[1] The accepted English pronunciation, "clark," is found in southern
English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects still
preserve the e sound ("clurk"), which is the common pronunciation in
America.
CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer and scientific
writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842, and died in London on the
20th of January 1907. She wrote extensively on various scientific
subjects, but devoted herself more especially to astronomy. Though not a
practical astronomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable
skill in collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of
astronomical research, and as a historian her work has an important
place in scientific literature. Her chief works were _A Popular History
of Astronomy during the 19th Century_, first edition 1885, fourth 1902;
_The System of the Stars_, first edition 1890, second 1905; and
_Problems in Astrophysics_, 1903. In addition she wrote _Familiar
Studies in Homer_ (1892), _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895),
_Modern Cosmogonies_ (1906), and many valuable articles, such as her
contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In 1903 she was elected
an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society.
CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of London,
England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury (q.v.). It is so
called from one of several wells or springs in this district, near which
miracle plays were performed by the parish clerks of London. This well
existed until the middle of the 19th century. Here was situated a
priory, founded in 1100, which grew to great wealth and fame as the
principal institution in England of the Knights Hospitallers of the
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and
remaining in St John's Square, served various purposes after the
suppression of the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of
the _Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson's work
in connexion with that journal. In modern times the gatehouse again
became associated with the Order, and is the headquarters of the St
John's Ambulance Association. An Early English crypt remains beneath the
neighbouring parish church of St John, where the notorious deception of
the "Cock Lane Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was
exposed. Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St
James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its vaults
some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century Clerkenwell became a
fashionable place of residence. A prison erected here at this period
gave place later to the House of Detention, notorious as the scene of a
Fenian outrage in 1867, when it was sought to release certain prisoners
by blowing up part of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the
watch-making and jeweller's industries, long established here; and the
Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the
City Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
trades.
CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or CLERMONT-DE-L'OISE, a town of northern
France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Oise, on the
right bank of the Breche, 41 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to
Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014. The hill on which the town is built is
surmounted by a keep of the 14th century, the relic of a fortress the
site of which is partly occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The
church dates from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hotel-de-ville,
built by King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the
oldest in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town
is the Promenade du Chatellier on the site of the old ramparts. Clermont
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a
communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It manufactures felt and
corsets, and carries on a trade in horses, cattle and grain.
The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman invasions,
and was an important military post, during the middle ages. It was
several times taken and retaken by the contending parties during the
Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of Religion, and in 1615 Henry II.,
prince of Conde, was besieged and captured there by the marshal d'Ancre.
COUNTS OF CLERMONT. Clermont was at one time the seat of a countship,
the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th century. Raoul de
Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre in 1191, leaving a daughter
who brought Clermont to her husband, Louis, count of Blois and Chartres.
Theobald, count of Blois and Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and
King Philip Augustus, having received the countship of Clermont from the
collateral heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose
daughter Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next held
the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown, and afterwards
given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom sprang the house of
Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont was confiscated from the
constable de Bourbon, and later (1540) given to the duke of Orleans, to
Catherine de' Medici (1562), to Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from
whom it passed to his brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and
finally to Henry II., prince of Conde (1611). In 1641 it was again
confiscated from Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold
to Louis Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to
Francoise de Brancas, princesse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
prince of Conde. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont were
descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.
CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of the department of
Puy-de-Dome, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
town, 44,113; commune, 58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an
eminence on the western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the
north, west and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dome stands out prominently. A small
river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on the north. Since 1731 it has
been composed of the two towns of Clermont and Montferrand, now
connected by a fine avenue of walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length,
bordered on one side by barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a
little more than a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome
squares ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The streets of
the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the neighbourhood of the
cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the principal square, are for the most
part narrow, sombre and bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards
divide this part from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin
it. To the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.
The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun in the
13th century. It was not completed, however, till the 19th century, when
the west portal and towers and two bays of the nave were added,
according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. The fine stained glass of the
windows dates from the 13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the
Crusades with a statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square.
The church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the Romanesque
style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and 12th centuries. The
exterior of the choir, with its four radiating chapels, its jutting
cornices supported by modillions and columns with carved capitals, and
its mosaic decoration of black and white stones, is the most interesting
part of the exterior. The rest of the church comprises a narthex
surmounted by a tower, three naves and a transept, over which rises
another tower. There are several churches of minor importance in the
town. Among the old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the
birthplace of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring
square. There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in
the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses of the
15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and 15th
centuries.
Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture and
headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an
exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. The town is the centre of
an educational division (_academie_), and has faculties of science and
of literature. It also has lycees and training colleges for both sexes,
ecclesiastical seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and
pharmacy, schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums
of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A great
variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the manufacture of
semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery, preserved fruit and
jams, chemicals and rubber goods. Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles,
hats, boots and shoes, and woollen and linen goods are also made, and
tanning is practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and
other agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in
local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable
calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits of
which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.
Clermont is identified with the ancient _Augustonemetum_, the chief town
of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of the Roman period.
The present name, derived from Clarus Mons and originally applied only
to the citadel, was used of the town as early as the 9th century. During
the disintegration of the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps
from capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops and
the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their overlord the
bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical councils, held in the
years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and 1130; and of these the council
of 1095 is for ever memorable as that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed
the first crusade. In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th
centuries and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its
full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety by the
trial and execution of many members of the nobility of Auvergne who had
tyrannized over the neighbouring districts. The proceedings lasted six
months, and the episode is known as _les Grands Jours de Clermont_.
Before the Revolution the town possessed several monastic
establishments, of which the most important were the abbey of Saint
Allyre, founded, it is said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St
Stremoine), the apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and
the abbey of St Andre, where the counts of Clermont were interred.
CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846- ), French Orientalist, the son of
a sculptor of some repute, was born in Paris on the 19th of February 1846.
After an education at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, he entered the
diplomatic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his reputation by
his discovery (in 1870) of the "stele" of Mesha (Moabite Stone), which
bears the oldest Semitic inscription known. In 1874 he was employed by the
British government to take charge of an archaeological expedition to
Palestine, and was subsequently entrusted by his own government with
similar missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of the
Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at Jaffa from 1880
to 1882, he returned to Paris as "secretaire-interprete" for oriental
languages, and in 1886 was appointed consul of the first class. He
subsequently accepted the post of director of the Ecole des Langues
Orientales and professor at the College de France. In 1889 he was elected
a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he
had been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted to be
consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906. He was the first
in England to expose the famous forgeries of Hebrew texts offered to the
British Museum by M.W. Shapira (q.v.) in 1883, and in 1903 he took a
prominent part in the investigation of the so-called "tiara of
Saitapharnes." This tiara had been purchased by the Louvre for 400,000
francs, and exhibited as a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to
the perpetrators of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern
Russia. It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.
His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals,
are:--_Palestine inconnue_ (1886), _Etudes d'archeologie orientale_
(1880, &c.), _Les Fraudes archeologiques_ (1885), _Recueil
d'archeologie orientale_ (1885, &c.), _Album d'antiquites orientales_
(1897, &c.).
CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODEVE, a town of southern France in
the department of Herault, 10 m. S.S.E. by rail of Lodeve. Pop. (1906)
4731. The town is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an
ancient castle and skirted by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It
has an interesting church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief
manufacture is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods,
an industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century.
Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is trade in
wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of
commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of
trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town was several times
taken and retaken in the religious wars of the 16th century.
CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family, members of which played
some part in the history of France, especially in Dauphine, from about
1100 to the Revolution. Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first
appears in 1080, was the founder of the family. His descendant, another
Sibaud, commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this
service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems--two
keys and a tiara--to the arms of his family. A direct descendant, Ainard
(d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, was granted the dignity of
captain-general and first baron of Dauphine by his suzerain Humbert,
dauphin of Viennois, in 1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for
Antoine (d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphine and the French king's
lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created a duke, but
as this was only a "brevet" title it did not descend to his son. Henri
was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 Henri's son, Charles
Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added Tonnerre to his heritage; but
in 1648 this county was sold by his son and successor, Francois (d.
1679).
A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants was Gaspard
de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier served his country during
a long period, fighting in Bohemia and Alsace, and then distinguishing
himself greatly at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was
created duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the
senior marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the
coronation of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles Henri
Jules, governor of Dauphine, was guillotined in July 1794, a fate which
his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons in the previous
year. A later duke, Aime Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), served for some
years as a soldier, afterwards becoming minister of marine and then
minister of war under Charles X., and retiring into private life after
the revolution of 1830. Aime's grandson, Roger, duke of
Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.
Among other distinguished members of this family was Catherine (c.
1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. This lady,
_dame d'honneur_ to Henry II.'s queen, Catherine de' Medici, and
afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, due de Retz, won a great reputation
by her intellectual attainments, being referred to as the "tenth muse"
and the "fourth grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de
Retz. Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
were: Francois (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until his death, a
member of the French Academy, notorious for his inordinate vanity;
Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre (q.v.); and Anne Antoine
Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop of Chalons, who was a member of
the states-general in 1789, afterwards retiring into Germany, and after
the return of the Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.
CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE, COMTE DE (1757-1792),
French politican, was born at Pont-a-Mousson on the 10th of October
1757. At the beginning of the Revolution he was a colonel, with some
reputation as a freemason and a Liberal. He was elected to the
states-general of 1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman
of the minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of France on that
of England. He was elected president of the Constituent Assembly on the
17th of August 1789; but on the rejection by the Assembly of the scheme
elaborated by the first constitutional committee, he attached himself to
the party of moderate royalists, known as _monarchiens_, led by P.V.
Malouet. His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him the wrath of
the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; but in spite of threats
and abuse he continued to advocate a moderate liberal policy, especially
in the matter of removing the political disabilities of Jews and
Protestants and of extending the system of trial by jury. In January
1790 he collaborated with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux
and the _Journal des Impartiaux_, the names of which were changed in
November to the Societe des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique and
_Journal de la Societe, &c._. in order to emphasize their opposition to
the Jacobins (Societe des Amis de la Constitution). This club was
denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, 1791), and on the
28th of March it was attacked by a mob, whereupon it was closed by order
of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during
the rising of the 9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent
orator, having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of the
_grands seigneurs_ holding advanced and liberal ideas, who helped to
bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried in vain to arrest its
course.
See _Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre_ (4 vols.,
Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A.
Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).
CLERUCHY (Gr. [Greek: klerouchia], from [Greek: kleros], a lot, [Greek:
echein], to have), in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of
Athenian[1] citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered
country. Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. _ho demos ho
en Hphaistia_), and their allotments were politically part of Attic
soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where the earlier
inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the settlers occupied
the whole territory; (2) where the settlers occupied allotments in the
midst of a conquered people; and (3) where the inhabitants gave up
portions of land to settlers in return for certain pecuniary
concessions. The primary object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506
B.C. upon the lands of the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the
Hippobotae) was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the
Delian League the system was the simplest precaution against
disaffection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment
may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 [81]), which,
in setting forth the terms of the second Delian Confederacy, expressly
forbids the holding of land by Athenians in allied territory.
A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, to provide
a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. Plutarch (_Pericles_,
11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid the city of the idle and
mischievous loafers; but it would appear that the cleruchs were selected
by lot, and in any case a wise policy would not deliberately entrust
important military duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that
in 50 years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is
clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.
It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained control
over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military service and
presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians at home. That they
were not liable for the tribute which members of the Delian League paid
is clear from the fact that the assessments of places where cleruchs
were settled immediately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean
cleruchies, 450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained their
membership of deme and tribe. In internal government the cleruchs
adopted the Boul[=e] and Assembly system of Athens itself; so we read of
Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, Strategi, in various places.
With a measure of local self-government there was also combined a
certain central authority (e.g. in the matter of jurisdiction, some
case being tried by the Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume
that the more important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and
a citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a few
cases, the cleruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (427), were apparently
allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their allotments from the
original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); but this represents the
perversion of the original idea of the cleruchy to a system of reward
and punishment.
See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta_
(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an
example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]);
A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities_
(London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see PERICLES; DELIAN
LEAGUE.