[1] The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In the
_New English Dictionary_ the earliest example of the word "classical"
is the phrase "classical and canonical," found in the _Europae
Speculum_ of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to a writer, it
is explained as meaning "of the first rank or authority." This
exactly corresponds with the meaning of _classicus_ in the above
passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word _classique_
(in Littre's view) primarily means "used in class."
[2] See also the article SCHOOLS.
CLASSIFICATION (Lat. _classis_, a class, probably from the root _cal-_,
_cla-_, as in Gr. [Greek: kaleo], _clamor_), a logical process, common
to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting in
the collection under a common name of a number of objects which are
alike in one or more respects. The process consists in observing the
objects and abstracting from their various qualities that characteristic
which they have in common. This characteristic constitutes the
definition of the "class" to which they are regarded as belonging. It
is this process by which we arrive first at "species" and then at
"genus," i.e. at all scientific generalization. Individual things,
regarded as such, constitute a mere aggregate, unconnected with one
another, and so far unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in
systematic classification. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies
individually we can state merely that they have been observed to have
certain motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover that, whereas
all partake in the general movement of the heavens, some have a movement
of their own. Thus we arrive at a system of classification according to
motion, by which fixed stars are differentiated from planets. A further
classification according to other criteria gives us stars of the first
magnitude and stars of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus
arrive at a systematic understanding expressed in laws by the
application of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be
made. Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from what
is often called "artificial" classification, which is the preparation,
e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, administrative and the like.
Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science, only one
requires treatment here, namely, the classification of the sciences as
a whole, a problem which has from the time of Aristotle attracted
considerable attention. Its object is to delimit the spheres of
influence of the positive sciences and show how they are mutually
related. Of such attempts three are specially noteworthy, those of
Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer.
Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of the
various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus distinguished
History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as the province of
memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as that of reason, and Poetry,
Fables and the like, as that of imagination. This classification was
made the basis of the _Encyclopedie_. Comte adopted an entirely
different system based on an objective criterion. Having first
enunciated the theory that all science passes through three stages,
theological, metaphysical and positive, he neglects the two first, and
divides the last according to the "things to be classified," in view of
their real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of
decreasing generality and increasing complexity--mathematics, astronomy,
physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including psychology), and
sociology. This he conceives to be not only the logical, but also the
historical, order of development, from the abstract and purely deductive
to the concrete and inductive. Sociology is thus the highest, most
complex, and most positive of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning
this division as both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a
three-fold division into (1) _abstract_ science (including logic and
mathematics) dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge
of phenomena is possible, (2) _abstract-concrete_ science (including
mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of phenomena
themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from the persistence of
forces, and (3) _concrete_ science (e.g. astronomy, biology, sociology),
dealing with "phenomena themselves in their totalities," the universal
laws of the continuous redistribution of Matter and Motion, Evolution
and Dissolution.
Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief mention. In
Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the physical sciences were few
in number; none the less philosophers were not agreed as to their true
relation. The Platonic school adopted a triple classification, physics,
ethics and dialectics; Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do
we know precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with [Greek:
poiesis], creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including ethics; the
third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; the first includes
metaphysics and physics. As regards pure logic Aristotle sometimes seems
to include it with metaphysics and physics, sometimes to regard it as
ancillary to all the sciences.
Thomas Hobbes (_Leviathan_) drew up an elaborate paradigm of the
sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into "Naturall
Philosophy" ("consequences from the accidents of bodies naturall") and
"Politiques and Civill Philosophy" ("consequences from accidents of
Politique bodies"). The former by successive subdivisions is reduced to
eighteen special sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and
duties of sovereign powers, and those of the subject.
Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampere both drew up elaborate systems based on
the principle of dichotomy, and beginning from the distinction of mind
and body. Bentham invented an artificial terminology which is rather
curious than valuable. The science of the body was Somatology, that of
the mind Pneumatology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology includes
Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic). See further
Bentham's _Chrestomathia_ and works quoted under BENTHAM, JEREMY.
Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little account
of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on the
standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter. His
system may, therefore, be described as conceptional. It distinguishes
philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest universal relations,
from the special sciences, which consider facts in the light of a
particular relation or set of relations.
All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting as throwing
light on the views of those who invented them. It will be seen, however,
that none can lay claim to unique validity. The _fundamenta divisionis_,
though in themselves more or less logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen,
generally as being germane to a preconceived philosophical or scientific
theory.
CLASTIDIUM (mod. _Casteggio_), a village of the Anamares, in Gallia
Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria (mod. _Voghera_) and 31
m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C. M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the
Gauls and won the _spolia opima_; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores
of corn by treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia (founded
219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however, Placentia belonged to
the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria certainly, and Clastidium
possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria (see Th. Mommsen in _Corp.
Inscrip. Lat._ vol. v. Berlin, 1877, p. 828). The remains visible at
Clastidium are scanty; there is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and
a Roman bridge, which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of
stone, was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.
See C. Giulietti, _Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di
antichita_ (Voghera, 1893).
CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher, was born at Solingen,
in Westphalia, on the 24th of February 1622. After travelling in France
and England, he studied the Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at
Leiden. He became (1649) professor of philosophy and theology at
Herborn, but subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg, where
he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one of the earliest
teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an exact and methodical
commentator on his master's writings. His theory of the connexion
between the soul and the body is in some respects analogous to that of
Malebranche; but he is not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner
of Occasionalism, as he uses "Occasion" for the stimulus which directly
produces a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention of
God (H. Mueller, _J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus_).
His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held to foreshadow
the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist only through the
continuous creative energy of the Divine Being, and are no more
independent of his will than are our thoughts independent of us,--or
rather less, for there are thoughts which force themselves upon us
whether we will or not. For metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names
_ontosophy_ or _ontology_, the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff.
He also devoted considerable attention to the German languages, and his
researches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
Leibnitz. His chief works are: _De conjunctione animae et corporis
humani_; _Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et nostri_; _Logica
vetus et nova_; _Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana_; a
commentary on Descartes' _Meditations_; and _Ars etymologica Teutonum_.
A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
_Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz_ (1873).
CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was born at La
Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at Montauban, he entered the
ministry in 1645. He was for eight years professor of theology in the
Protestant college of Nimes; but in 1661, having successfully opposed a
scheme for re-uniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to
preach in Lower Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban
similar to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris, where he
engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (_Reponse aux deux traites
intitules la perpetuite de la foi_, 1665), Antoine Arnauld (_Reponse au
livre de M. Arnauld_, 1670), and J.B. Bossuet (_Reponse au livre de M.
l'eveque de Meaux_, 1683). On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he
fled to Holland, and received a pension from William of Orange, who
commissioned him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots
(_Plaintes des protestants cruellement opprimes dans le royaume de
France_, 1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
James II, both the translation and the original were publicly burnt by
the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as containing "expressions
scandalous to His Majesty the king of France." Other works by him were
_Reponse au livre de P. Nouet sur l'eucharistie_ (1668); _Oeuvres
posthumes_ (Amsterdam, 1688), containing the _Traite de la composition
d'un sermon_, translated into English in 1778.
See biographies by J.P. Niceron and Abel Rotholf de la Deveze; E.
Haag, _La France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).
CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELEE (1600-1682), French
landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of
Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he made no progress at
school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but
this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan,
he went to live at Freiburg on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean
Gelee, a wood-carver of moderate merit, and under him he designed
arabesques and foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a
livelihood; but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to Naples, to study
landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a painter of much repute. With
him he remained two years; then he returned to Rome, and was
domesticated until April 1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin
Tassi, who hired him to grind his colours and to do all the household
drudgery.
His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his greatest
works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the elements of
design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began to expand, and he
devoted himself to artistic study with great eagerness. He exerted his
utmost industry to explore the true principles of painting by an
incessant examination of nature; and for this purpose he made his
studies in the open fields, where he very frequently remained from
sunrise till sunset, watching the effect of the shifting light upon the
landscape. He generally sketched whatever he thought beautiful or
striking, marking every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these
sketches he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native Lorraine,
suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl Dervent, painter to
the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant for a year; and he painted
at Nancy the architectural subjects on the ceiling of the Carmelite
church. He did not, however, relish this employment, and in 1627
returned to Rome. Here, painting two landscapes for Cardinal
Bentivoglio, he earned the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about
1637 he rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only with
the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German painter
Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain, as they walked
together through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of
the same landscape at different hours of the day, from the reflections
or refractions of light, or from the morning and evening dews or
vapours, with all the precision of a natural philosopher. He elaborated
his pictures with great care; and if any performance fell short of his
ideal, he altered, erased and repainted it several times over.
His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously
illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, and his tints have
a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. He frequently gave an
uncommon tenderness to his finished trees by glazing. His figures,
however, are very indifferent; but he was so conscious of his deficiency
in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists to paint them for
him, among whom were Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to
say that he sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to
avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline drawings
(in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all those pictures
which were transmitted to different countries; and on the back of each
drawing he wrote the name of the purchaser. These books he named _Libri
di verita_. This valuable work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire)
has been engraved and published, and has always been highly esteemed by
students of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or perhaps the
23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which was considerable,
between his only surviving relatives, a nephew and an adopted daughter
(? niece).
Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the National Gallery
and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the Altieri and Colonna palaces in
Rome are also of especial celebrity. A list has been printed showing no
less than 92 examples in the various public galleries of Europe. He
himself regarded a landscape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being
a cento of various views with great abundance and variety of leafage,
and a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover its
surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight landscapes,
fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full of amenity, and
deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude was long deemed the
prince of landscape painters, and he must always be accounted a prime
leader in that form of art, and in his day a great enlarger and refiner
of its province.
Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind to his
pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere of study, his
mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation and knowledge, but he
continued an unlettered man till his death. Famous and highly patronized
though he was in all his later years, he seems to have been very little
known to his brother artists, with the single exception of Sandrart.
This painter is the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's
life (_Academia Artis Pictoriae_, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained
information from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various
incidents to a different effect (_Notizie dei professori del disegno_).
See also Victor Cousin, _Sur Claude Gelee_ (1853); M.F. Sweetser,
_Claude Lorrain_ (1878); Lady Dilke, _Claude Lorrain_ (1884).
(W. M. R.)
CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French photographer, was
born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797. Having acquired a share in
L.J.M. Daguerre's invention, he was one of the first to practise
daguerreotype portraiture in England, and he improved the sensitizing
process by using chlorine in addition to iodine, thus gaining greater
rapidity of action. In 1848 he produced the photographometer, an
instrument designed to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in
1849 he brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in
photographic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, in reply to a
challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in London on the 27th of
December 1867.
CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist, flourished during
the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was an Egyptian by birth,
probably an Alexandrian, but it may be conjectured from his name and his
mastery of Latin that he was of Roman extraction. His own authority has
been assumed for the assertion that his first poetical compositions were
in Greek, and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but
this seems improbable, and the passage (_Carm. Min._ xli. 13) which is
taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning. In that year
he appears to have come to Rome, and made his debut as a Latin poet by a
panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius and Probinus, the first brothers
not belonging to the imperial family who had ever simultaneously filled
the office of consul. This piece proved the precursor of the series of
panegyrical poems which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's
edition a complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and
also in J.B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where the
dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.
In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the emperor
Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the unworthy
minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution was principally
effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the great general and minister
of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears to have obtained his patronage, or
rather perhaps that of his wife Serena, by whose interposition the poet
was within a year or two enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in
Africa (_Epist._ 2). Previously to this event he had produced (398) his
panegyric on the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem on the
Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in Africa. To these
succeeded his piece on the consulship of Manlius Theodorus (399), the
unfinished or mutilated invective against the Byzantine prime minister
Eutropius in the same year, the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and
on his repulse of Alaric (400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth
consulship of Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is
lost, and he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron
Stilicho in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest of
Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host led by
Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he may have
survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second book of his epic
on the _Rape of Proserpine_ (which Birt, however, assigns to 395-397),
he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms hardly reconcilable with the
fertility which he displayed during his patron's lifetime. From the
manner in which Augustine alludes to him in his _De civitate Dei_, it
may be inferred that he was no longer living at the date of the
composition of that work, between 415 and 428.
Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the emperor's
marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the _Gigantomachia_, a fragment
of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be mentioned. Several poems
expressing Christian sentiments are undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's
paganism, however, neither prevented his celebrating Christian rulers
and magistrates nor his enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It
is probable that he was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho
and Ausonius, although at heart attached to the old religion. The very
decided statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We have his
own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze statue in the
forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the 15th century an
inscription (_C.I.L._ vi. 1710) on the pedestal, which, formerly
considered spurious, is now generally regarded as genuine.
The position of Claudian--the last of the Roman poets--is unique in
literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after nearly three
centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have experienced any revival
in the age of Honorius, nothing less than amazing that this revival
should have been the work of a foreigner, most surprising of all that a
just and enduring celebrity should have been gained by official
panegyrics on the generally uninteresting transactions of an inglorious
epoch. The first of these particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising
superior to the prevailing barbarism, the second his command of
language, the third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, "he was
endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest, of
adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most similar topics."
This gift is especially displayed in his poem on the downfall of
Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor is exalted to the
dignity of an epical subject by the magnificence of diction and the
ostentation of supernatural machinery. The noble exordium, in which the
fate of Rufinus is propounded as the vindication of divine justice,
places the subject at once on a dignified level; and the council of the
infernal powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is relieved by
just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a sovereign. In his
celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian found a subject more worthy
of his powers, and some passages, such as the description of the flight
of Alaric, and of Stilicho's arrival at Rome, and the felicitous
parallel between his triumphs and those of Marius, rank among the
brightest ornaments of Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however
lavish and regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than
usual in his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho. He is a
valuable authority for the history of his times, and is rarely to be
convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever may be thought of
the colouring he chooses to impart to them. He was animated by true
patriotic feeling, in the shape of a reverence for Rome as the source
and symbol of law, order and civilization. Outside the sphere of actual
life he is less successful; his _Rape of Proserpine_, though the
beauties of detail are as great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the
creative power requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This
denotes the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be
said that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of
copious illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the general cast
of his mind and character of his writings, and especially, in his
faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon occasional themes, we may
fitly compare him with Dryden, remembering that while Dryden exulted in
the energy of a vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was
cramped by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.
The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482; the
editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T. Birt,
with bibliography, in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (x., 1892;
smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893). There
is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of _Il
Ratto di Proserpina_, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire _In
Eutropium_ is discussed by T. Birt in _Zwei politische Satiren des
alten Rom_ (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of
little merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in
Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's
_Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
(1899); also J.H.E. Crees, _Claudian as an Historian_ (1908), the
"Cambridge Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, _Claudian,
the last of the Roman Poets_ (1875).
CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS], Roman emperor A.D.
41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew of the emperor Tiberius, and
grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on
the 1st of August 10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with
contempt, owing to his weak and timid character and his natural
infirmities; the fact that he was regarded as little better than an
imbecile saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly
devoted himself to literature, especially history, and until his
accession he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula
honoured him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married: to
Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected her of
designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced; to the
infamous Valeria Messallina (q.v.); and to his niece Agrippina.
In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized by the
praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which had entertained the
idea of restoring the republic, was obliged to acquiesce. One of
Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an amnesty for all except Cassius
Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor, and one or two others. After
the discovery of a conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely
under the influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty which have
brought undeserved odium upon the emperor. There is no doubt that
Claudius was a liberal-minded man of kindly nature, anxious for the
welfare of his people. Humane regulations were made in regard to
freedmen, slaves, widows and orphans; the police system was admirably
organized; commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and admission
to the senate were extended to communities outside Italy. The speech of
Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the senate in support of the
petition of the Aeduans that their senators should have the _jus
petendorum honorum_ (claim of admission to the senate and magistracies)
at Rome has been partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet
found at Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern Tirol in 1869
(_C.I.L._ v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond of building. He
completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) begun by Caligula, drained
the Lacus Fucinus, and built the harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military
operations unsuccessful. Mauretania was made a Roman province; the
conquest of Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius
Corbulo (_q.v._) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death by order
of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece Agrippina, a woman as
criminal as any of her predecessors. She prevailed upon him to set aside
his own son Britannicus in favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage;
and in 54, to make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death
by poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon by
Seneca called _apokolokyntosis_, the "pumpkinification" of Claudius.
Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his works are
lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and a history of
Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the death of Caesar, an
autobiography, and an essay in defence of Cicero against the attacks of
Asinius Gallus. He also introduced three new letters into the Latin
alphabet: [Latin character] for the consonantal V, [Latin character] for
BS and PS, [Latin character] for the intermediate sound between I and U.
AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: the _Annals_ of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio
Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, _Claudius und seine Zeit_, with
introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien Double,
_L'Empereur Claude_ (1876); A. Ziegler, _Die politische Seite der
Regierung des Kaisers Claudius_ (1885); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly
Review_ (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, _Hist. of the
Romans under the Empire_, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
roemischen Kaiserzeit_, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux's ed. of the _Annals_ of
Tacitus (introduction).
CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form _Clodius_, in its
origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly used for certain
Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise the two forms were used
indifferently. The gens contained a patrician and a plebeian family; the
chief representatives of the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the
Marcelli (see MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve
particular mention.
1. APPIUS SAMINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS, so called
from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder of the Claudian
gens. His original name was Attus or Attius Clausus. About 504 B.C. he
settled in Rome, where he and his followers formed a tribe. In 495 he
was consul, and his cruel enforcement of the laws of debtor and
creditor, in opposition to his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus,
was one of the chief causes of the "secession" of the plebs to the
Sacred Mount. On several occasions he displayed his hatred of the
people, although it is stated that he subsequently played the part of
mediator.
Suetonius, _Tiberius_, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi. 23,
24.
2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician, consul in 471
and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year one of the decemvirs.
At first he was conspicuous for his aristocratic pride and bitter hatred
of the plebeians. Twice they refused to fight under him, and fled before
their enemies. He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished,
but soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year (451) he
was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed to draw up a code
of written laws. When it was decided to elect decemvirs for another
year, he who had formerly been looked upon as the champion of the
aristocracy, suddenly came forward as the friend of the people, and was
himself re-elected together with several plebeians. But no sooner was
the new body in office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians
with equal violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year.
Matters were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius, Claudius
attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One of his clients,
Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of a slave belonging to
him, and had been stolen by the childless wife of the centurion.
Virginius was summoned from the army, and on the day of trial was
present to expose the conspiracy. Nevertheless, judgment was given
according to the evidence of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to
be given up to him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a
neighbouring stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection
was the result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius died in
prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner. For a
discussion of the character of Appius Claudius, see Mommsen's appendix
to vol. i. of his _History of Rome_. He holds that Claudius was never
the leader of the patrician party, but a patrician demagogue who ended
by becoming a tyrant to patricians as well as plebeians. The
decemvirate, one of the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been
abolished by that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to the
rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii.
Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3.
3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and author. In 312
B.C. he was elected censor without having passed through the office of
consul. His censorship--which he retained for five years, in spite of
the lex Aemilia which limited the tenure of that office to eighteen
months--was remarkable for the actual or attempted achievement of
several great constitutional changes. He filled vacancies in the senate
with men of low birth, in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod.
Sic. xx. 36; Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, _Claudius_, 24). His most important
political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth, freehold
basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and landless citizens both
in the centuries and in the tribes, and, instead of assigning them to
the four urban tribes, he distributed them through all the tribes and
thus gave them practical control of the elections. In 304, however, Q.
Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to the four
urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's arrangement.
Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the public worship of Hercules
in the Forum Boarium from the Potitian gens to a number of public
slaves. He further invaded the exclusive rights of the patricians by
directing his secretary Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made
a senator) to publish the _legis actiones_ (methods of legal practice)
and the list of _dies fasti_ (or days on which legal business could be
transacted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
road and an aqueduct, which--a thing unheard of before--he called by his
own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, _De Aquis_, 115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36).
In 307 he was elected consul for the first time. In 298 he was interrex;
in 296, as consul, he led the army in Samnium, and although, with his
colleague, he gained a victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does
not seem to have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x.
19). Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His character,
like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define. In spite of his
political reforms, he opposed the admission of the plebeians to the
consulship and priestly offices; and, although these reforms might
appear to be democratic in character and calculated to give
preponderance to the lowest class of the people, his probable aim was to
strengthen the power of the magistrates (and lessen that of the senate)
by founding it on the popular will, which would find its expression in
the urban inhabitants and could be most easily influenced by the
magistrate. He was already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas,
the minister of Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose
every concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 19). The
story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of accounting
for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the punishment of his
transference of the cult of Hercules from the Potitii.
Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer mentioned
in Roman literature. His speech against peace with Pyrrhus was the first
that was transmitted to writing, and thereby laid the foundation of
prose composition. He was the author of a collection of aphorisms in
verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a few fragments remain), and of a
legal work entitled _De Usurpationibus_. It is very likely also that he
was concerned in the drawing up of the _Legis Actiones_ published by
Flavius. The famous dictum "Every man is the architect of his own
fortune" is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and did away
with the letter Z.
See Mommsen's appendix to his _Roman History_ (vol. i.); treatises by
W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially with the
censorship of Claudius.
4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He was the first of
the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was consul and appointed to
the command of the fleet in the first Punic War. Instead of continuing
the siege of Lilybaeum, he decided to attack the Carthaginians in the
harbour of Drepanum, and was completely defeated. The disaster was
commonly attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens,
which refused to eat before the battle. "Let them drink then," said the
consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having been recalled
and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another instance of his
high-handedness by nominating a subordinate official, M. Claudius
Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled. Claudius himself was
accused of high treason and heavily fined. He must have died before 246,
in which year his sister Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a
wish that her brother Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second
fleet and thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
he committed suicide.
Livy, _Epit._, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i. 16,
ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.
5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman and author. He
served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia (72 B.C.) and was
commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to Tigranes, which gave him the
choice of war with Rome or the surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was
praetor, in 56 propraetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius
Ahenobarbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became reconciled to
Cicero, who had been greatly offended because Claudius had indirectly
opposed his return from exile. In this and certain other transactions
Claudius seems to have acted from avaricious motives,--a result of his
early poverty. In 53 he entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in
which capacity he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During
this period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters to
him form the third book of the _Epistolae ad Familiares_. Claudius
resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor, avoided meeting
him, and even issued orders after his arrival in the province. On his
return to Rome Claudius was impeached by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the
ground of having violated the sovereign rights of the people. This led
him to make advances to Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain
witnesses in his favour from his old province. He was acquitted, and a
charge of bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst them the
historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His connexion with Pompey
brought upon him the enmity of Caesar, at whose march on Rome he fled
from Italy. Having been appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in
obedience to an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he
died about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he took
in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of Amphiaraus
at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first book of which he
dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely superstitious, and believed
in invocations of the dead. Cicero had a high opinion of his
intellectual powers, and considered him a great orator (see Orelli,
_Onomasticon Tullianum_).
A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's
_Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
(1899).
CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor A.D.
268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian family. On account of his
military ability he was placed in command of an army by Decius; and
Valerian appointed him general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of
the provinces of the lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was
called to Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance, it was
said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession he routed the
Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is thrown upon this); in 269 a
great victory over the Goths at Naissus in Moesia gained him the title
of Gothicus. In the following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in
his fifty-sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
been a man of ability and character.
His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the _Scriptores
Historiae Augusiae_; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker on
the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (_Annalen
des Vereins fuer nassauische Altertumskunde_, 1879); Homo, _De Claudio
Gothico_ (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, ii. 2458 ff.
(Henze).
CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise known by the _nom
de plume_ of ASMUS, was born on the 15th of August 1740 at Reinfeld,
near Luebeck, and studied at Jena. He spent the greater part of his life
in the little town of Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first
literary reputation by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the
_Wandsbecker Bote_ (_Wandsbeck Messenger_), in which he published a
large number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and
simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many there was a
vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others were full of
quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days, perhaps
through the influence of Klopstock, with whom he had formed an intimate
acquaintance, Claudius became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of
his nature showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house of
his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died
on the 21st of January 1815.
Claudius's collected works were published under the title of _Asmus
omnia sua secum portans, oder Saemtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten_
(8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols., 1902). His
biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed., 1878). See also
M. Schneidereit, _M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung und
Lebensweisheit_ (1898).
CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772-1842), marshal
of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariege) on the 12th of December 1772,
and served in the first campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars as one
of the volunteers of 1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself
repeatedly in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the
fighting in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799, and in the
disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great distinction at the
battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802 he served in the expedition
to S. Domingo. He became a general of division in December 1802, and
after his return to France he was in almost continuous military
employment there until in 1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon
after this Napoleon made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In
1808-1809 he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under Massena.
Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811,
including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he did excellent
service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency and mobility of
the army, which had suffered severely in the retreat from Torres Vedras.
In the Salamanca campaign (1812) the result of Clausel's work was shown
in the marching powers of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca,
Clausel, who had succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and
had himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the greatest
skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in such a way that
the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression, and had themselves
in the end to retire from the siege of Burgos (1812). Early in 1813
Clausel was made commander of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was
unable to avert the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme
command of Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he submitted
unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned to France, he
hastened to join him. During the Hundred Days he was in command of an
army defending the Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long
refused to recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity of
returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in the chamber of
deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution of 1830 was at once
given a military command. At the head of the army of Algiers, Clausel
made a successful campaign, but he was soon recalled by the home
government, which desired to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same
time he was made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber of
deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief. But
after several victories, including the taking of Mascara in 1835, the
marshal met with a severe repulse at Constantine in 1836. A change of
government in France was primarily responsible for the failure, but
public opinion attributed it to Clausel, who was recalled in February
1837. He thereupon retired from active service, and, after vigorously
defending his conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in
public affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842.
CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter, was born in London, the son
of a decorative artist. He attended the design classes at the South
Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with great success. He then worked in
the studio of Edwin Long, R.A., and subsequently in Paris under
Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern
painters of landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain
extent by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light is
the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering the
appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight, or in the shady
shelter of a barn or stable. His "Girl at the Gate" was acquired for the
nation by the Chantrey Trustees and is now at the National Gallery of
British Art (Tate Gallery). He was elected associate of the Royal
Academy in 1895, and as professor of painting gave a memorable series of
lectures to the students of the schools,--published as _Six Lectures on
Painting_ (1904) and _Aims and Ideals in Art_ (1906).
CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and military writer,
was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of June 1780. His family,
originally Polish, had settled in Germany at the end of the previous
century. Entering the army in 1792, he first saw service in the Rhine
campaigns of 1793-1794, receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz.
On his return to garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the
defects in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then directed by
Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's industry and force of
character, paid special attention to his training, and profoundly
influenced the development of his mind. In 1803, on Scharnhorst's
recommendation, Clausewitz was made "adjutant" (aide-de-camp) to Prince
August, and he served in this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806),
being captured along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A
prisoner in France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental
chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the military school, and
as military instructor to the crown prince, he assisted Scharnhorst in
the famous reorganization of the Prussian army. In 1810 he married the
countess Marie von Bruehl.
On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like many other
Prussian officers, took service with his country's nominal enemy. This
step he justified in a memorial, published for the first time in the
_Leben Gneisenaus_ by Pertz (Berlin, 1869). At first adjutant to General
Phull, who had himself been a Prussian officer, he served later under
Pahlen at Witepsk and Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at
Kaluga he was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the cause of
Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began the War of
Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also Blumenthal's _Die Konvention
von Tauroggen_, Berlin, 1901). As a Russian officer he superintended the
formation of the _Landwehr_ of east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and
in the campaign of 1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He
conducted the fight at Goehrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
permission, published an account of the campaign (_Der Feldzug von 1813
bis zum Waffenstillstand_, Leipzig, 1813). This work was long attributed
to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814 Clausewitz re-entered the
Prussian service, and in the Waterloo campaign was present at Ligny and
Wavre as General Thielmann's chief of staff. This post he retained till
1818, when he was promoted major-general and appointed director of the
_Allgemeine Kriegsschule_. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made
chief of the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an army of
observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution of this army
Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on the 18th of November
1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which had proved fatal to his chief
also, and a little previously, to his old Russian commander Diebitsch on
the other side of the frontier.
His collected works were edited and published by his widow, who was
aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in her task. Of
the ten volumes of _Hinterlassene Werke ueber Krieg und Kriegfuehrung_
(Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called _Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke_,
Berlin, 1874) the first three contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, _Vom
Kriege_, an exposition of the philosophy of war which is absolutely
unrivalled. He produced no "system" of strategy, and his critics styled
his work "negative" and asked "_Qu'a-t-il fonde?_" What he had "founded"
was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the Prussian mind,
carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and 1870 over the
"systematic" strategists Krismanic and Bazaine, and his philosophy of
war became, not only in Germany but in many other countries, the
essential basis of all serious study of the art of war. The English and
French translations (Graham, _On War_, London, 1873; Neuens, _La
Guerre_, Paris, 1849-1852; or Vatry, _Theorie de la grande guerre_,
Paris, 1899), with the German original, place the work at the disposal
of students of most nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with
military history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and
6, the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars of
1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo Campaign;
vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne,
Luxemburg, Muennich, John Sobieski, Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of
Brunswick, &c. He also wrote _Ueber das Leben und den Charakter von
Scharnhorst_ (printed in Ranke's _Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift_,
1832). A manuscript on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained
unpublished. It was used by v. Hoepfner in his history of that war, and
eventually published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French
translation, 1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published
in _Zeitschrift fuer preussische Landeskunde_ (1876). His name is borne
by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.
See Schwartz, _Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau Marie von
Clausewitz_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, _Karl von
Clausewitz_ (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_; Bernhardi, _Leben des Generals von Clausewitz_ (10th
Supplement, _Militaer. Wochenblatt_, 1878).
CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888), German physicist, was born
on the 2nd of January 1822 at Koeslin, in Pomerania. After attending the
Gymnasium at Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844.
In 1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor
of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at Berlin. Late
in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture as _Privatdocent_ in
the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary professor at Zuerich
Polytechnic, accepting at the same time a professorship in the
university of Zuerich In 1867 he moved to Wuerzburg as professor of
physics, and two years later was appointed to the same chair at Bonn,
where he died on the 24th of August 1888. During the Franco-German War
he was at the head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville and
Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical rather than an
experimental physicist, was concerned with many of the most abstruse
problems of molecular physics. By his restatement of Carnot's principle
he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis, and he deserves
the credit of having made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the
second law, in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the
well-known form, "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of the theory
of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the conception of
entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to his labours, Clerk
Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It was he who raised it, on
the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, to the level of a theory, and
he carried out many numerical determinations in connextion with it, e.g.
of the mean free path of a molecule. To Clausius also was due an
important advance in the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the
idea that molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms,
the electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by S.A.
Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote _Die
Potentialfunktion und das Potential_, 1864, and _Abhandlungen ueber die
mechanische Waermetheorie_, 1864-1867.
CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Harz, lying
on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level, 50. m. by rail W.S.W. of
Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565. Clausthal is the chief mining town of the
Upper Harz Mountains, and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld,
which is separated from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets
are broad, opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in
1844 and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an Evangelical
and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium. Clausthal has a famous
mining college with a mineralogical museum, and a disused mint. Its
chief mines are silver and lead, but it also smelts copper and a little
gold. Four or five sanatoria are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the
Upper Harz is at Zellerfeld.
Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century in
consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery (closed
in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld. At the beginning
of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick made a new settlement here,
and under their directions the mining, which had been begun by the
monks, was carried on more energetically. The first church was built at
Clausthal in 1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the
hands of the state.
CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord (Ger. _Clavicymbel_
or _Dockenklavier_), an abbreviation of the Flemish _clavisinbal_ and
Ital. _clavicimbalo_, a keyboard musical instrument in which the strings
were plucked by means of a plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a
jack.
See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD.
CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. _clavis_, key, and _cymbalum_,
cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish, _clavisinbal_; Span.
_clavisinbanos_), a keyboard musical instrument with strings plucked by
means of small quill or leather plectra. "Cymbal" (Gr. [Greek:
kumbalon], from [Greek: khumbe], a hollow vessel) was the old European
term for the dulcimer, and hence its place in the formation of the word.
See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL.
CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHORD (Fr. _manicorde_; Ger. _Clavichord_; Ital.
_manicordo_; Span. _manicordio_[1]), a medieval stringed keyboard
instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its strings being set
in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent instead of a hammer as in
the modern instrument. The clavichord, derived from the dulcimer by the
addition of a keyboard, consisted of a rectangular case, with or without
legs, often very elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The
earliest instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire, were
stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the narrow belly or
soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges, often three in number, and
wound as in the piano round wrest or tuning pins set in a block at the
right-hand side of the soundboard and attached at the other end to hitch
pins. The bridges served to direct the course of the strings and to
conduct the sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped blades of
brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end of the arm of the
keys. As the latter were depressed by the fingers the tangents rose to
strike the strings and stop them at the proper length from the
belly-bridge. Thus the string was set in vibration between the point of
impact and the belly-bridge just as long as the key was pressed down.
The key being released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list
of cloth acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
line of the tangents.
There were two kinds of clavichords--the fretted or _gebunden_ and the
fret-free or _bund-frei_. The term "fretted" was applied to those
clavichords which, instead of being provided with a string or set of
strings in unison for each note, had one set of strings acting for three
or four notes, the arms of the keys being twisted in order to bring the
contact of the tangent into the acoustically correct position under the
string. The "fret-free" were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first
_bund-frei_ clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in
Saxony about 1720. This important change in construction increased the
size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring a key and
tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the system of tuning
by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach. Clavichords were made with
pedals.[2]
The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate, was
characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its great charm
while rendering it suitable only for the private music room or study.
Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention was drawn to the instrument by
A.J. Hipkins's lectures and recitals on keyboard instruments in London,
Oxford and Cambridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of
making clavichords in 1894. (K. S.)