FOOTNOTES:

[1] Eisenlohr, _Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Aegypter, uebers. u.

erklaert_ (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, _Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France_,

vi. pp. 139-149.

[2] H. Hankel, _Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum_, &c., chap, v

(Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen ueber Gesch. d. Math._ i.

(Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, _Mem. de la Soc._, &c., _a Bordeaux_;

Allman, in _Hermathena_.

[3] Tannery. _Bull. des sc. math._ [2], x. pp. 213-226.

[4] In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec [theta]:tan

[theta]::1:tan 1/2[theta].

[5] Tannery, "Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede," in _Mem....

Bordeaux_[2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, _Des Archimedes

Kreismessung_ (Coblenz, 1874).

[6] De Morgan, in _Penny Cyclop_, xix. p. 186.

[7] Kern, _Aryabhattiyam_ (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet

(Paris,1879).

[8] De Morgan, art. "Quadrature of the Circle," in _English

Cyclop._; Glaisher, _Mess. of Math._ ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp.

27-46; de Haan, _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.

[9] Vieta, _Opera math._ (Leiden, 1646); Marie, _Hist. des sciences

math._ iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).

[10] Kluegel, _Math. Woerterb._ ii. 606, 607.

[11] Kaestner, _Gesch. d. Math._ i. (Goettingen, 1796-1800).

[12] But see _Les Delices de Leide_ (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan,

_Mess. of Math._ iii. 24-26.

[13] For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the

circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, "Bouwstoffen voor de

geschiedenis, &c.," in _Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van

Wetensch._ ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur

quelques quadrateurs, &c.," in _Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle

sci. mat. e fis._ vii. 99-144.

[14] It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave

an approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.

[15] _Elementa trigonometrica_ (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, _Messenger of

Math._ iii. 35 seq.

[16] See Kiessling's edition of the _De Circ. Magn. Inv._

(Flensburg, 1869); or Pirie's tract on _Geometrical Methods of

Approx. to the Value of [pi]_ (London, 1877).

[17] See Euler, "Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in _Nov.

Comm. Acad. Petrop._ viii.

[18] Gergonne, _Annales de math._ vi.

[19] See _Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura_ (Padua, 1667); and

the _Appendicula_ to the same in his _Exercitationes geometricae_

(London, 1668).

[20] _Penny Cyclop._ xix. 187.

[21] See Sherwin's _Math. Tables_ (London, 1705), p. 59.

[22] See W. Jones, _Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos_ (London, 1706);

Maseres, _Scriptores Logarithmici_ (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159

seq.; Hutton, _Tracts_, i. 266.

[23] See _Hist. de l'Acad._ (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in

the 113th place.

[24] _Comment. Acad. Petrop._ ix., xi.; _Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet._ xvi.;

_Nova Acta Acad. Pet._ xi.

[25] _Introd. in Analysin Infin._ (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii.

[26] _Mem. sur quelques proprietes remarquables des quantites

transcendantes, circulaires, et logarithmiques._

[27] See Legendre, _Elements de geometrie_ (Paris, 1794), note iv.;

Schloemilch, _Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis_ (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii.

[28] _Nova Acta Petrop._ ix. 41; _Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus_,

633.

[29] On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, "Beitrag

zur Berechnung der Zahl [pi]," in _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 121-174.

[30] See Montucla, _Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle_ (Paris,

1754, 2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, _Budget of Paradoxes_ (London,

1872).

[31] "Sur la fonction exponentielle," _Comples rendus_ (Paris),

lxxvii. 18, 74, 226, 285.

[32] See _Crelle's Journal_, lxxvi. 342.

[33] See "Ueber die Zahl [pi]," in _Math. Ann._ xx. 213.

CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway county, Ohio,

U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the Scioto river and the

Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900) 6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It

is served by the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and

the Norfolk & Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line.

Circleville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries

are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements, and the

canning of sweet corn and other produce. The city occupies the site of

prehistoric earth-works, from one of which, built in the form of a

circle, it derived its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806, was

chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The court-house was built in the form

of an octagon at the centre of the circle, and circular streets were

laid out around it; but this arrangement proved to be inconvenient, the

court-house was destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no trace of

the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville was incorporated as a village

in 1814, and was chartered as a city in 1853.

CIRCUIT (Lat. _circuitus_, from _circum_, round, and _ire_, to go), the

act of moving round; so circumference, or anything encircling or

encircled. The word is particularly known as a law term, signifying the

periodical progress of a legal tribunal for the purpose of carrying out

the administration of the law in the several provinces of a country. It

has long been applied to the journey or progress which the judges have

been in the habit of making through the several counties of England, to

hold courts and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to

the king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE).

In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was conferred

on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations respecting

circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit, and the formation

of any new circuit, and the appointment of the place at which assizes

are to be held on any circuit. Under this power an order of council,

dated the 5th of February 1876, was made, whereby the circuit system was

remodelled. A new circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was

created, consisting of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old

Northern circuit, and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit.

Oakham, Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk

circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the Home

circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit was created,

consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich, Norwich, Chelmsford,

Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out of the old Norfolk circuit and

partly out of the Home circuit. The counties of Kent and Surrey were

left out of the circuit system, the assizes for these counties being

held by the judges remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and

Guildford were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the

purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in these towns

were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit, who, after

disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague in Exeter. In

1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone and Guildford were

added to the South-Eastern circuit. Other minor changes in the assize

towns were made, which it is unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham

first became a circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,

by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford circuits.

There are alternative assize towns in the following counties, viz.:--On

the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes for Wiltshire, and Wells and

Taunton for Somerset; on the South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds

for Suffolk; on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for

Montgomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for

Glamorgan.

According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are four assizes in

each year. There are two principal assizes, viz. the winter assizes,

beginning in January, and the summer assizes, beginning at the end of

May. At these two assizes criminal and civil business is disposed of in

all the circuits. There are two other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes

and the Easter assizes. The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876

and 1877 (Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made

under the former act. They are held for the whole of England and Wales,

but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a large extent

"grouped," so that not every county has a separate assize. For example,

on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon is grouped with Cambridge; on

the Midland, Rutland is grouped with Lincoln; on the Northern,

Westmorland is grouped with Cumberland; and the North Wales and South

Wales circuits are united, and no assizes are held at some of the

smaller towns. At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except

at Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds. The Easter

assizes are held in April and May on two circuits only, viz. at

Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at Leeds on the

North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business is taken at Manchester

and Liverpool, but criminal business only at Leeds.

Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the complete

interruption of the London sittings in the common law division by the

absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes were so arranged as to

commence on different dates in the various circuits. For example, the

summer assizes begin in the South-Eastern and Western circuits on the

29th of May; in the Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland

and Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern circuit on

the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the 7th of July; and in

the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July. Again, there has been a

continuous development of what may be called the single-judge system. In

the early days of the new order the members of the court of appeal and

the judges of the chancery division shared the circuit work with the

judges in the common law division. This did not prove to be a

satisfactory arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was

uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training or

experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery, and the

appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a considerable part

of the year. The practice was discontinued in or about the year 1884.

The appeal and chancery judges were relieved of the duty of going on

circuit, and an arrangement was made by the treasury for making an

allowance for expenses of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the

whole work of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize

work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going in London,

an experiment, which had been previously tried by Lord Cairns and Lord

Cross (then home secretary) and discontinued, was revived. Instead of

two judges going together to each assize town, it was arranged that one

judge should go by himself to certain selected places--practically, it

may be said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The

only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester, Bristol,

Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham, Newcastle,

Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea.

It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments introduced

under orders in council, the circuit system was altogether satisfactory

or that the last word had been pronounced on the subject. In the first

report of the Judicature Commission, dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17

(_Parl. Papers_, 1868-1869), the majority report that "the necessity for

holding assizes in every county without regard to the extent of the

business to be transacted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a

great waste of judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from

one circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and

inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary at the

assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd, 1872 (_Parl.

Papers_, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advisability of grouping

or a discontinuance of holding assizes "in several counties, for

example, Rutland and Westmorland, where it is manifestly an idle waste

of time and money to have assizes." It is thought that the grouping of

counties which has been effected for the autumn assizes might be carried

still further and applied to all the assizes; and that the system of

holding the assizes alternately in one of two towns within a county

might be extended to two towns in adjoining counties, for example,

Gloucester and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders

this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction have been

approved by the judges, but ancient custom and local patriotism,

interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The Assizes and Quarter

Sessions Act 1908 contributed something to reform by dispensing with the

obligation to hold assizes at a fixed date if there is no business to be

transacted. Nor can it be said that the single-judge system has been

altogether a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and

criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first. He can fix

only approximately the time when he can hope to be free for the civil

business. If the calendar is exceptionally heavy or one or more of the

criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly long (as may easily happen), the

civil business necessarily gets squeezed into the short residue of the

allotted time. Suitors and their solicitors and witnesses are kept

waiting for days, and after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for

the judge to take the case, and a "remanet" is the result. It is the

opinion of persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to

drive to London much of the civil business which properly belongs to the

provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus at once to increase the

burden on the judges and jurymen in London, and to increase the costs of

the trial of the actions sent there. Some persons advocate the

continuous sittings of the high court in certain centres, such as

Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in

fact) a decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an

excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county palatine

court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a local bar which

has produced many men of great ability and even eminence. The Durham

chancery court is also capable of development. Another suggestion has

been made for continuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a

certain number of the judges, according to a rota, should be

continuously in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London

business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an estimate of

the number of cases which might thus be tried in the country in relief

of the London list. This estimate it would be difficult to make. The

opinion has also been expressed that it is essential in any changes that

may be made to retain the occasional administration by judges of the

high court of criminal jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in

remote places. It promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of

justice and the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's

life, liberty or character. It also does something, by the example set

by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to undue severity

of sentences in offences against property.

Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than that to

which they have attached themselves, unless they receive a special

retainer. They are then said to "go special," and the fee in such a case

is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel, and fifty guineas for a

junior. It is customary to employ one member of the circuit on the side

on which the counsel comes special. Certain rules have been drawn up by

the Bar Committee for regulating the practice as to retainers on

circuit. (1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a

circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon counsel

retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to counsel's

services should he attend the assize and the case be entered for trial);

(2) if the venue is changed to another place on the same circuit, a

fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the action is not tried at the

assize for which the retainer is given, the retainer must be renewed for

every subsequent assize until the action is disposed of, unless a brief

has been delivered; (4) a retainer may be given for a future assize,

without a retainer for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is

given for such intervening assize. There are also various regulations

enforced by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.

In the United States the English circuit system still exists in some

states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in succession in the

various counties of the state. The term _circuit courts_ applies

distinctively in America to a certain class of inferior federal courts

of the United States, exercising jurisdiction, concurrently with the

state courts, in certain matters where the United States is a party to

the litigation, or in cases of crime against the United States. The

circuit courts act in nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: _1st

circuit_, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; _2nd

circuit_, Connecticut, New York, Vermont; _3rd circuit_, Delaware, New

Jersey, Pennsylvania; _4th circuit_, Maryland, North Carolina, South

Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; _5th circuit_, Alabama, Florida,

Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; _6th circuit_, Kentucky,

Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; _7th circuit_, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin;

_8th circuit_, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota,

Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,

Wyoming; _9th circuit_, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana,

Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals is

made up of three judges of the circuit court, the judges of the district

courts of the circuit, and the judge of the Supreme Court allotted to

the circuit.

In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high court of

justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts, consisting of two

judges each; and the country, with the exception of the Lothians, is

divided into corresponding districts, called the Northern, Western and

Southern circuits. On the Northern circuit, courts are held at

Inverness, Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow,

Stirling and Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and

Ayr.

Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West circuits, and

those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.

CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its foreign

correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a named person. The

person in whose favour a circular note is issued is furnished with a

letter (containing the signature of an official of the bank and the

person named) called a letter of indication, which is usually referred

to in the circular note, and must be produced on presentation of the

note. Circular notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to

the amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be cashed,

but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the amount for which

they were originally issued. A forged signature on a circular note

conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the payer to see that payment

is made to the proper person, he cannot recover the amount of a forged

note from the banker who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.)

CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for "circle in proving"), in logic, a phrase

used to describe a form of argument in which the very fact which one

seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise, i.e. as part of the evidence

on which the conclusion is based. This argument is one form of the

fallacy known as _petitio principii_, "begging the question." It is most

common in lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables

the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he began.

(See FALLACY.)

CIRCUMCISION (Lat. _circum_, round, and _caedere_, to cut), the cutting

off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is commonly

prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an initiation or

religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans, and is a widespread

institution in many Semitic races. It remains, with Jews, a necessary

preliminary to the admission of proselytes, except in some Reformed

communities. The origin of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.)

placed in the age of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very

ancient, for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;

Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom was

introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance in the

Wilderness. At Gilgal he "rolled away the reproach of the Egyptians" by

circumcising the people. This obviously means that whereas the Egyptians

practised circumcision the Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and

hence were regarded with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii.

36) that circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was

practised in that country in ancient times (Ebers, _Egypten und die

Buecher Mosis_, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day. But

it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews derived the rite

directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it (_Genesis_, p. 190): "It

is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack suppose, the peoples of N.

Africa and Asia who practised the rite adopted it from the Egyptians,

but it appears in so many parts of the world that it must at any rate in

these cases have originated independently." In another biblical

narrative (Exodus iv. 25) Moses is subject to the divine anger because

he had not made himself "a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been

circumcised before his marriage.

The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants of

Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an ancient

custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the Koran. The only

important Semitic peoples who most probably did not follow the rite were

the Babylonians and Assyrians (Sayce, _Babyl. and Assyrians_, p. 47).

Modern investigations have brought to light many instances of the

prevalence of circumcision in various parts of the world. These facts

are collected by Andree and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not

only spread through the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.),

but also is practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as

well as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia

(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife must

be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full member of the

tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state. In other parts, too

(e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may marry. Circumcision was known to

the Aztecs (Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii.), and is still practised

by the Caribs of the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method

and period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among the

Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight days old.

The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony is elaborate. The

child is carried in to the godfather (_sandek_, a hebraized form of the

Gr. [Greek: sunteknos], "godfather," post-class.), who places the child

on a cushion, which he holds on his knees throughout the ceremony. The

operator (_mohel_) uses a steel knife, and pronounces various

benedictions before and after the rite is performed (see S. Singer,

_Authorized Daily Prayer Book_, pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the

domestic festivities and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony

among medieval and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's _Studies in

Judaism_, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America and

elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day, like the Jews.

The Mazequas do it between the first and second months. Among the

Bedouins the rite is performed on children of three years, amid dances

and the selection of brides (Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, i. 340); among

the Somalis the age is seven (Reinisch, _Somalisprache_, p. 110). But

for the most part the tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the

age of puberty. Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade

in _Zeitschrift fuer die alttest. Wissenschaft_, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.

The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much disputed.

Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true origin of

circumcision, it must go back to the time when men went about naked.

Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth and so forth) were tribal

marks, being partly sacrifices and partly means of recognition (see

MUTILATION). Such initiatory rites were often frightful ordeals, in

which the neophyte's courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith,

_Religion of the Semites_, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a

substitute for far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice.

Utilitarian explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton

(_Memoirs Anthrop. Soc._ i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote

fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward

(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most probably,

however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed on both sexes)

was connected with marriage, and was a preparation for connubium. It was

in Robertson Smith's words "originally a preliminary to marriage, and so

a ceremony of introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the

transference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On this

view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus passage (iv.

25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger of his life

because he had neglected the proper preliminary to marriage. In Genesis,

on the other hand, circumcision is an external sign of God's covenant

with Israel, and later Judaism now regards it in this symbolical sense.

Barton (_Semitic Origins_, p. 100) declares that "the circumstances

under which it is performed in Arabia point to the origin of

circumcision as a sacrifice to the goddess of fertility, by which the

child was placed under her protection and its reproductive powers

consecrated to her service." But Barton admits that initiation to the

connubium was the primitive origin of the rite.

As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be added that

in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its

considerable extension among other than Jewish children, the operation

being recommended not merely in cases of malformation, but generally for

reasons of health.

AUTHORITIES.--On the present diffusion of circumcision see H. Ploss,

_Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Voelker_, i. 342 seq., and his

researches in _Deutsches Archiv fuer Geschichte der Medizin_, viii.

312-344; Andree, "Die Beschneidung" in _Archiv fuer Anthropologie_,

xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, _Tribes of Central Australia_. The

articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_

contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the

rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The _Jewish

Encyclopedia_ in particular gives an extensive list of books on the

Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles

in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).

On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen

Heidentums_, 154. (I. A.)

CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. _circum_, round, and _vallum_, a

rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of entrenchments

surrounding a besieged place. "Lines of Contravallation" were similar

works by which the besieger protected himself against the attack of a

relieving army from any quarter. These continuous lines of

circumvallation and contravallation were used only in the days of small

armies and small fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.

CIRCUS (Lat. _circus_, Gr. [Greek: kirkos] or [Greek: krikos], a ring or

circle; probably "circus" and "ring" are of the same origin), a space,

in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,

intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally.

The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the performance takes

place in a central circular space, not on a stage at one end of the

building.

1. _In Roman antiquities_ the circus was a building for the exhibition

of horse and chariot races and other amusements. It consisted of tiers

of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a

crescent round one of the ends. The other end was straight and at right

angles to the course, so that the plan of the whole had nearly the form

of an ellipse cut in half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse

axis ran a fence (_spina_) separating the return course from the

starting one. The straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the

stalls (_carceres_) where the chariots and horses were held in

readiness. This end constituted also the front of the building with the

main entrance. At each end of the course were three conical pillars

(_metae_) to mark its limits.

The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the _Circus Maximus_, in

the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, where, before the

erection of any permanent structure, races appear to have been held

beside the altar of the god Consus. The first building is assigned to

Tarquin the younger, but for a long time little seems to have been done

to complete its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we

hear of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not in

fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous public

resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made a canal 10 ft.

broad between the lowest tier of seats (_podium_) and the course as a

precaution for the spectators' safety when exhibitions of fighting with

wild beasts, such as were afterwards confined to the amphitheatre, took

place. When these exhibitions were removed, and the canal (_euripus_)

was no longer necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have

placed an obelisk on the _spina_ between the _metae_, and to have built

a new _pulvinar_, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion

with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by fire in 31

B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had restored it

altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of stone, the others

being of wood, and this, from the liability to fire, may account for the

frequent restorations to which the circus was subject; it would also

explain the falling of the seats by which a crowd of people were killed

in the time of Antoninus Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently

after a fire, the _carceres_ of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble,

and the _metae_ of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a

fire, the circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead of

8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further for seating

capacity, &c., ROME: _Archaeology_, Sec. "Places of Amusement."

The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not

separated. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were

also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his

friends (called _cubicula_ or _suggestus_). The principal object of

attraction apart from the racing must have been the _spina_ or low wall

which ran down the middle of the course, with its obelisks, images and

ornamental shrines. On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven

oval objects, one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,

so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded. The

chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The chariots

started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer chariot might

be compensated for the wider circle it had to make at the other end.

Such a race was called a _missus_, and as many as 24 of these would take

place in a day. The competitors wore different colours, originally white

and red (_albata_ and _russata_), to which green (_prasina_) and blue

(_veneta_) were added. Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and

purple (_purpureus et auratus pannus_), which probably fell into disuse

after his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants it

was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs, and from

this there grew up in time four select companies (_factiones_) of circus

purveyors, which were identified with the four colours, and with which

those who organized the races had to contract for the proper supply of

horses and men. The drivers (_aurigae, agitatores_), who were mostly

slaves, were sometimes held in high repute for their skill, although

their calling was regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were

those of Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in

training them. Chariots with two horses (_bigae_) or four (_quadrigae_)

were most common, but sometimes also they had three (_trigae_), and

exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there was combined

with the chariots a race of riders (_desultores_), each rider having two

horses and leaping from one to the other during the race. At certain of

the races the proceedings were opened by a _pompa_ or procession in

which images of the gods and of the imperial family deified were

conveyed in cars drawn by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the

colleges of priests, and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases

by the emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the

insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the capitol along

the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received by the people

standing and clapping their hands. The presiding magistrate gave the

signal for the races by throwing a white flag (_mappa_) on to the

course.

Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the _Circus

Flaminius_, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C. Flaminius, from

whom it may have taken its name; or the name may have been derived from

Prata Flaminia, where it was situated, and where also were held plebeian

meetings. The only games that are positively known to have been

celebrated in this circus were the _Ludi Taurii_ and _Plebeii_. There is

no mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified in the

16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo Mattei.

A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens of

Agrippina, and was known as the _Circus Neronis_, from the notoriety

which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth was

constructed by Maxentius outside the Porta Appia near the tomb of

Caecilia Metella, where its ruins are still, and now afford the only

instance from which an idea of the ancient circi in Rome can be

obtained. It was traced to Caracalla, till the discovery of an

inscription in 1825 showed it to be the work of Maxentius. Old

topographers speak of six circi, but two of these appear to be

imaginary, the Circus Florae and the Circus Sallustii.

Circus races were held in connexion with the following public festivals,

and generally on the last day of the festival, if it extended over more

than one day:--(1) The _Consualia_, August 21st, December 15th; (2)

_Equirria_, February 27th, March 14th; (3) _Ludi Romani_, September

4th-19th; (4) _Ludi Plebeii_, November 4th-17th; (5) _Cerialia_, April

12th-19th; (6) _Ludi Apollinares_, July 6th-13th; (7) _Ludi Megalenses_,

April 4th-10th; (8) _Floralia_, April 28th-May 3rd.

In addition to Smith's _Dictionary of Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890),

see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,

Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen

Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, _Roemische

Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains

see works quoted under ROME: _Archaeology_.

2. _The Modern Circus._--The "circus" in modern times is a form of

popular entertainment which has little in common with the institution of

classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic in character, the place of the

permanent building known to the ancients as the circus being taken by a

tent, which is carried from place to place and set up temporarily on any

site procurable at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which

spectacular performances are given by a troupe employed by the

proprietor. The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a

horse-ring, strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the

performances take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in

ascending tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The

traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus consists

of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops from the back of

a galloping horse, standing with one foot on each of two horses

galloping side by side, turning somersaults from a springboard over a

number of horses standing close together, or accomplishing acrobatic

tricks on horseback. These performances, by male and female riders, are

varied by the introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by

drolleries on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as

firmly established by tradition as in the pantomime.

The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that kept by

Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th century. Astley

was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with

establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by

Hengler's and Sanger's celebrated shows in a later generation. In

America a circus-actor named Ricketts is said to have performed before

George Washington in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the

establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wide

popularity to the circus in the United States. All former

circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and

resource by P.T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor of "the

greatest show on earth" was no exaggeration. The influence of Barnum,

however, brought about a considerable change in the character of the

modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the

traditional comic dialogue of the clown assumed a less prominent place

than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties

relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which

were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by

exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of

immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive

machinery. These tendencies are, as is natural, most marked in shows

given in permanent buildings in large cities, such as the London

Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the

menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and

elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions

of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been

produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display. At the

Hippodrome in Paris--unlike its London namesake, a circus of the true

classical type in which the arena is entirely surrounded by the seats of

the spectators--chariot races after the Roman model were held in the

latter part of the 19th century, at which prizes of considerable value

were given by the management.

CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced _Ciceter_), a market town in the

Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the

river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. of

urban district (1901) 7536. It is served by a branch of the Great

Western railway, and there is also a station on the Midland and

South-Western Junction railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market

town of picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,

with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with parvise.

The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its numerous chapels that

of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of fan-tracery in stone dated 1508.

Of the abbey founded in 1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway

and a few capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,

inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller remains,

for the town was the Roman _Corinium_ or _Durocornovium Dobunorum_.

Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen _in situ_, except the

amphitheatre and some indications of the walls. To the west of the town

is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst

(1684-1775) devoted himself to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley

Park, which he planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins.

This nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a patron

of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope, a frequent

visitor here, was allowed to design the building known as Pope's Seat,

in the park, commanding a splendid prospect of woods and avenues. Swift

was another appreciative visitor. The house contains portraits by

Lawrence, Gainsborough, Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and

many others. A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,

incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel, a

dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms,

private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments for

resident professors, and servants' offices; also a museum containing a

collection of anatomical and pathological preparations, and

mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens. The college farm

comprises 500 acres, 450 of which are arable; and on it are the

well-appointed farm-buildings and the veterinary hospital. Besides

agriculture, the course of instruction at the college includes

chemistry, natural and mechanical philosophy, natural history,

mensuration, surveying and drawing, and other subjects of practical

importance to the farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of

sessional examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various

branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal with the

Thames and Severn canal.

Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first perhaps a

cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of the Roman period,

purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m. N.E., is one of the most

noteworthy Roman villas in England. Cirencester (_Cirneceaster_,

_Cyrenceaster_, _Cyringceaster_) is described in Domesday as ancient

demesne of the crown. The manor was granted by William I. to William

Fitzosbern; on reverting to the crown it was given in 1189, with the

township, to the Augustinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle

of the townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably began

in the same year, when they were amerced for a false presentment. Four

inquisitions during the 13th century supported the abbot's claims, yet

in 1343 the townsmen declared in a chancery bill of complaint that

Cirencester was a borough distinct from the manor, belonging to the king

but usurped by the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of

provostry. Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from

Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot obtained a

new charter and a writ of _supersedeas_. For their success against the

earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in 1403 gave the townsmen a gild

merchant, although two inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights.

These were confirmed in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was

annulled, and in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not

corporate. After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild

merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the lord

of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough in 1572,

returning two members, but was deprived of representation in 1885.

Besides the "new market" of Domesday Book the abbots obtained charters

in 1215 and 1253 for fairs during the octaves of All Saints and St

Thomas the Martyr. The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341

there were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of the

abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market for wool

in England.

See _Transactions_ of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological

Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.

CIRILLO, DOMENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and patriot, was born

at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed while yet a young man to a

botanical professorship, Cirillo went some years afterwards to England,

where he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and to France. On his

return to Naples he was appointed successively to the chairs of

practical and theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on

scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice. On the

French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of the Parthenopean

republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing to take part in the

new government, consented to be chosen a representative of the people

and became a member of the legislative commission, of which he was

eventually elected president. On the abandonment of the republic by the

French (June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand IV.

returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed and

inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege they

surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being guaranteed them

by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of Micheroux. But the arrival

of Nelson changed the complexion of affairs, and he refused to ratify

the capitulation. Secure under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife,

Caroline of Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo

was involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the royal

family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British minister to Naples)

to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote in reference to the

petition: "Domenico Cirillo, who had been the king's physician, might

have been saved, but that he chose to play the fool and lie, denying

that he had ever made any speeches against the government, and saying

that he only took care of the poor in the hospitals" (_Nelson and the

Neapolitan Jacobins_, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned and

hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite study was

botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist by Linnaeus, left many

books, in Latin and Italian, all of them treating of medical and

scientific subjects, and all of little value now. Exception must,

however, be made in favour of the _Virtu morali dell' Asino_, a pleasant

philosophical pamphlet remarkable for its double charm of sense and

style. He introduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly

inoculation for smallpox.

See C. Giglioli, _Naples in 1799_ (London, 1903); L. Conforti, _Napoli

nel 1799_ (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio

francese_, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and

FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES.

CIRQUE (Lat. _circus_, ring), a French word used in physical geography

to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre at the head of a

valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain. The valley cirque is

characteristic of calcareous districts. In the Chiltern Hills

especially, and generally along the chalk escarpments, a flat-bottomed

valley with an intermittent stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly

in a cirque. There is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire,

where it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been

driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In all cases

it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or impervious rock

above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum of considerable

thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the upper strata are very

porous, and the descending water with atmospheric and humous acids in

solution has great solvent power. During the winter this upper layer

becomes saturated and some of the water drains away along joints in the

escarpment. An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a

great deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above

slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head, where

the stream issues, gradually works backward and may pass completely

through the hills, leaving a gap of which another drainage system may

take possession. In the limestone country of the Cotteswold Hills, many

small intermittent tributary streams are headed by cirques, and some of

the longer dry valleys have springs issuing from beneath their lower

ends, the dry valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams

not yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain by

beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the Jura Mountains.

The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example where the impervious bed is a

marly clay.

The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is said by

W.D. Johnson (_Journal of Geology_, xii. No. 7, 1904) to be due to basal

sapping and erosion under the _bergschrund_ of the glacier. In this he

is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same journal, who produces some

remarkable examples from the Sierra Nevada in California, where the

mountain fragments have been left behind "like a sheet of dough upon a

board after the biscuit tin has done its work"; so that above the head

of the glaciers "the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its

general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending one of

the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft., Johnson found a

rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of rock and the rock face a

literally vertical cliff "much riven, its fracture planes outlining

sharp angular masses in all stages of displacement and dislodgment."

Judging from these facts, he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at

their head in formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a

"reversed grade" of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where

scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest under the

glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents of ice-erosion

nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence of glacial cirques

often containing small lakes such as that under Cader Idris in Wales, or

at the head of Little Timber Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in

Alpine districts.

CIRTA (mod. _Constantine_, q.v.), an ancient city of Numidia, in Africa,

in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by the Romans as the

strongest position in Numidia, and was made by them the converging point

of all their great military roads in that country. By the early emperors

it was allowed to fall into decay, but was afterwards restored by

Constantine, from whom it took its modern name.

CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882), French general, was

born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1810, and after passing through

St Cyr, entered the army in 1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw

active service in Algeria, and became _chef d'escadron_ in 1849 and

lieutenant-colonel in 1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean

War, and after the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of

brigade. In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the

Franco-German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional

command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in the surrender

of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from captivity only at the

end of the war, and on his return was at once appointed by the

Versailles government to a command in the army engaged in the

suppression of the Commune, a task in the execution of which he

displayed great rigour. From July 1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he

had already become minister of war. He occupied this post several times

during the critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In

1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes, he was

accused of having relations with a certain Baroness Kaula, who was said

to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and he was in consequence relieved

from duty. An inquiry subsequently held resulted in de Cissey's favour

(1881). He died on the 15th of June 1882 at Paris.

CISSOID (from the Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy, and [Greek: eidos], form), a

curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about 180 B.C., for

the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals between two given

lines, and in order to solve the problem of duplicating the cube. It was

further investigated by John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens (who determined

the length of any arc in 1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the

area between the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in

the following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent at B, and

APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take a point Q on AT so

that AQ always equals PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid. Sir Isaac

Newton devised the following mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN

bent at right angles at M, such that MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass

through a fixed point O on AB produced such that OA = CA, where C is the

middle point of AB, and cause N to travel along the line perpendicular

to AB at C; then the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid. The curve is

symmetrical about the axis of x, and consists of two infinite branches

asymptotic to the line BT and forming a cusp at the origin. The

cartesian equation, when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is y squared(2a - x) =

x cubed; the polar equation is r = 2a sin [theta] tan [theta]. The cissoid is

the first positive pedal of the parabola y squared + 8ax = 0 for the vertex,

and the inverse of the parabola y squared = 8ax, the vertex being the centre of

inversion, and the semi-latus rectum the constant of inversion. The area

between the curve and its asymptote is 3[pi]a squared, i.e. three times the

area of the generating circle.

The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves generated in

similar manner from other figures than the circle, and the form

described above is distinguished as the cissoid of Diocles.

[Illustration]

A _cissoid angle_ is the angle included between the concave sides of two

intersecting curves; the convex sides include the _sistroid angle_.

See John Wallis, _Collected Works_, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, _Plane

Curves_ (1885).

CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab, India. The name,

now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the Sikh chiefs south of the

Sutlej passed under British protection, and was generally applied to the

country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on

the E. by the Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846

the greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being

subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at Umballa,

and styled the agent of the governor-general for the Cis-Sutlej states.

After the first Sikh War the full administration of the territory became

vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred the annexation of the Punjab,

when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership, comprising the districts of

Umballa, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with

the new province. The name continued to be applied to this division

until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred to the

Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it ceased to be

appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has been known as the

Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha were appointed a separate

political agency in 1901. Excluding Bahawalpur, for which there is no

political agent, and Chamba, the other states are grouped under the

commissioners of Jullunder and Delhi, and the superintendent of the

Simla hill states.

CIST (Gr. [Greek: kiste], Lat. _cista_, a box; cf. Ger. _Kiste_, Welsh

_kistvaen_, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form "chest"), in

Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian and

other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also, in the archaeology

of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat stones placed edgeways with

another flat stone for a cover. The word is also used for a sepulchral

chamber cut in the rock (see COFFIN).

"Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation of the same

word (Lat. _cisterna_; cf. "cave" and "cavern").

CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the colour of the

habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron). In 1098 St Robert,

born of a noble family in Champagne, at first a Benedictine monk, and

then abbot of certain hermits settled at Molesme near Chatillon, being

dissatisfied with the manner of life and observance there, migrated with

twenty of the monks to a swampy place called Citeaux in the diocese of

Chalons, not far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a

monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance according

to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following year Robert was

compelled by papal authority to return to Molesme, and Alberic succeeded

him as abbot of Citeaux and held the office till his death in 1109, when

the Englishman St Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some

years the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices

came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed doomed to

failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty others offered

themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and wonderful development at

once set in. The next three years witnessed the foundation of the four

great "daughter-houses of Citeaux"--La Ferte, Pontigny, Clairvaux and

Morimond. At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at

Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over 500; and

the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept pace with this

material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of his monks ascend the

papal chair as Eugenius III.

The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of

St Benedict's rule--how literal may be seen from the controversy between

St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny (see Maitland, _Dark

Ages_, Sec. xxii.). The Cistercians rejected alike all mitigations and all

developments, and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in

St Benedict's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in

austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to

manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special

characteristic of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work

they cut away the accretions to the divine office which had been

steadily growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other

Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length the regular

canonical office: one only of these accretions did they retain, the

daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the

Primer_, Early English Text Society, original series, 109, p. xxx.).

It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that, after the

first blush of their success and before a century had passed, the

Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the progress of

civilization in the later middle ages: they were the great farmers of

those days, and many of the improvements in the various farming

operations were introduced and propagated by them; it is from this point

of view that the importance of their extension in northern Europe is to

be estimated. The Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of

income arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for

their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized system for

selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and notably contributed

to the commercial progress of the countries of western Europe. Thus by

the middle of the 13th century the export of wool by the English

Cistercians had become a feature in the commerce of the country. Farming

operations on so extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks

alone, whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion

of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay brothers was

introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers were recruited from the

peasantry and were simple uneducated men, whose function consisted in

carrying out the various field-works and plying all sorts of useful

trades; they formed a body of men who lived alongside of the choir

monks, but separate from them, not taking part in the canonical office,

but having their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A

lay brother was never ordained, and never held any office of

superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the Cistercians

were able to play their distinctive part in the progress of European

civilization. But it often happened that the number of lay brothers

became excessive and out of proportion to the resources of the

monasteries, there being sometimes as many as 200, or even 300, in a

single abbey. On the other hand, at any rate in some countries, the

system of lay brothers in course of time worked itself out; thus in

England by the close of the 14th century it had shrunk to relatively

small proportions, and in the 15th century the regime of the English

Cistercian houses tended to approximate more and more to that of the

Black Monks.

The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were

adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting of

the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn up the _Carta

Caritatis_ (Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ clxvi. 1377), a document which

arranged the relations between the various houses of the Cistercian

order, and exercised a great influence also upon the future course of

western monachism. From one point of view, it may be regarded as a

compromise between the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey

was autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of Cluny,

whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior in the body.

Citeaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent organic life of the

houses--each abbey had its own abbot, elected by its own monks; its own

community, belonging to itself and not to the order in general; its own

property and finances administered by itself, without interference from

outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to the general

chapter, which met yearly at Citeaux, and consisted of the abbots only;

the abbot of Citeaux was the president of the chapter and of the order,

and the visitor of each and every house, with a predominant influence

and the power of enforcing everywhere exact conformity to Citeaux in all

details of the exterior life--observance, chant, customs. The principle

was that Citeaux should always be the model to which all the other

houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at the chapter,

the side taken by the abbot of Citeaux was always to prevail (see F.A.

Gasquet, _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxv-xxxviii,

prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert's _Monks of the West_, ed.

1895).

By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in

the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th, when the order

attained its greatest extension, there were close on 750 houses: the

larger figures sometimes given are now recognized as apocryphal. Nearly

half of the houses had been founded, directly or indirectly, from

Clairvaux, so great was St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he

has come almost to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who

have often been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over

western Europe,--chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,

Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily, Spain and

Portugal,--where some of the houses, as Alcobaca, were of almost

incredible magnificence. In England the first foundation was Furness

(1127), and many of the most beautiful monastic buildings of the

country, beautiful in themselves and beautiful in their sites, were

Cistercian,--as Tintern, Rievaulx, Byland, Fountains. A hundred were

established in England in the next hundred years, and then only one more

up to the Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet's

_English Monastic Life_, or _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cistercians").

For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century, the

Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order and the chief

religious influence in western Europe. But then in turn their influence

began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because of the rise of the mendicant

orders, who ministered more directly to the needs and ideas of the new

age. But some of the reasons of Cistercian decline were internal. In the

first place, there was the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its

first fervour a body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of

monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very _raison

d'etre_ consisted in its being a "reform," a return to primitive

monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity, any failures to

live up to the ideal proposed worked more disastrously among Cistercians

than among mere Benedictines, who were intended to live a life of

self-denial, but not of great austerity. Relaxations were gradually

introduced in regard to diet and to simplicity of life, and also in

regard to the sources of income, rents and tolls being admitted and

benefices incorporated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming

operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and splendour

invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir monks abandoned

field-work.

The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted

revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled bravely

against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335 Benedict XII.,

himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of regulations to restore the

primitive spirit of the order, and in the 15th century various popes

endeavoured to promote reforms. All these efforts at a reform of the

great body of the order proved unavailing; but local reforms, producing

various semi-independent offshoots and congregations, were successfully

carried out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries.

In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted

by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected

Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Citeaux, thinking he would protect

them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he

threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was the

resistance, and so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the

attempt to reform Citeaux itself and the general body of the houses had

again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could be

carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation of the

Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in the latter

country under the name of "Improved Bernardines." The French

congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves mention. In 1663 de

Rance reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS).

The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the French

Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century, almost wholly

destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived, and since the beginning of

the last half of the 19th century there has been a considerable

recovery. They are at present divided into three bodies: (1) the Common

Observance, with about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large

majority being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of the

order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry on

field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in manner of life

little different from fairly observant Benedictine Black monks; of late

years, however, signs are not wanting of a tendency towards a return to

older ideas; (2) the Middle Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries

and about 150 choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists

(q.v.), with nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay

brothers.

In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about 4700 monks,

including lay brothers. There have always been a large number of

Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded at Tart in the diocese of

Langres, 1125; at the period of their widest extension there are said to

have been 900 nunneries, and the communities were very large. The nuns

were devoted to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and

France certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges.

Numerous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of all

Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed by

Angelique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the Jansenist

controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century there still

exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir and lay; of these,

15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.

Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive

life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best

whereof is that of Abbe E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of St

Stephen Harding, in the _English Saints_. See also Henry Collins (one

of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), _Spirit and Mission

of the Cistercian Order_ (1866). The facts are related in Helyot,

_Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2. Useful

sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in Herzog,

_Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cistercienser"; Wetzer und Welte,

_Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art. "Cistercienserorden"; Max Heimbucher,

_Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 33, 34. Prof. Brewer's

discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic, Preface to vol. iv. of

the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series of _Chronicles and

Memorials_) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's _Triumphalia

Monasterii S. Crucis_ (1891) contains a general sketch, with a

particular account of the Irish Cistercians. (E. C. B.)

CITATION (Lat. _citare_, to cite), in law, a summons to appear, more

particularly applied in England to process in the probate and divorce

division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical courts, citation was a

method of commencing a probate suit, answering to a writ of summons at

common law, and it is now in English probate practice an instrument

issuing from the principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person,

having the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,

and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant; the

party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to renounce

the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed to the citator. In

divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his petition and

affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command drawn in the name of

the sovereign and signed by one of the registrars of the court, calling

upon the alleged offender to appear and make answer to the petition. In

Scots law, citation is used in the sense of a writ of summons. The word

in its more general literary sense means the act of quoting, or the

referring to an authority in support of an argument.

CITEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of Cote d'Or, 16

m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated for the great abbey founded

by Robert, abbot of Molesme, in 1098, which became the headquarters of

the Cistercian order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the

18th century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed in 1792,

used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of Burgundy.

CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous mountain

range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating that state from

Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek mythology, and is frequently

mentioned by the great poets, especially by Sophocles. It was on

Cithaeron that Aetaeon was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn

to pieces by the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that

the infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene of the

mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala in honour of

Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes crosses the range by a

picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae, "Oak-heads"), which was

at one time guarded on the Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of

which are known as Ghyphto-kastro ("Gipsy Castle"). Plataea is situated

on the north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of

479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary for

the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes (see

PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae, which must

then, as now, have been the direct route from Athens to Thebes. Two

other passes, farther to the west, were crossed by the roads from

Plataea to Athens and to Megara respectively. (E. GR.)

CITHARA (Assyrian _chetarah_; Gr. [Greek: kithara]; Lat. _cithara_;

perhaps Heb. _kinura, kinnor_), one of the most ancient stringed

instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races, in Egypt,

Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire, whence the use of it

spread over Europe. The main feature of the Greek _kithara_, its shallow

sound-chest, being the most important part of it, is also that in which

developments are most noticeable; its contour varied considerably during

the many musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it

fore-shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they

were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments of the

middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European descendants

bearing derived names. This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1)

consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately arched,

connected by ribs or sides of equal width. The cithara may be regarded

as an attempt by a more skilful craftsman or race to improve upon the

lyre (q.v.), while retaining some of its features. The construction of

the cithara can fortunately be accurately studied from two actual

specimens found in Egypt and preserved in the museums of Berlin and

Leiden. The Leiden cithara (fig. 2), which forms part of the d'Anastasy

Collection in the Museum of Antiquities, is in a very good state of

preservation. The sound-chest, in the form of an irregular square (17

cm. X 17 cm.), is hollowed out of a solid block of wood from the base,

which is open; the little bar, seen through the open base and measuring

21/2 cm. (1 in.), is also of the same piece of wood. The arms, one short

and one long, are solid and are fixed to the body by means of wooden

pins; they are glued as well for greater strength. W. Pleyte, through

whose courtesy the sketch was revised and corrected, states that there

are no indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment

for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which passes

through the base from back to front. To this the strings were probably

attached, and the little bar performed the double duty of sound-post and

support for strengthening the tail-piece and enabling it to resist the

tension of the strings. The oblique transverse bar, rendered necessary

by the increasing length of the strings, was characteristic of the

Egyptian cithara,[1] whereas the Asiatic and Greek instruments were

generally constructed with horizontal bars resting on arms of equal

length, the pitch of the strings being varied by thickness and tension,

instead of by length. (For the Berlin cithara see LYRE.)

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Nero Citharoedus (_Mus. Pio-Clementino_),

showing back of a Roman Cithara.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of

Antiquities, Leiden.]

The number of strings with which the cithara was strung varied from 4 to

19 or 20 at different times; they were added less for the purpose of

increasing the compass in the modern sense than to enable the performer

to play in the different modes of the Greek musical system. Terpander is

credited with having increased the number of strings to seven; Euclid,

quoting him as his authority, states that "loving no more the

tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned

phorminx."

What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the cithara,

and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings were vibrated by

means of the fingers or plectrum ([Greek: plektron], from [Greek:

plessein], to strike; Lat. _plectrum_, from _plango_, I strike).

Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was

undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able to

command various shades of expression which are impossible with a rigid

plectrum.[2] Loudness of accent and great brilliancy of tone, however,

can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum.

Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the practice of the

Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum was held in the right

hand, with elbow outstretched and palm bent inwards, and the strings

were plucked with the straightened fingers of the left hand.[3] Both

methods were used with intention according to the dictates of art for

the sake of the variation in tone colour obtainable thereby.[4]

The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the transverse

tuning bar itself (_zugon_) or to rings threaded over the bar, which

enabled the performer to increase or decrease the tension by shifting

the knots or rings; or else they were wound round pegs,[5] knobs[6] or

pins[7] fixed to the zugon. The other end of the strings was secured to

a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the two were combined

in the curious high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch[8]

states that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of

Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order to allow

the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the strings to some

contrivance concealed therein. It is a curious fact that no sculptured

cithara provided with this box tail-piece is represented with strings,

and in many cases there could never have been any, for the hand and

arm[9] are visible across the space that would be filled by the strings,

which are always carved in a solid block.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Apollo Citharoedus, showing Cithara with box

tail-pieces.]

Like the lyre the cithara was made in many sizes, conditioned by the

pitch and the use to which the instrument was to be put. These

instruments may have been distinguished by different names; the

_pectis_, for instance, is declared by Sappho (22nd fragment) to have

been small and shrill; the _phorminx_, on the other hand, seems to have

been identical with the cithara.[10]

The Greek _kithara_ was the instrument of the professional singer or

citharoedus ([Greek: kitharodos]) and of the instrumentalist or

citharista ([Greek: kitharistes]), and thus served the double purpose of

(1) accompanying the voice--a use placed by the Greeks far above mere

instrumental music--in epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and

lyric songs; and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for

playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets and at

trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and citharista was rich

and recognized as being distinctive; it varied but little throughout the

ages, as may be deduced from a comparison of representations of the

citharoedus on a coin and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4).

The costume consisted of a _palla_ or long tunic with sleeves

embroidered with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful

folds to the feet. This _palla_ must not be confounded with the mantle

of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder, or hanging down the

back, was the purple _chlamys_ or cloak, and on his brow a golden wreath

of laurels. All the citharoedi bear instruments of the type here

described as the cithara, and never one of the lyre type. The records of

the citharoedi extend over more than thirteen centuries and fall into

two natural divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from

the 13th century B.C. to the first Olympiad, 776 B.C.; and (2) the

historical period to the days of Ptolemy, A.D. 161. One of the very few

authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar, in which the

phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed by a chorus of

citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and processions, called

_Panathenaea_, held every four years in honour of the goddess Athena,

which originally consisted principally of athletic sports and horse and

chariot races, was extended under Peisistratus (c. 540 B.C.), and the

celebration made to include contests of singers and instrumentalists,

recitations of portions of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, such as are

represented on the frieze of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the

British Museum) and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same

period that the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara ([Greek:

kitharistus]) and for solo _aulos_-playing were instituted at the 8th

Pythian Games.[11] One of the principal items at these contests for

aulos and cithara was the _Nomos Pythikos_, descriptive of the victory

of Apollo over the python and of the defeat of the monster.[12]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase in the British

Museum.]

The Pythian Games survived the classic Greek period and were continued

under Roman sway until about A.D. 394. Not only were these games held at

Delphi, but smaller contests, called Pythia, modelled on the great

Pythian, were instituted in various provinces of the empire, and more

especially in Asia Minor. The games lasted for several days, the first

being devoted to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from all

parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the beginning of our

era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency in playing the

cithara, an instrument which they had learnt to know from the Phoenician

colonists before the conquest by the Romans, that some of their

citharoedi easily carried off the honours at the musical contests. The

consul Metellus was so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors

that he sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression

created was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent

footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (_Noct. Att._) describes an incident at a

banquet which corroborates this statement.

The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its gradual

degradation by association with the sensual amusements of corrupt Rome,

nearly brought about its extinction at the end of the 4th century, when

the condemnation of the Church closed the theatres, and the great

national games came to an end. Instrumental music was banished from

civil life and from religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads

which connect the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of

the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians of

northern and western Europe, who kept alive the traditions taught them

by conquerors and colonists; but as civilization was in its infancy with

them the instruments sent out from their workshops must have been crude

and primitive. Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its

foster-mother; it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several

steps in the transition from cithara into guitar[13] (q.v.) took place.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a

fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 B.C.).]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian

Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).]

The first of these steps produced the rotta (q.v.), by the construction

of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece. The Semitic races used

the rotta at a very remote period (1700 B.C.), as we know from a fresco

at Beni-Hasan, dating from the reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a

procession of strangers bringing tribute; among them is a bearded

musician of Semitic type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in

front of him in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who

always played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique

specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the

5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. The instrument was

clasped in the arms of an armed knight; it is now preserved in the

Voelker Museum in Berlin. This old German rotta is an exact counterpart

of instruments pictured in illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is

derived from the cithara with rectangular body, while from the cithara

with a body having the curve of the lower half of the violin was

produced a rotta with the outline of the body of the guitar. Both types

were common in Europe until the 14th century, some played with a bow,

others twanged by the fingers, and bearing indifferently both names,

cithara and rotta. The addition of a finger-board, stretching like a

short neck from body to transverse bar, leaving on each side of the

finger-board space for the hand to pass through in order to stop the

strings, produced the crwth or crowd (q.v.), and brought about the

reduction in the number of the strings to three or four. The conversion

of the rotta into the guitar (q.v.) was an easy transition effected by

the addition of a long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When

the bow was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At

first the instrument called _cithara_ in the Latin versions of the

Psalms was glossed _citran, citre_ in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th

century the same instrument was rendered _hearpan_, and in French and

English _harpe_ or _harp_, and our modern versions have retained this

translation. The _cittern_ (q.v.), a later descendant of the cithara,

although preserving the characteristic features of the cithara, the

shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted the pear-shaped outline of the

Eastern instruments of the lute tribe. (K.S.)