[1] Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903), p. 4.
[2] Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek.
xxvii. 6.
[3] Dan. xi. 30; I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5.
[4] Schrader, "Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in _Abh. d. k.
Preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1881); _Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches_ (Berlin,
1890), pp. 337-344.
CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with "denizen,"
from O. Fr. _citeain_, mod. Fr. _citoyen_), etymologically the
inhabitant of a city, _cite_ or _civitas_ (see CITY), and in England the
term still used primarily of persons possessing civic rights in a
borough; thus used also of a townsman as opposed to a countryman. The
more extended use of the word, however, corresponding to _civitas_,
gives "citizen" the meaning of one who is a constituent member of a
state in international relations and as such has full national rights
and owes a certain allegiance (q.v.) as opposed to an "alien"; in
republican countries the term is then commonly employed as the
equivalent of "subject" in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules
governing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the
United States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION.
CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLLE, &c. (probably a Fr.
diminutive form of _cithara_, and not from Lat. _cista_, a box), an
obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form is uncertain. It is
frequently mentioned by poetical writers of the 13th to the 15th
centuries, and is found in Wycliffe's Bible (1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5,
"Harpis and sitols and tympane." The Authorized Version has
"psaltiries," and the Vulgate "lyrae." It has been supposed to be
another name for the psaltery (q.v.), a box-shaped instrument often seen
in the illuminated missals of the middle ages.
CITRIC ACID, _Acidum citricum_, or OXYTRICARBALLYLIC ACID,
C3H4(OH) (CO.OH)3, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained
in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice of
lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, gooseberries
and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers. It is made on a
large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by the fermentation of
glucose under the influence of _Citromycetes pfefferianus, C. glaber_
and other ferments. Lemon juice is fermented for some time to free it
from mucilage, then boiled and filtered, and neutralized with powdered
chalk and a little milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so
obtained is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution
filtered, evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated,
preferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
rhombic prisms of the composition C6H8O7 + H2O. Crystals of
a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution of the
acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about 10 lb of
crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared from the juice
of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be manufactured with care
to avoid an excess of chalk or lime, which would precipitate
constituents of the juice that cause the fermentation of the citrate and
the production of calcium acetate and butyrate.
The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E. Grimaux and P.
Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with hydrochloric acid gives
propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This
compound combines with hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which
hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts
with this acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted
by hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations proves
the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held synthesized the
acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine and acetoacetic ester)
by heating with potassium cyanide and saponifying the resulting nitrile.
The acetone dicarboxylic acid, CO(CH2CO2H)2, so obtained
combines with hydrocyanic acid, and this product yields citric acid on
hydrolysis.
Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in 3/4ths of its
weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and dissolves
in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150 deg.C. it melts, and on the continued
application of heat boils, giving off its water of crystallization. At
175 deg. C. it is resolved into water and aconitic acid, C6H6O6, a
substance found in _Equisetum fluviatile_, monks-hood and other plants.
A higher temperature decomposes this body into carbon dioxide and
itaconic acid, C5H6C4, which, again, by the expulsion of a
molecule of water, yields citraconic anhydride, C5H4O3. Citric
acid digested at a temperature below 40 deg.C. with concentrated sulphuric
acid gives off carbon monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With
fused potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks iron and
zinc.
The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble of which
are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the alkaline earth
metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic, forms either acid
monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral trimetallic salts; thus, mono-,
di- and tri-potassium and sodium citrates are known. On warming citric
acid with an excess of lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is
obtained which is redissolved as the liquid cools.
The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid are salts
of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper derived from
the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization, and free
sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric acid, which is
sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant in commercial
citric acid, may be detected in the presence of the latter, by the
production of a precipitate of acid potassium tartrate when potassium
acetate is added to a cold solution. Another mode of separating the two
acids is to convert them into calcium salts, which are then treated with
a perfectly neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate
and calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric acid by the
fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate produces a brilliant
silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver citrate is reduced only after
prolonged ebullition.
Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation of
effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and occasionally
as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice. In the form of lime
juice it has long been known as an antidote for scurvy. Several of the
citrates are much employed as medicines, the most important being the
scale preparations of iron. Of these iron and ammonium citrate is much
used as a haematinic, and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric
irritation or constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of
iron are inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into carbonates;
they therefore act as _remote alkalis_, increasing the alkalinity of the
blood and thereby the general rate of chemical change within the body
(see ACETIC ACID).
CITRON, a species of _Citrus_ (_C. medica_), belonging to the tribe
_Aurantieae_, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same genus
furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron is a small
evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about 10 ft.; it has
irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green broadly oblong,
slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual flowers purplish without
and white within. The large fruit is ovate or oblong, protuberant at the
tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long, with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind,
the inner portion of which is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin,
greenish-yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and
the seeds are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of
them of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
oblate sphere; and in the "fingered citron" of China the lobes are
separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation of the
constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.
The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the West
Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of Spain and
Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen in more northerly
regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (_Flora of British India_, i. 514) regards it
as a native of the valleys at the foot of the Himalaya, and of the
Khasia hills and the Western Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it
to have originated in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced
into India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described by
Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before Christ, and was
early known to the ancients, and the fruit was held in great esteem by
them; but they seem to have been acquainted with no other member of the
_Aurantieae_, the introduction of oranges and lemons into the countries
of the Mediterranean being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th
centuries. Josephus tells us that "the law of the Jews required that at
the feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree and
citron-tree" (_Antiq._ xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew word _tappuach_,
rendered "apples" and "apple-tree" in Cant. ii. 3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11,
&c., probably signifies the citron-tree and its fruit. Oribasius in the
4th century describes the fruit, accurately distinguishing the three
parts of it. About the 3rd century the tree was introduced into Italy;
and, as Gallesio informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th
century. In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them
fragrant. The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, _oil of cedra_ and
_oil of citron_, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it is
much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon (q.v.) is now
generally regarded as a subspecies _Limonum_ of _Citrus medica_.
Oribasii Sardiani, _Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII._ i. 64 (_De
citrio_); Gallesio, _Traite du citrus_ (1811); Darwin, _Animals and
Plants under Domestication_, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis, _Forest Flora
of North-West and Central India_, p. 51 (1874); E. Bonavia, _The
Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and Ceylon_ (1890).
CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 20 m.
N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The town was founded in 1220 by the
Paduans to counterbalance the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the
E., in 1218 by the Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval
walls, surrounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of
importance, and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce
of the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
and from Vicenza to Treviso.
CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea, 3 m. N.E. of its
station on the railway between Chiusi and Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381.
Etruscan tombs have been found in the neighbourhood, but it is not
certain that the present town stands on an ancient site. It was the
birthplace of the painter Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses
several of his works, but none of the first rank.
CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail (18 m. direct), situated
on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of
town, 6096; of commune, 26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the
site of the ancient _Tifernum Tiberinum_, near which Pliny had a villa
(_Epist._ v. 6; cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des deutschen
archaeologischen Instituts_, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist
above ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
recovered. We find it under the name of _Castrum Felicitatis_ at the end
of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the 7th century. The town
went through various political vicissitudes in the middle ages, being
subject now to the emperor, now to the Church, until in 1468 it came
under the Vitelli: but when they died out it returned to the allegiance
of the Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded by
walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance, especially
the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally Romanesque.
The 12th-century altar front of the latter in silver is fine. The
Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century. Some of Raphael's earliest
works were painted for churches in this town, but none of them remains
there. There is, however, a small collection of pictures.
See Magherini Graziani, _L'Arte a Citta di Castello_ (1897).
CITTA VECCHIA, or CITTA NOTABILE, a fortified city of Malta, 7 m. W. of
Valletta, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1901) 7515. It
lies on high, sharply rising ground which affords a view of a large part
of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains an ornate
cathedral, overthrown by an earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is
said by an acceptable tradition to occupy the site of the house of the
governor Publius, who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich
stalls of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part of
pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian burial;
and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle, is pointed
out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of Roman buildings have been
excavated in the town. About 2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the
English governor, known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like
distance to the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the
order of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto.
Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and oldest
writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile (_locale
notabile, et insigne coronae regiae_, as it is called in a charter by
Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule, and Citta Vecchia (old city) by
the knights. It was the capital of the island till its supersession by
Valletta in 1570. (See also MALTA.)
CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.; Fr. _citre,
cistre, cithre, guitare allemande_ or _anglaise_; Ger. _Cither_, Zither
(_mit Hals_, with neck); Ital. _cetera, cetra_), a medieval stringed
instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and twanged by fingers
or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern was at its height in England
and Germany during the 16th and 17th centuries. The cittern consisted of
a pear-shaped body similar to that of the lute but with a flat back and
sound-board joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted
finger-board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque head of
a woman or of an animal.[1] The strings were of wire in pairs of
unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in England. A
peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the courses, the third
course known as bass being lower than the fourth styled tenor.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: From Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons_, 1609.
Four-course Cittern.]
According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer)
England was the birthplace of the cittern.[2] Several lesson books for
this popular instrument were published during the 17th century in
England. A very rare book (of which the British Museum does not possess
a copy), _The Cittharn Schoole_, written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is
mentioned in Sir P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book[3] dated
1656, "For the little Instrument called a _Psittyrne_ Anthony Holborne
and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and have both of
them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument. Holborne has
composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto the Psittyrne with
those Lessons set out in his booke. These lived about Anno Domini 1600."
Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the
same from Foure course of strings to Fourteene course_, &c. (printed
London, 1609, by William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds
of instruments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England as
_Bijuga_; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the
finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grotesque
head, were stretched as in the lyre _a vide_ alongside the neck; all the
strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece. Robinson
gives instructions for learning to play the cittern and for reading the
tablature. John Playford's _Musick's Delight on the Cithren_ (London,
1666) also contains illustrations of the instrument as well as of the
viol da Gamba and Pochette; he claims to have revived the instrument and
restored it to what it was in the reign of Queen Mary.
The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the ease with
which it might be mastered and used to accompany the voice; it was one
of four instruments generally found in barbers' shops, the others being
the gittern, the lute and the virginals. The customers while waiting
took down the instrument from its peg and played a merry tune to pass
the time.[4] We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the king on the
cittern (cithara), and that his performance was duly appreciated and
applauded. He tells us that, although he learnt to play the barbiton in
a few weeks with skill, he had lessons from a master for two years on
the cittern.[5] On the occasion of a third visit he witnessed the
performance of some fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady,
mother of twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British Orpheus,
whose performance was really enchanting.
Michael Praetorius[6] gives various tunings for the cittern as well as
an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the notation).
[Illustration: French]
[Illustration: Italian 4 course]
[Illustration: Italian 6 course]
During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar, had twelve
wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:
[Illustration]
The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt into favour,
gradually displaced the English variety. The Spanish guitar had gut
strings twanged by the fingers. The last development of the cittern
before its disappearance was the addition of keys. The keyed cithara[7]
was first made by Claus & Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in
number, were placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being
depressed they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes the keys were
placed in a little box right over the strings, the hammers striking from
above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed)
by Antoine Stradivarius,[8] 1700 (now in the Museum of the
Conservatoire, Paris), with twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to
E, D, G, B, C, A, which was exhibited in London in 1871.
The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain transitions
which took place during the evolution of the violin from the Greek
kithara (see CITHARA).
_Genealogical Table of the Cittern._
Assyrian Ketharah Persian Rebab
____________|_____________ :
| | :
Persian and Arabic Greek Kithara Arab Rebab
Kithara | :
| | :
Moorish Guitra, Roman Cithara European Rebec
Cuitra or Guitarra or Fidicula :
| :
Cithara in transition or Rotta :
___________________________|________________________:
| | |
Cithara in transition Guitarra Latina _Cittern_
or Guitar or Vihuela de Mano
| |
Spanish Guitar Ghittern
The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the archetype.
(1) The derivation of the name, which after the introduction of the bow
was used to characterize various instruments whose strings were twanged
by fingers or plectrum, such as the harp and the rotta (both known as
_cithara_), the citola and the zither. In an interlinear Latin and
Anglo-Saxon version of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A.
1), _cithara_ is translated _citran_, from which it is not difficult to
trace the English _cithron, citteran, cittarn_, of the 16th century. (2)
The construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly borrowed from
the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the rebab and twanged as the
lute, so common all over Europe during the middle ages, or more probably
derived from the _kithara_ of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the
corners rounded. These early steps in the transition from the _cithara_
may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,[9] a unique and
much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th century), the
illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted from an earlier psalter
from the Christian East. The instruments which remained true to the
prototype in outline as well as in construction and in the derivation
of the name were the ghittern and the guitar, so often confused with the
cittern. It is evident that the kinship of cittern and guitar was
formerly recognized, for during the 18th century, as stated above, the
cittern was known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the
Spanish guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the
characteristic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th
century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable in
other musical instruments, such as the cornet or _Zinck_, the
_Platerspiel_, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th century
representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in miniatures and
carvings.[10]
A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS.
treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called _giga_ in an
inscription at the side of the drawing.
References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the 16th
and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd[11] describes it thus: "Cistrona quae
quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque cupreas et ferreas de
quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are given in the _New English
Dictionary_, "Cittern," and in Godefroy's _Dict. de l'anc. langue
franc. du IXe au XVe siecle_. (K. S.)