _Hoplocephalus curtus_. The Tiger Snake. Fig.

59).--Colour dark olive; belly yellow or olive; the shields often

dark-edged.

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Notechis scutatus_ (The Tiger

Snake.)]

Total length, 1,280 millimetres; tail 170.

_Habitat_: Australia and Tasmania.

(k) =Rhinhoplocephalus.=

Dentition as in _Hoplocephalus_. Head but little distinct from the

neck; eyes small, with round pupils; no internasal shields. Body

cylindrical, rigid. Scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short; subcaudals

in a single row.

_R. bicolor._--Colour greyish-olive on the back, yellowish-white on the

belly; tongue white.

Total length, 395 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Australia.

(l) =Brachyaspis.=

Characters the same, but head distinct from the neck; eyes small, with

vertically elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal shields. Body

stout, cylindrical; scales smooth, slightly oblique, in 19 rows. Tail

short; subcaudals in a single row.

_B. curta._--Colour uniform olive-brown; belly yellowish.

Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Western Australia.

(m) =Acanthophis= (_Death Adder_).

(Figs. 60, 61.)

Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair

of large grooved poison-fangs, followed by two or three small teeth;

anterior mandibular teeth elongate, fang-like. Head distinct from the

neck; eyes small, with vertically elliptic pupils; nostril in the upper

part of a single nasal shield. Body stout, cylindrical. Scales more or

less distinctly keeled, in 21-23 rows. Tail short, compressed at the

end and terminating in a sort of long spine, turned upwards; anterior

subcaudals in a single row, posterior in 2 rows.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--SKULL of _Acanthophis

antarcticus_. (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

_A. antarcticus_ (The Death Adder; fig. 61).--Supraocular shields

often raised and angular, assuming the shape of little horns; scales

on the crown of the head rugose and striated; 113-130 ventrals; 41-51

subcaudals (the last 5-27 are divided).

Colour yellow-brown or reddish, with more or less distinct dark

cross-bands; black spots or small dark bars on the lips; belly

yellowish-white; end of tail yellow or black, covered with spiny scales.

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Acanthophis antarcticus_ (The Death

Adder).]

Total length, 850 millimetres; tail 150.

_Habitat_: Moluccas, New Guinea, Australia.

(n) =Elapognathus.=

Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair

of moderately large grooved poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth;

mandibular teeth subequal. Eyes moderate, with round pupils; nasal

shield entire. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 rows; ventrals

rounded; tail moderate; subcaudals in a single row.

_E. minor._--Colour dark olive, with a black occipital blotch in the

young; belly yellow or greenish-grey.

Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 95.

_Habitat_: South-west Australia.

(o) =Rhynchelaps.=

Maxillary bones extending forwards as far as the palatines, with a pair

of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and two small teeth near the

posterior extremity of the bone; anterior mandibular teeth the longest.

Head small, not distinct from the neck; eyes small, with vertically

elliptic pupils; nostril in a single nasal shield. Body short,

cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15-17 rows. Tail very short; subcaudals

in 2 rows.

(1) _R. bertholdi._--Scales in 15 rows; 112-126 ventrals.

Colour yellow, with 19-40 black annuli, usually narrower than the

interspaces; head brown, with a large black blotch on the nape, and

another on the vertex and temples.

Total length, 270 millimetres; tail 22.

_Habitat_: Southern and Western Australia.

(2) _R. australis_ (fig. 62).--Scales in 17 rows; 152-163 ventrals;

18-20 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Rhynchelaps australis._]

Colour red on the body, with ill-defined cross-bars formed of yellowish

black-edged scales; a black blotch on the head, covering the vertex and

temples, and surrounding the eyes; another large blotch on the nape;

snout and occiput yellow; belly white.

Total length, 290 millimetres; tail 25.

_Habitat_: Queensland.

(3) _R. semifasciatus._--Scales in 17 rows; 143-170 ventrals; 17-25

subcaudals.

Colour yellow, with brown cross-bands; large brown blotches on the head

and nape; belly white.

Total length, 300 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: West Australia.

(4) _R. fasciolatus._--Scales in 17 rows; 145-161 ventrals; 22-27

subcaudals.

Colour red, with numerous blackish-brown cross-bands; large

blackish-brown blotches on the head and nape; belly white.

Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat_: West Australia.

(p) =Furina.=

(Figs. 63 and 64.)

Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, bearing a

pair of moderately large grooved poison-fangs, and one or two small

teeth near their posterior extremities; mandibular teeth subequal. Head

small, not distinct from neck; eyes very small, with round pupils;

nostril in a single nasal shield. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in

15 rows. Tail very short, obtuse; subcaudals in 2 rows.

(1) _F. calonota._--Six supralabial shields; 126-131 ventrals; 29-30

subcaudals.

Colour yellow, with a black vertebral stripe; a black bar across the

end of the snout; a large black blotch covering the vertex and the

parietals; belly white.

Total length, 215 millimetres; tail 33.

_Habitat_: West Australia.

(2) _F. bimaculata._--Scales in 15 rows; 181-200 ventrals; 21-25

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SKULL OF _Furina

occipitalis_. (After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Furina occipitalis._]

Colour yellow, with large black blotches on the snout, middle of head,

and occiput; belly white.

Total length, 330 millimetres; tail 25.

_Habitat_: West Australia.

(3) _F. occipitalis_ (fig. 64).--Scales in 15 rows; 180-234 ventrals;

14-25 subcaudals.

Entire body ringed with black and white, annuli narrower on head

black, with a broad white band across the occiput, and another narrower

and irregular one across the snout; nose black.

Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 36.

_Habitat_: Australia.

* * * * *

There are no poisonous snakes in New Zealand. In New Caledonia no

_terrestrial_ poisonous snakes are known, but _Hydrophiidæ_ abound on

its shores, as on those of the majority of the islands of the Pacific.

In Australia, especially in New South Wales and farther to the north,

fatalities due to the bites of poisonous snakes are not rare. The most

dangerous species are: _Acanthophis antarcticus_ (the Death Adder),

_Diemenia textilis_ (the Brown Snake), _Pseudechis porphyriacus_ (the

Black Snake), and _Notechis scutatus_ or _Hoplocephalus curtus_ (the

Tiger Snake).

The health authorities of this country have accordingly taken

the wise precaution of circulating very widely among the public

coloured placards bearing illustrations of these four species, with

a description of the essential anatomical details by which they may

be recognised. Similar placards are exhibited in all the schools,

and a generous distribution is made of instructions, printed on

handkerchiefs, indicating the most effective method of treating

poisonous bites.

In Queensland, according to information furnished to me by Mr. C. W.

De Vis, late Director of the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, the number

of deaths resulting from the bites of poisonous snakes has been only

twenty-seven in ten years.

_E.--AMERICA._

The fauna of the New World includes only a very small number of

poisonous snakes belonging to the family COLUBRIDÆ. The Genus

_Elaps_ alone is represented there by twenty-eight species, scattered

over Mexico, Central America, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and

Brazil.

VIPERIDÆ, on the other hand, are extremely numerous, and

belong exclusively to the subfamily CROTALINÆ; there are no

VIPERINÆ.

I.--COLUBRIDÆ.

(a) =Elaps.=

(Fig. 65.)

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--SKULL OF _Elaps marcgravii_.

(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

The characters of this genus are: Maxillary bones very short, extending

beyond the palatines, and bearing a pair of large poison-fangs;

pterygoid teeth few or absent; mandibular teeth all of equal length.

No postfrontal bones; præfrontals meeting, or narrowly separated on

the median line. Head small, not distinct from neck; eyes small, with

vertically elliptic or sub-elliptic pupils; nostril between two nasal

shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 15 rows. Tail short;

subcaudal scales in 2 rows, or partly single, partly in 2 rows.

(1) _E. surinamensis._--Seven supralabials, of which the fourth enters

the eye; frontal shield very narrow; 167-182 ventrals.

Colour red, with black annuli disposed in threes (the middle one

broader), separated by narrow yellow interspaces; 7 or 8 sets of annuli

on the body; the red scales dotted with black; head red above, with

the shields black-edged, followed by a black cross-band behind the

parietals.

Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 95. Grows to 1,900 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Venezuela, Guianas, Northern Brazil, North-east Peru.

(2) _E. heterochilus._--Six supralabials, second and third entering the

eye; snout narrow; 209 ventrals.

Colour red, with black annuli, as in _E. marcgravii_.

Total length, 553 millimetres; tail 43.

_Habitat_: Brazil.

(3) _E. euryxanthus_ (Sonoran Coral Snake).--Seven supralabials,

third and fourth entering the eye; internasals nearly as long as the

præfrontals; 215-241 ventrals; 21-29 subcaudals.

Colour red, with 11 black annuli edged with yellow; head black.

Total length, 400 millimetres; tail 33.

_Habitat_: Arizona, Colorado, North-western Mexico. It is found in

Arizona up to an altitude of nearly 6,000 feet (1,800 metres).

(4) _E. gravenhorstii._--First lower labial in contact with its fellow;

posterior nasal not reaching the præocular: 191 ventrals; 23 subcaudals.

Colour: Seven sets of black annuli disposed in threes, median annulus

the broadest; head black, with a yellow transverse band behind the eyes.

Total length, 550 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Brazil.

(5) _E. langsdorffii._--Ventrals 204-225; subcaudals 37-54; 1 + 1

temporals.

Colour dark brown, with 63 transverse series of cream-coloured spots,

each occupying one scale; belly yellow, with red cross-bands.

Total length, 300 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Upper Amazons.

(6) _E. buckleyi._--203-211 ventrals; 39-43 subcaudals; 1 + 2 temporals.

Colour orange, with 48-60 black annuli edged with small yellow spots;

head black; temples yellow.

Total length, 505 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Northern Brazil, Eastern Ecuador.

(7) _E. anomalus._--227 ventrals; 29 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour: Body with 55 black annuli separated by narrow brownish-white

bands; belly yellowish; anterior half of head black, posterior half

yellow; tail yellow or red, with 4 black rings.

Total length, 280 millimetres; tail 23.

_Habitat_: Colombia.

(8) _E. heterozonus._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-219 ventrals; 16-23

subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour red or brown, with 17 to 23 black rings, mostly narrower than

the interspaces; a black band on the head across the eyes.

Total length, 900 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, Eastern Peru, Bolivia.

(9) _E. elegans._--Scales in 15 rows; 189-221 ventrals; 29-47

subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour: Black annuli in sets of three, separated by reddish-brown

interspaces; 12-17 sets; head black, with yellow blotches.

Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Mexico and Guatemala.

(10) _E. annellatus._--Scales in 15 rows; 200-211 ventrals; 30-45

subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour black, with 41-49 narrow white rings on the body, 4-7 on the

tail; a white ring on the head.

Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Eastern Peru.

(11) _E. decoratus._--Scales in 15 rows; 196-213 ventrals: 29-37

subcaudals.

Colour red, with 15-16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes; head

yellow, with end of snout black, and a black band across the eyes.

Total length, 625 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Brazil.

(12) _E. dumerilii._--Scales in 15 rows; 197-204 ventrals; 50-53

subcaudals.

Colour: 8-9 sets of three black annuli on red and yellow; head black,

with a yellow band on the occiput.

Total length, 410 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: Colombia.

(13) _E. corallinus_ (The Coral Snake).--Scales in 15 rows; 179-231

ventrals; 30-47 subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour: Body with black annuli, separated by red interspaces edged with

yellow; head bluish-black; temples yellow; a blue line from behind the

eye to the lower jaw; tail white.

Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Tropical South America and Lesser Antilles (St. Thomas, St.

Vincent, Martinique).

(14) _E. hemprichii._--Scales in 15 rows; 168-181 ventrals; 22-29

subcaudals; 1 + 1 temporals.

Colour: Black, with red or yellow annuli, a broad annulus between the

narrow ones; occiput, upper lip, and temples yellow.

Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: Guianas, Colombia, Peru.

(15) _E. tschudii._--Scales in 15 rows; 207-221 ventrals; 21-28

subcaudals.

Colour: Body with black annuli broader than the interspaces, disposed

in sets; interspaces red and yellow; snout and occiput black.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Elaps fulvius_ (The Harlequin Snake,

or Coral Snake). (After L. Stejneger.)]

Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: Peru.

(16) _E. dissoleucus._--Scales in 15 rows; 200 ventrals; 19 subcaudals.

Coloration as in foregoing species.

Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 35.

_Habitat_: Venezuela.

(17) _E. fulvius_ (Harlequin, or Coral Snake, fig. 66).--Scales in 15

rows; 180-237 ventrals; 30-59 subcaudals.

Colour: Body with black, red, and yellow annuli; tail with black and

yellow annuli; snout black.

Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 85.

_Habitat_: Eastern North America, from Southern Virginia, the Ohio

River, and the Missouri to the Rio Grande, Mexico. Central America.

(18) _E. psyches._--Scales in 15 rows; 188-214 ventrals; 32-47

subcaudals.

Colour: Body with alternate black and brown annuli, and 48-52 narrow

yellow rings; head black, blotched with yellow.

Total length, 495 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Guianas.

(19) _E. spixii._--Scales in 15 rows; 201-219 ventrals; 22-29

subcaudals.

Colour red, with 20-38 black rings disposed in threes; a black

occipital collar, followed by a wide red space.

Total length, 1,400 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Venezuela and Northern Brazil.

(20) _E. frontalis._--Scales in 15 rows; 197-230 ventrals; 15-26

subcaudals. Tail ending very obtusely.

Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red and yellow

interspaces; head black, spotted with yellow or red.

Total length, 1,350 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: Southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina.

(21) _E. marcgravii._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-240 ventrals; 23-42

subcaudals.

Colour: Body with black annuli in 6-10 sets of three, separated by

broad red interspaces, the middle annulus usually wider; snout yellow,

the end usually black; back of head red.

Total length, 1,120 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Tropical South America.

(22) _E. lemniscatus._--Scales in 15 rows; 241-262 ventrals; 30-39

subcaudals.

Colour: Body with 11-14 sets of black annuli disposed in threes,

separated by red interspaces; head yellow; end of snout and a band

across the middle of the head black.

Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Guianas, Brazil.

(23) _E. filiformis._--Scales in 15 rows; 290-308 ventrals; 35-45

subcaudals.

Colour: Body with black annuli disposed in threes, with red

interspaces; head yellow; end of snout black; a black band across the

eyes.

Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Amazons, Colombia.

(24) _E. mipartitus._--Scales in 15 rows; 210-278 ventrals; 24-34

subcaudals.

Colour black, with 40-68 narrow white annuli; head black to between the

eyes, elsewhere yellow.

Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Central America and Tropical South America.

(25) _E. fraseri._--Scales in 15 rows; 303 ventrals; 25 subcaudals.

Colour black, with 75 narrow whitish rings with broken outlines; head

black in front, yellow behind.

Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Ecuador.

(26) _E. mentalis._--Scales in 15 rows; 255-268 ventrals; 30-31

subcaudals.

Colour: Body black, with 58-70 narrow white annuli, which become wider

on the belly; snout black, occiput yellow; tail annulate, black and

orange.

Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 30.

_Habitat._--Colombia and Ecuador.

(27) _E. ancoralis._--Scales in 15 rows; 258 ventrals; 31 subcaudals.

Colour: Body with 16 sets of black annuli disposed in threes, the

middle one of each set a little wider; head light in front, spotted

with black; an anchor-shaped black mark on the occiput and nape.

Total length, 780 millimetres; tail 57.

_Habitat_: Ecuador.

(28) _E. narduccii._--Scales in 15 rows; 240-315 ventrals; 15-33

subcaudals.

Colour black, beneath with yellow or red cross-bands or transversely

oval spots, sometimes extending as triangular blotches up the sides;

head with a yellow cross-band.

Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, North-eastern Peru, Bolivia.

The species of the genus _Elaps_, which are remarkable for the

brightness and beauty of their colours, are generally found in forests.

“The traveller,” says Neuwied, “who ventures into the great Brazilian

forests, where the ground is covered with leafy plants, is astonished

to see shining through the verdure the black and red rings of the

beautiful Coral Snake. Uncertainty as to whether the creature is

dangerous alone prevents him from seizing it. The body of the snake

is not lithe enough to enable it to climb trees. Its food consists of

small animals.”

Dr. Lacerda relates that the Austrian naturalist Wertheimer, when in

the Brazilian settlement of Philadelphia, was bitten by a Coral Snake

in the back of the hand. The usual symptoms of poisoning manifested

themselves immediately, and the unfortunate man died twelve hours

later. Nevertheless, the small size and slenderness of the fangs, the

narrowness of their canals, and the considerable distance between the

fangs and the anterior opening of the mouth, must necessarily render

the bites of these snakes less serious and of rarer occurrence.

II.--VIPERIDÆ.--CROTALINÆ.

The _Solenoglypha_ are infinitely more formidable in the two divisions

of the New World. They are represented by a large number of species,

some of which are feared in consequence of their size and ferocity,

even more than on account of the deadliness of their venom (fig. 67).

[Illustration: FIG. 67.--HEAD AND SKULL OF _Crotalus

horridus_.]

The American CROTALINÆ are divided into two groups:--

The first of these comprises snakes not provided with the caudal

appendage, which is characteristic of the Rattle-Snakes. It consists of

two genera:--

(a) _Ancistrodon._

(b) _Lachesis._

The second group includes only those snakes the tails of which are

terminated by the scaly appendage known as the “rattle.”

These are likewise divided into two genera:--

(c) _Sistrurus._

(d) _Crotalus._

(a) =Ancistrodon.=

Usually with 9 shields on the head, or internasals and præfrontals

broken up into scales. Body cylindrical: scales smooth or keeled, with

apical pits. Tail moderate or short; subcaudals single or in 2 rows.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Ancistrodon piscivorus_ (Water

Viper). (After Stejneger.)]

(1) _A. piscivorus_ (Water Viper, or Cotton-mouth; fig. 68).--Snout

rounded, soft above. Scales on the body strongly keeled, in 25 (rarely

27) rows; 130-147 ventrals; 33-51 subcaudals, all single or the

posterior divided.

Colour pale reddish-brown to dark brown above, with more or less

distinct dark brown cross-bands, or with alternating C-shaped dark

markings each enclosing a central spot. Belly dull yellow spotted with

black, or almost black.

Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 200.

_Habitat_: Eastern North America, from North Carolina and Indiana to

Florida and Texas. The Water Viper lives for the most part in the

vicinity of rivers, and feeds upon fish, but also devours small

warm-blooded animals. The Creoles call it the Congo Snake. It is fairly

common in the environs of New Orleans. In summer time it conceals

itself in the branches of trees at the edge of the water. It frequents

inundated rice-fields, and is a terror to the blacks. It attacks

readily, and opens its jaws some seconds before it bites.

(2) _A. bilineatus._--Snout obtusely pointed. Scales more or less

strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 135-141 ventrals; 52-64

subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided.

Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with more or less distinct darker

cross-bands, or alternating transverse blotches, with yellow edges;

a vertical yellow line on the rostral shield, and a fine yellow line

round the snout; belly brownish or blackish, with white spots.

Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 200.

_Habitat_: Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras.

(3) _A. contortrix_ (The Copperhead).--Snout rounded or truncate.

Scales strongly keeled, in 23 (rarely 25) rows; 145-155 ventrals; 31-52

subcaudals, anterior single, posterior divided.

Colour dull yellow or reddish-brown, with dark brown or brick-red

cross-bars; these bars are sometimes interrupted on the vertebral line,

and form alternating triangles; belly yellow or reddish, more or less

spotted with grey or brown.

Total length, 990 millimetres; tail 110.

_Habitat_: North America, from Massachusetts and Kansas to Northern

Florida and Texas.

This snake is often more dreaded than a Rattle-Snake.

(b) =Lachesis.=

In _Lachesis_ the caudal rattle is represented by a series of 10 or

12 rows of spiny scales, which are slightly hooked at the tips. The

head is covered with small shields or smooth or keeled scales, with or

without apical pits. The maxillary is much reduced; the transverse or

pterygoid bone, on the contrary, is greatly developed.

The name is derived from one of the Parcæ, daughters of Night, who

placed the thread on the spindle, and upon whom depended the fate of

men.

In addition to the 19 Asiatic species, of which we have already given

descriptions, the genus _Lachesis_ includes 21 American species.

(1) _L. mutus_ (Bushmaster, or Surucucu).--Two or three scales

separating the internasals in front; 10 to 15 scales on a line between

the supraoculars; 9 or 10 supralabials. Scales tubercularly keeled,

feebly imbricate, in 35 or 37 rows; 200-230 ventrals; 32-50 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Lachesis lanceolatus_

(_Fer-de-lance_ OF MARTINIQUE). (After Stejneger.)]

Colour yellow or pinkish on the back, with a series of large rhomboidal

brown or black spots enclosing smaller light spots; a black streak from

the eye to the angle of the mouth.

Total length, 1,995 millimetres; tail 170.

_Habitat_: Central and Tropical South America.

(2) _L. lanceolatus_ (known as the Fer-de-lance in Martinique, and

Jararacussu in Brazil; fig. 69).--Snout obtuse, slightly turned up;

upper head-scales small, imbricate, more or less strongly keeled, in

5-10 longitudinal series between the supraoculars, which are large;

7 or 8 supralabials. Scales in 23-33 rows, sharply keeled; 180-240

ventrals; 46-70 subcaudals, all or the greater part in two rows.

Coloration very variable, grey, brown, yellow, olive, or reddish;

uniform or with more or less distinct dark spots, or cross-bands, or

with dark triangles on the sides enclosing pale rhombs; a dark streak

from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish, uniform, or

spotted with brown.

Total length, 1,600 millimetres; tail 190.

_Habitat_: Tropical America; Mexico, Martinique, St. Lucia, Bequia

Island near St. Vincent, Venezuela, Guianas, Rio de Janeiro.

This snake does not exist in Guadeloupe. “In the islands in which it is

found,” says Dr. Rufz de Lavison, “its presence makes itself felt even

where man has built his dwelling and cultivates the soil. Because of

it no one can carelessly lie down to rest in the shade of a tree; no

one can walk in the woods or enter unconcernedly into the pleasures of

the chase.” It is especially abundant in coffee and sugar plantations,

and is met with from the sea-level up to the summits of the highest

mountains in Martinique and St. Lucia. It not infrequently makes its

way into human habitations, and is not uncommon in gardens, even

entering those of the town of Fort-de-France.

It does not seek its prey by day, but remains on the alert, always

ready to bite. With open mouth, and fangs projecting forwards, it

strikes with the rapidity of lightning. It swims in the rivers and

moves over the ground with great speed. Oviposition takes place in

July, and the young are hatched forthwith, the usual number being from

about 50-60.

It feeds upon lizards and rats, but also destroys a certain number of

fowls and turkeys. All the large animals are afraid of it. Its bite is

extremely dangerous, and causes about a hundred deaths in Martinique

every year.

In striking at its prey or at a man, the _Fer-de-lance_ throws back

its head and opens its jaws widely, with the fangs directed forwards.

It drives in its poison-teeth as with the blow of a hammer, and

quickly draws back again. When very excited, it resumes its position

and strikes afresh. It never becomes tame, but is capable of living a

fairly long time in captivity. I have kept a number of specimens of it

for more than two years, caged in my laboratory.

(3) _L. atrox_ (Labaria).--Closely resembling _L. lanceolatus_, but

bulkier; the enormous head is armed with powerful fangs, which are

often more than a centimetre in length; 7 supralabial shields; scales

in 25-29 rows, strongly keeled; 161-216 ventrals; 47-73 pairs of

subcaudals.

Colour brown, with dark cross-bands or triangular blotches, with the

apices adjacent on the vertebral line; a dark streak from the eye to

the angle of the mouth; belly yellowish-white, speckled with brown, or

brown spotted with yellowish-white.

Total length, 1,110 millimetres; tail 180.

_Habitat_: from Central America to Peru and Northern Brazil.

(4) _L. pulcher._--Two postocular shields and a subocular, separated

from the labials by one series of scales; 7 supralabials; scales in 21

or 23 rows, strongly and tubercularly keeled; 156-172 ventrals; 58-64

pairs of subcaudals.

Colour olive-grey, with brown, light-edged cross-bands, which are

continuous or broken on the vertebral line; a light streak from the eye

to the angle of the mouth; belly covered with minute confluent brown

markings, with darker and lighter spots on the sides.

Total length, 685 millimetres; tail 115.

_Habitat_: Andes of Ecuador.

(5) _L. microphthalmus._--Snout short, rounded; eyes very small; 7

supralabials, of which the third and the sixth or seventh are the

largest; scales in 23 rows, dorsals tubercularly keeled; 159-161

ventrals; 52-55 subcaudal pairs.

Colour yellowish-brown or pale olive on the back, with dark brown

triangles on the sides; posteriorly, the united triangles form

cross-bands; a yellowish band from the eye to the side of the neck;

belly dark brown with yellowish spots.

Total length, 630 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Peru, Ecuador.

(6) _L. pictus._--Snout obliquely truncate; two series of scales

between the eye and the labials; scales in 21-23 rows, strongly keeled;

157-172 ventrals; 40-74 pairs of subcaudals.

Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of large black-edged brown

spots, which may form a vertebral zigzag band; a black streak behind

the eye, and a vertical bar below the eye; belly yellowish, spotted

with brown.

Total length, 310 millimetres; tail 43.

_Habitat_: Peru.

(7) _L. alternatus._--Head narrow, elongate; 8-9 supralabials; scales

in 29-35 rows, very strongly keeled; 167-181 ventrals; 34-51 pairs of

subcaudals.

Colour brown, very elegantly marked with opposite or alternating pairs

of large C-shaped markings, which are dark brown, edged with black and

yellow, and separated by narrow interspaces of the ground colour; head

dark·brown above, with a ⅄̅-shaped light marking, the transverse bar

between the eyes; belly whitish, spotted with brown or black.

Total length, 1,190 millimetres; tail 110.

_Habitat_: Southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina.

(8) _L. neuwiedii_ (known as the _Urutù_ in Brazil; fig. 70).--Snout

obtusely pointed; supraocular large, separated from its fellow by

6-9 longitudinal series of scales; 8 or 9 supralabials; scales very

strongly keeled, in 21-27 rows; 168-182 ventrals; 41-53 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish or pale brown, with dark brown black-edged spots;

the spots on the back form a single series or a double alternating

series; a dark spot on the snout; a pair of dark bands from the vertex

to the nape, and another from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly

yellowish, more or less powdered with brown.

Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 120.

_Habitat_: Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Lachesis neuwiedii_ (known as the

_Urutù_ in Brazil). (After Lacerda.)]

(9) _L. ammodytoides._--Snout turned up, in the shape of a wart; two

series of scales between the eye and the labials; scales in 23 or 25

rows, very strongly keeled; 149-160 ventrals; 30-38 pairs of subcaudals.

Colour pale brown, with large brown black-edged spots or cross-bands,

which may alternate and form a zigzag band; a dark streak behind the

eye; belly yellowish, spotted with brown.

Total length, 460 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: North-eastern Patagonia and Argentina.

(10) _L. xanthogrammus._--Head elongate, snout short; scales in 27

rows, feebly keeled; 196 ventrals; 54 subcaudals.

Colour very dark olive, with a yellow zigzag line on each side from the

head to the base of the tail; the angular parts enclose rhombic spaces

and lateral triangles; top of head black, with a pair of undulating

yellow bands from the nape to the vertex; a bright golden band round

the snout; labials bright yellow; ventral shields black, paler in the

middle, with yellow triangular spots at their extremities.

Total length, 1,530 millimetres; tail 190.

_Habitat_: Eastern Ecuador, Andes of Colombia.

(11) _L. castelnaudi._--Head narrow and elongate; scales on the head

smooth or feebly keeled, small; body-scales strongly keeled, in 25

or 27 rows; 230-253 ventrals; 72-83 subcaudals, all or majority in a

single row.

Colour greyish or brown, with dark or light-edged spots or cross-bands;

head with dark spots, one of which occupies the middle of the snout;

a dark band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly brown or

blackish, spotted with yellow.

Total length, 1,220 millimetres; tail 180.

_Habitat_: Brazil, Ecuador, Eastern Peru.

(12) _L. nummifer._--Snout broad, rounded; 10 or 11 supralabials;

scales in 23-27 rows, strongly keeled; 121-134 ventrals; 26-36

subcaudals, all or the majority single.

Colour pale brown, with a dorsal series of rhomboidal spots, which may

form a zigzag band; belly whitish, uniform or spotted with dark brown.

Total length, 800 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Mexico and Central America.

(13) _L. godmani._--Snout broad, rounded; 9 or 10 supralabials; scales

in 21 rows, strongly keeled; 135-142 ventrals; 22-34 subcaudals in a

single row.

Colour brown, with or without a dorsal series of large darker spots;

belly yellowish, more or less spotted with grey or blackish.

Total length, 610 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Guatemala.

(14) _L. lansbergii._--Snout pointed, turned up at the end, as in

Vipera aspis; scales in 25-27 rows, strongly keeled; 152-159 ventrals;

29-35 subcaudals in a single row.

Colour yellowish-brown, pale brown, or grey, with a dorsal series of

large rhomboidal or squarish spots, usually divided by a narrow yellow

or orange vertebral line; cheeks blackish; belly powdered with brown,

with or without whitish spots.

Total length, 575 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: from Southern Mexico to Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil.

(15) _L. brachystoma._--Similar to the foregoing species; scales in 23

(rarely 25) rows; 132-150 ventrals; 27-38 subcaudals.

Total length, 500 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Southern Mexico and Central America.

(16) _L. bilineatus._--Snout rounded; 7 or 8 supralabials; scales in

27-35 rows, strongly keeled; 198-218 ventrals; 59-71 subcaudals, all or

majority in two rows. _Tail prehensile._

Colour green, uniform or spotted with black; a lateral yellow streak;

belly white; end of tail reddish.

Total length, 840 millimetres; tail 125.

_Habitat_: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador.

(17) _L. undulatus._--Snout short, rounded; 11 supralabials; scales

in 21 rows, the dorsals strongly or very strongly keeled; 149-171

ventrals; 41-49 pairs of subcaudals. _Tail prehensile._

Colour olive or brown, sometimes speckled with black, with a dorsal

series of rhomboidal dark spots or an undulous or zigzag band; belly

yellowish or brownish, powdered with blackish.

Total length, 570 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: Mexico.

(18) _L. lateralis._--Snout rounded; 9 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23

rows, rather strongly keeled; 171 ventrals; 59 subcaudals, in a single

row. _Tail prehensile._

Colour green, with a yellow line on each side of the body.

Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: Costa Rica.

(19) _L. bicolor._--Very similar to the foregoing; scales in 21 rows;

164-167 ventrals; 62-67 subcaudals, in a single row.

Colour uniform green, yellowish on the belly.

Total length, 375 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Guatemala.

(20) _L. schlegelii._--Snout rounded; 8 or 9 supralabials; scales in

19-25 rows, more or less strongly keeled; 138-162 ventrals; 47-62

subcaudals, in a single row. _Tail prehensile._

Coloration very variable, green or olive, spotted with black, or with

pinkish, reddish, or purplish black-edged spots or cross-bars; belly

yellow, spotted with green, or variegated; end of tail generally red.

Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 115.

_Habitat_: Central America, Colombia, Ecuador.

(21) _L. nigroviridis._--Snout short, rounded; 9-11 supralabials;

19 rows of scales, rather feebly keeled; 134-146 ventrals; 49-54

subcaudals, in a single row. _Tail prehensile._

Colour green or olive, spotted with black; head with a black streak on

each side; belly yellowish.

Total length, 535 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Costa Rica.

(22) _L. aurifer._--Snout short and broad; 9 or 10 supralabials; scales

in 19 rows, rather strongly keeled; 154-158 ventrals; 53-61 subcaudals,

single. _Tail prehensile._

Colour green, spotted with yellow; a black streak on the temple; belly

greenish-yellow.

Total length, 825 millimetres; tail 145.

_Habitat_: Guatemala.

(c) =Sistrurus.=

Head very distinct from neck, covered above with nine large symmetrical

shields; eyes rather small, with vertical pupils. Body cylindrical;

scales keeled, with apical pits; tail short, ending in a segmented

horny apparatus (rattle), producing a special sound; subcaudals all or

the majority in a single row.

(1) _S. miliarius_ (Ground Rattle-Snake).--9-11 supralabials; scales

in 21 or 23 rows, strongly keeled; 127-139 ventrals; 27-36 subcaudals;

rattle short, consisting at the most of 10 segments.

Colour greyish, yellowish, or brown, the vertebral line often orange;

two undulating dark stripes from between the eyes to the occiput, the

enclosed space usually orange; belly whitish, spotted with dark brown

or black.

Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 70.

_Habitat_: South-eastern North America, from North Carolina to Texas.

(2) _S. catenatus_ (Prairie Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga, fig.

71).--Two or three series of scales between the eye and the labials;

11-14 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows; 136-153 ventrals; 20-31

subcaudals.

Colour the same as in _S. miliarius_: a dark spot on the parietal

shields.

Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Great Lakes district; United States east of the Rocky

Mountains and west of the Mississippi; Northern Mexico.

(3) _S. ravus._--11 or 12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 147

ventrals; 26 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish-brown, with a dorsal series of dark brown spots,

longer than broad, and a series of transverse dark bars on each side;

belly yellowish, spotted with blackish-brown.

[Illuatration: FIG. 71.--_Sistrurus catenatus_ (Prairie

Rattle-Snake, or Massasanga). (After Holbrook and Stejneger.)]

Total length, 200 millimetres; tail 22.

_Habitat_: Vera Cruz, Mexico.

(d) =Crotalus= (Rattle-Snakes).

These snakes differ from all others in that the end of the tail bears a

series of large conical scales, forming rattles, each fitting into the

next and movable in such a manner that when the reptile causes them to

move they produce a strident sound (fig. 72).

[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A, Horny appendage (rattle) of

_Crotalus horridus_ (three-quarters natural size. After Garman).

B, longitudinal section of the same. C, separated segments of the

appendage: _a_, terminal point; _h_, basal segment (after Czermak).]

The length of these animals often exceeds 2,000 millimetres. The head

is flat, very large and expanded posteriorly, and terminated in front

by a short, truncate snout; it is covered above with scales or small

shields.

Rattle-Snakes are armed with enormous fangs enclosing a complete canal,

which extends throughout almost their entire length. The poison-glands

are of the size of a large almond.

The number of segments in the rattle is variable, but rarely exceeds 18

or 20. At the time of the shedding of the skin these segments fall

off and are at once replaced. Contrary to the belief which was long

entertained, their number bears no relation to the age of the snake.

[Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Crotalus terrificus_ (Dog-faced

Rattle-Snake, Cascavella in Brazil). (After Stejneger.)]

Rattle-Snakes are met with especially in stony and arid localities, or

among brushwood near water. They hardly ever bite except when surprised

or attacked.

(1) _C. terrificus_ (Dog-faced Rattle-Snake, _Cascavella_ in Brazil;

fig. 73).--Snout very short; three or four series of scales between the

eye and the supralabial shields; body-scales in 23-31 rows, dorsals

very strongly keeled; 160-199 ventrals; 18-30 subcaudals.

Colour brown, with a series of darker, light-edged rhombs, often

lighter in the centre; a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the

mouth; belly yellowish-white, uniform or spotted with brown; tail

generally brown or blackish.

Total length, 1,320 millimetres; tail 130.

_Habitat_: Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas to Southern Brazil, and

Northern Argentina.

(2) _C. scutulatus_ (Texas Rattle-Snake; fig. 74).--13-16 supralabials;

scales in 25 or 27 rows; dorsals striated and strongly keeled; 167-170

ventrals; 18-20 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish or greyish-brown, with a series of large dark brown

light-edged rhomboidal spots; an oblique dark streak below the eye;

belly uniform yellowish-white.

Total length, 760 millimetres; tail 65.

_Habitat_: Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, North Mexico.

(3) _C. confluentus_ (Pacific or Mottled Rattle-Snake; fig. 75).--Upper

head-scales small, striated; 13-18 supralabials; body scales in 25-29

rows, striated and strongly keeled; 168-197 ventrals; 17-34 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish, greyish, or pale brown, with a dorsal series of

large brown or red spots, usually rhomboidal or transversely elliptic

in shape; a light streak or triangular marking across the supraocular

shields; belly yellowish, uniform or spotted with brown.

Total length, 1,520 millimetres; tail 140.

_Habitat_: Western North America, from British Columbia to South

California, eastwards to Assiniboia, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and

Western and Southern Texas; Northern Mexico.

* * * * *

According to Holbrook, this reptile feeds upon young rabbits,

squirrels, rats and other small mammals. It lays its eggs in August,

and the young are hatched at once, and are capable of seeking their own

food.

In captivity as well as under natural conditions the Mottled

Rattle-Snake is an excessively irritable species. “The noise of the

wind,” says Brehm, “or even the distant view of a man or animal, are

sufficient to irritate it. It then coils itself up in a spiral, and

places its head and tail in the centre of the disc thus formed, in

a state of absolute immobility. After a short interval the creature

raises its head to a height of about 8 to 12 inches above the ground,

curves its neck in the shape of an S, and elevates its tail into a

vertical position and shakes it vigorously, whereupon the strident

noise caused by the rattle is heard. So rapid are the movements

communicated by the _Crotalus_ to its tail that they can scarcely be

distinguished. So long as the _Crotalus_ believes itself menaced it

remains in the position that we have just described, and continues to

sound its rattle. If one withdraws from the irritated snake, the sound

gradually lessens and ceases, to begin again more vigorously when the

reptile is once more approached.”

The bite of these snakes is exceedingly dangerous. Pigs wage an

inveterate war against them and devour them.

At the Pasteur Institute at Lille, I have kept several of these

reptiles in captivity for eighteen months and longer. They invariably

refused their food, and I always had to resort to artificial feeding.

They are easily capable of withstanding a prolonged fast.

(4) _C. durissus_ (Common Rattle-Snake).--7 or 8 longitudinal series

of scales between the supraoculars, 3 or 4 series of scales between the

eye and the labials; 13-16 supralabials; scales in 25-29 rows, dorsals

strongly keeled; ventrals 169-181; 24-32 subcaudals.

[Illustartion: FIG. 74.--_Crotalus scutulatus_ (Texas

Rattle-Snake). (After Baird and Stejneger.)]

Colour pale greyish or brownish, with a dorsal series of large blackish

rhomboidal spots; a yellowish cross-line between the eyes; snout

blackish; end of tail usually black; belly yellowish, more or less

spotted with brown or black.

Total length may be as much as 8 feet (2,400 millimetres).

_Habitat_: South-eastern United States, from North Carolina to Florida

and the mouths of the Mississippi.

(5) _C. horridus._--Supraoculars considerably narrower than the space

between them, which is covered by 3-8 longitudinal series of small

scales; 12-16 supralabials; body scales in 23-29 rows, dorsals very

strongly keeled; 165-178 ventrals; 19-29 subcaudals.

Colour greyish-brown, usually with a rusty vertebral stripe, and

=V-= or =M-=shaped blackish cross-bands; head uniform above,

with a dark band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; usually a pair

of roundish or triangular dark spots on the nape; belly yellowish,

uniform or spotted with blackish; end of tail blackish.

Total length, 1,340 millimetres; tail 135.

_Habitat_: United States, from Massachusetts and Iowa to Northern

Florida and Texas.

(6) _C. tigris._--13-15 supralabials; scales in 23 or 25 rows, dorsals

strongly keeled; 166-181 ventrals; 26-46 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish or pale brown, with a dorsal series of brown spots

and cross-bands posteriorly; sides with smaller dark spots; belly

yellowish, spotted with brown.

Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 50.

_Habitat_: Southern California, Lower California, Nevada, Colorado,

Arizona, and Northern Mexico.

(7) _C. mitchelli._--14-16 supralabials; scales in 25 rows, striated,

dorsals strongly keeled; 178-198 ventrals; 24-26 subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Crotalus confluentus_ (Pacific or

Mottled Rattle-Snake). (After Baird and Stejneger.)]

Colour greyish-yellow to salmon-red, finely punctulated with brown,

with a dorsal series of transverse darker spots; belly yellowish.

Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Desert regions of Southern California, Lower California, and

Arizona.

(8) _C. triseriatus._--9-13 supralabials; scales in 21-25 rows, dorsals

strongly keeled; 142-184 ventrals; 22-30 subcaudals.

Colour olive or brown, with a vertebral series of rather small dark

brown spots edged with black and white; belly yellowish, spotted with

dark brown, or dark grey-brown powdered with whitish.

Total length, 530 millimetres; tail 55.

_Habitat_: Mexico.

(9) _C. polystictus._--Closely allied to the foregoing, but 4

internasals, 14 or 15 supralabials, and scales in 27-30 rows; 123-151

ventrals; 18-23 subcaudals.

Colour yellowish-brown, beautifully marked with 6 or 7 longitudinal

series of alternating, elongate, dark brown, black- and white-edged

spots, separated by narrow interspaces of the ground-colour; a pair

of diverging dark bands on the top of the head, separated by a narrow

pinkish-white streak; belly pinkish or yellowish, spotted with dark

brown.

Total length, 600 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Tableland of Mexico.

(10) C. LEPIDUS.--12 supralabials; scales in 21 or 23 rows,

dorsals strongly keeled; 153-169 ventrals; 24-31 subcaudals.

Colour brown or greenish-grey, with dark brown or jet-black light-edged

cross-bands, narrowing on the sides; two dark spots, or a =V-= or

heart-shaped black marking on the nape; belly dirty white, spotted with

brown.

Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, North Mexico.

(11) _C. cerastes_ (Horned Rattle-Snake; fig. 76).--Supraocular

transformed into a raised horn-like process; 11-13 supralabials; scales

in 21 or 23 rows; dorsals feebly keeled, each scale along the middle

of the back with a central tubercular swelling; 146 ventrals; 17

subcaudals.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Crotalus cerastes_ (Horned

Rattle-Snake.) (After Baird and Stejneger.)]

Colour yellowish, with a dorsal series of rather indistinct brown

blotches; a narrow brown streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth.

Total length, 250 millimetres; tail 20.

_Habitat_: Desert regions of Southern California, Nevada, Arizona, and

Utah.

_F.--HYDROPHIINÆ (SEA-SNAKES)._

The Sea-Snakes, which are found in great numbers on the shores of the

Indian Ocean, are common throughout the whole of the tropical zone of

the China Sea and the Pacific. They are met with from the Persian Gulf

to the west coast of Equatorial America, but are entirely absent from

the east coast of the same continent and the west and east coasts of

Africa.

They often travel in companies. All are poisonous, and very savage.

They never come to land, and move with difficulty if taken out of the

water, although they are excellent swimmers. It is impossible to keep

them in captivity in aquariums, and they die in two or three days.

Their food consists of fishes and crustacea. Their tail is prehensile,

and they make use of it as an anchor to attach themselves to coral

reefs when they wish to rest. They generally float on the surface

of the waves, but can dive to great depths, thanks to the extreme

dilatability of their lungs, which enables them to store up large

reserves of air. They are viviparous.

In these snakes, the head, which is always very small, is scarcely

distinct from the body. It is often covered with nine large shields.

The body is laterally compressed, and the tail, which serves as a fin,

is similarly flattened. The nostrils open on the upper surface of the

snout, between the nasal shields. The eyes are always very small.

The number of species at present known is considerable; they are

divided into _ten_ genera. We shall confine ourselves here to

mentioning the principal diagnostic characters of these genera, and to

describing the most common species.

[Illustration: FIG. 77.--SKULL OF _Hydrus platurus_.

(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

(1) =Hydrus.=

(Fig. 77.)

Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids, not extending forwards as

far as the palatines; poison-fangs grooved, rather short, followed,

after an interspace, by 7 or 8 solid, backwardly curved teeth. Snout

long, bearing the nostrils on its upper surface; head-shields large,

nasals in contact with each other. Body rather short; scales hexagonal

or squarish, juxtaposed; no distinct ventral scales.

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Hydrus platurus_ (syn. _Pelamis

bicolor_).

(After Krefft.)]

The principal species of this genus is _H. platurus_ (syn. _Pelamis

bicolor_, fig. 78).

Coloration black or brown and yellow, with very variable markings.

Total length, 700 millimetres; tail 80.

_Habitat_: Indian Ocean, Tropical and Sub-tropical Pacific.

(2) =Thalassophis.=

Poison-fangs followed by 5 small teeth. Snout short; nostrils superior,

horizontal, between two nasal shields and an internasal; frontal and

parietal shields large; præocular present. Body rather elongate; scales

hexagonal, juxtaposed; no distinct ventral scales.

_T. anomalus._--Body with dark annuli, wider on the back.

Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 84.

_Habitat_: Java.

(3) =Acalyptophis.=

Maxillaries longer than the ectopterygoids; frontal and parietal

shields broken up into scales. Body rather elongate; scales

subimbricate; no distinct ventrals.

_A. peronii._--Greyish or pale olive, with dark cross-bands; belly

whitish.

Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 115.

_Habitat_: Western Tropical Pacific.

(4) =Hydrelaps.=

Snout short; 6 teeth behind the poison-fangs; nostril in a single nasal

shield; head-shields large. Body feebly compressed; scales imbricate;

ventral scales small, but well developed.

_H. darwiniensis._--Body with yellowish-white and blackish annuli, the

black rings narrower on the belly; head dark olive spotted with black.

Total length, 435 millimetres; tail 43.

_Habitat_: North Australia.

(5) =Hydrophis.=

(FIG. 79.)

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--_Hydrophis coronatus._ (After Sir

Joseph Fayrer.)]

Poison-fangs large, followed by a series of 7-18 solid teeth. Head

small; nostrils on the upper surface of the snout, pierced in a single

nasal shield; head-shields large; præocular present. Body long, often

very slender anteriorly; scales on the anterior part of the body

imbricate, rectangular, keeled or tubercular; ventrals more or less

distinct, very small.

A considerable number of (at least 22) species of HYDROPHIS

are known. Those most frequently met with are the following:--

_H. spiralis._--Olive above, yellowish beneath, with black rings; head

black above, with a horse-shoe-shaped yellow mark, the convexity of

which rests on the præfrontal shields; end of tail black.

Total length, 400 millimetres. Grows to 1,800 millimetres.

_Habitat_: Coasts of India, and the Malay Archipelago.

_H. cærulescens._--Grey above, with black cross-bands, which form

complete rings, or are interrupted on the belly; head uniform black.

Total length, 665 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_: Bombay Coast, Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca.

_H. nigrocinctus._--Pale olive on the back, yellowish on the belly,

with black annuli, which are broader on the back.

Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal and Straits of Malacca.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--_Hydrophis elegans._ (After Krefft.)]

_H. elegans_ (fig. 80).--Yellowish-white, back with transverse

rhomboidal black spots, separated by a series of small black spots;

belly with black spots or cross-bars; head blackish, with a more or

less distinct light crescentic marking across the snout, from above the

eyes.

Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 60.

_Habitat_: North coast of Australia.

_H. gracilis._--Bluish-black or greyish, olive above in the adult,

with more or less distinct lighter cross-bands anteriorly. Young

sometimes with rhombic black cross-bands extending to the belly, or

sub-interrupted on the sides.

Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Coasts of Persia, India, and Ceylon; Malay Archipelago.

_H. cantoris._--Body dark olive or blackish anteriorly, with yellowish

cross-bands above; posterior part of body olive above, yellowish on

the sides; tail with olive vertical bars; a blackish streak along the

belly.

Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal.

_H. fasciatus._--Head and neck black, the latter with yellowish

cross-bands; body pale, with black annuli, which are broader on the

back.

Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 85.

_Habitat_: From the coasts of India to China and New Guinea.

_H. obscurus_ (syn. _H. stricticollis_).--Olive or dark green above,

with yellowish cross-bars, which form complete rings round the slender

anterior part of the body; a yellow spot on the snout, and a yellow

streak on each side of the upper surface of the head.

Total length, 970 millimetres; tail 105.

_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal, Malay Archipelago.

_H. leptodira.-_-Black, with yellow cross-bars on the neck, and

complete annuli on the body, the bars and annuli numbering 77.

Total length, 525 millimetres; tail 40.

_Habitat_: Mouths of the Ganges.

(6) =Distira.=

(Fig. 81.)

Poison-fangs large, followed by 4-10 grooved teeth. Head larger than in

HYDROPHIS; body more or less elongate; scales on the anterior

part of the body imbricate; ventrals more or less distinct, and always

very small.

The species of this genus, 18 in number according to the British Museum

Catalogue, are found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from the Persian

Gulf to Japan and New Caledonia.

The most important are:--

_D. ornata._--Uniform blackish-olive on the back, whitish on the belly.

Total length, 1,200 millimetres; tail 130. _ Habitat_: From the Mouth

of Persian Gulf, and the coasts of India and Ceylon to New Guinea, and

North Australia.

_D. subcincta._--Trunk with 41 broad dark cross-bands, about as broad

as the interspaces, not extending downwards to the middle of the side;

a series of small roundish, blackish spots along the lower part of the

sides.

Total length, 1,070 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Indian Ocean.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--SKULL OF _Distira_.

(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

_D. cyanocincta._--Greenish-olive above, with dark olive or black

cross-bars or annuli, broader on the back, and sometimes joined by a

black band along the belly, or yellowish, with a black vertebral stripe

and a few bars on the neck.

Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 140.

_Habitat_: From the Persian Gulf and the coasts of India to China,

Japan, and Papuasia.

_D. jerdonii._--Olive above, yellowish on the belly, with black

cross-bands forming complete rings in young and half-grown specimens;

a black spot sometimes present between each pair of annuli.

Total length, 910 millimetres; tail 100.

_Habitat_: Bay of Bengal, Straits of Malacca, Borneo.

(7) =Enhydris.=

Two large poison-fangs, and 2-4 small feebly grooved teeth. Body short

and stout; scales hexagonal or squarish, juxtaposed, disappearing

almost completely on the belly.

_E. curtus._--Above with dark transverse bands, broadest in the middle;

end of tail black.

Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 75.

_Habitat_ Coasts of India and Ceylon.

[Illustration: FIG. 82.--_Enhydrina valakadien_ (syn. _E.

bengalensis_).]

(8) =Enhydrina.=

Two large poison-fangs, followed by 4 solid non-grooved teeth. Body

moderately elongate; scales imbricate; ventrals distinct but very small.

_E. valakadien_ (syn. _E. bengalensis_; fig. 82).--Colour olive or

grey, with black transverse bands, usually less distinct in the adult;

sides and belly whitish.

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--SKULL OF _Platurus

olubrinus_.

(After G. A. Boulenger, _op. cit._)]

Total length, 1,300 millimetres; tail 190.

_Habitat_: From the Persian Gulf along the coasts of India and Burma,

to the Malay Archipelago and Papuasia.

(9) =Aipysurus.=

Maxillaries a little longer than the ectopterygoids; poison-fangs

moderate, followed, after a short interval, by 8-10 grooved teeth;

anterior mandibular teeth feebly grooved. Snout short; head shields

large, or broken up into scales. Body moderate; scales imbricate;

ventrals large, keeled in the middle.

_A. australis._--Brown, or cream-colour, with brown spots forming more

or less distinct cross-bars.

Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 110.

_Habitat_: Coasts of New Guinea and Australia.

Other species of AIPYSURUS (_A. eydouxii_, _annulatus_, and

_lævis_) are found on the coasts of Singapore, Java, Celebes, and the

Philippine and Loyalty Islands.

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--_Platurus laticaudatus_ (syn. _P.

fischeri_).

(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)]

(10) =Platurus.=

(Figs. 83, 84.)

Two large poison-fangs, and only one or two small solid teeth near the

posterior extremity of the maxillary. Head shields large; nostrils

lateral, the nasal shields separated by the internasals. Body greatly

elongate; scales smooth and imbricate; ventrals and subcaudals large.

Four species, distributed in the eastern parts of the Indian Ocean and

in the Western Pacific.

_P. laticaudatus_ (syn. _P. fischeri;_ fig. 84).--Olive above,

yellowish on the belly, with 29-48 black annuli.

Total length: 970 millimetres; tail 90.

_Habitat_: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the Western

South Pacific Ocean.

_P. colubrinus_ (fig. 83).--Olive above, yellowish on the belly, with

28-54 black annuli, some or all of which may be interrupted below.

Total length, 1,270 millimetres; tail 125.

_Habitat_: From the Bay of Bengal to the China Sea and the Western

South Pacific Ocean.

_P. muelleri._--62 black annuli, some of which are interrupted on the

belly.

_Habitat_: Only found in the South Pacific Ocean (subtropical zone), as

far as the New Hebrides and the shores of Tasmania.

_P. schistorhynchus._--Coloration and size as in _P. colubrinus_: body

with 25-45 annuli.

_Habitat_: Western Tropical Pacific.

_G.--GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL GENERA OF

POISONOUS SNAKES IN THE FIVE DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD._

(1) _EUROPE._

FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

{Borders of the Mediterranean

COLUBRIDÆ _Dipsadomorphinæ Cœlopeltis_ { in France and Spain;

{ Italy {only in Liguria).

{France, Italy, Switzerland,

{ Austria-Hungary, Germany,

{ Belgium, Sweden

VIPERIDÆ _Viperinæ Vipera_ { and Norway, Gt. Britain,

{ Spain and Portugal, Bosnia

{ and Herzegovina,

{ Southern Russia, Turkey

{ and Greece.

(2) _ASIA._

{_Hydrus_ }

{_Thalassophis_}

{_Acalyptophis_}

{_Hydrelaps_ } Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean,

{_Hydrophis_ } Bay of Bengal, Straits

{_Hydrophiinæ_ {_Distira_ } of Malacca, China Sea,

{ {_Enhydris_ } Philippines, and Malay

{ {_Enhydrina_ } Archipelago.

{ {_Aipysurus_ }

{ {_Platurus_ }

{

COLUBRIDÆ { {India, Ceylon, Burma,

{ {_Bungarus_ { Indo-China, Southern China,

{ { { Dutch Indies, Borneo.

{ { {India, Ceylon, Burma,

{ {_Naja_ { Indo-China, Dutch Indies,

{ { { Philippines.

{_Elapinæ_ {_Hemibungarus_ {South-eastern Asia, India,

{ { Japan, Philippines.

{ {South-eastern Asia, India,

{_Callophis_ { Formosa, Burma, Indo-

{ { China, Southern China.

{_Doliophis_ {Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.

{ { {Turkestan, Ural, Siberia,

{ {_Vipera_ { Caucasus, Persia, Armenia,

{ { { Western China,

{ { { India, Ceylon, Himalayas.

{ {

{ _Viperinæ_ {_Pseudocerastes_ Persia.

{ {_Cerastes_ Arabia, Palestine.

{ {

{ {_Echis_ {Persia, Arabia, India, Baluchistan,

VIPERIDÆ { { Afghanistan.

{

{ { {Transcaspia, Turkestan,

{ { { Himalayas, Southern

{ {_Ancistrodon_ { China, Formosa, Japan,

{_Crotalinæ_ { { Ceylon, Java.

{ {

{ { {South-eastern Asia, India,

{ {_Lachesis_ { Southern China, Indo-China,

{ { { Formosa, Sumatra.

(3) _AFRICA._

{_Boulengerina_ Central Africa.

{_Elapechis_ Central and South Africa.

{

{ {Egypt, Central and West

{_Naja_ { Africa, Morocco, Congo,

{ { Angola.

{

{_Sepedon_ {South Africa, Cape of Good

COLUBRIDÆ _Elapinæ_ { { Hope.

{

{_Aspidelaps_ {South and South-east Africa,

{ { Mozambique.

{

{_Walterinnesia_ Egypt.

{

{_Homorelaps_ {South Africa, Cape of Good

{ { Hope.

{

{ {Central and South Africa,

{_Dendraspis_ { Angola, Great Lakes,

{ { Congo, Transvaal.

{ {West Africa, Gambia, Great

{_Causus_ { Lakes, Congo, Angola,

{ { Transvaal.

{

{_Vipera_ {Morocco, Algeria, Tunis,

{ { Egypt, Mozambique.

{

{ {Zanzibar, Zambesia, the

{_Bitis_ { Cape, Transvaal, Congo,

{ { the Gaboon, Benguella,

{ { Angola, Senegal, Nigeria.

{

{_Cerastes_ North Africa, the Sahara.

{

VIPERIDÆ _Viperinæ_ { {North Africa, Lake Chad,

{_Echis_ { Soudan, Egypt, Somaliland,

{ { Socotra.

{

{ {Tropical Africa, Dahomey,

{_Atheris_ { Lagos, the Cameroons,

{ { the Gaboon, Congo.

{

{ {Tropical and South Africa,

{ { Congo, Angola, Lake

{_Atractaspis_ { Chad, the Gaboon, Dahomey,

{ { Gold Coast, Zanzibar,

{ { Somaliland, Natal,

{ { and the Cape.

(4) _OCEANIA._

FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

{ {_Hydrus_ }

{ {_Thalassophis_ }

{ {_Hydrelaps_ } Equatorial and Sub-tropical

{ {_Hydrophis_ } Pacific Ocean, the

{_Hydrophiinæ_ {_Distira_ } Moluccas, Papuasia, New

{ {_Enhydris_ } Guinea, Celebes, Timor,

{ {_Enhydrina_ } Australia, Tasmania, New

{ {_Aipysurus_ } Caledonia, New Hebrides.

{ {_Platurus_ }

{

{ {_Ogmodon_ Fiji Islands.

{ {

{ {_Glyphodon_ {Northern Australia, New

COLUBRIDÆ { { { Guinea.

{ {

{ {_Pseudelaps_ {Australia, the Moluccas,

{ { { Papuasia.

{ {

{ {_Diemenia_ Australia, New Guinea.

{ {_Pseudechis_ Australia, New Guinea.

{ {

{ {_Denisonia_ {Australia, Solomon Islands.

{ { { Tasmania

{ {

{_Elapinæ_ {_Micropechis_ New Guinea, Solomon Islands.

{ {_Hoplocephalus_ Australia.

{ {_Tropidechis_ Australia.

{ {_Notechis_ Australia, Tasmania.

{ {_Rhinhoplocephalus_ Australia.

{ {_Brachyaspis_ Australia.

{

{ {_Acanthophis_ {Moluccas, Papuasia, Northern

{ { { Australia.

{ {

{ {_Elapognathus_ Australia.

{ {_Rhynchelaps_ Australia.

{ {_Furina_ Australia.

(5) _AMERICA._

FAMILIES SUB-FAMILIES GENERA GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

{Mexico, Central America,

COLUBRIDÆ _Elapinæ_ _Elaps_ { Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru,

{ Colombia, Brazil.

{_Ancistrodon_ {North America, Florida,

{ { Texas, Mexico, Guatemala.

{

{_Lachesis_ {Central and South America,

{ { Martinique, St. Lucia.

{ {

VIPERIDÆ _Crotalinæ_ {_Sistrurus_ {North America east of the

{ { Rocky Mountains, Mexico.

{ {

{ {Southern Canada, British

{ { Columbia, Central America,

{_Crotalus_ { Guiana, Venezuela,

{ { Brazil, Uruguay, Northern

{ { Argentina.

PART II.