[1] I.e. the "curly-haired."
CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal
fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose
youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and
sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural
instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and
marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault's
_Cendrillon_, the _glass_ slipper which she drops on the palace stairs
is due to a mistranslation of _pantoufle en vair_ (a _fur_ slipper),
mistaken for _en verre_. It has been suggested that the story originated
in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the
night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince).
See Marian Rolfe Cox, _Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
Variants_ (1893); A Lang, _Perrault's Popular Tales_ (1888).
CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He
studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the most eloquent man of
his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus from invading Italy, and after the
defeat of the Romans at Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss
terms of peace. These terms, which are said by Appian (_De Rebus
Samniticis_, 10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of all that
had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through the vehement and
patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius Caecus the censor. The
withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was demanded, and Cineas returned to
his master with the report that Rome was a temple and its senate an
assembly of kings. Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations
with Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for Pyrrhus's
campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is said to have made an
epitome of the _Tactica_ of Aeneas, probably referred to by Cicero, who
speaks of a Cineas as the author of a treatise _De Re Militari_.
See Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
Cicero, _Ad Fam._ ix. 25.
CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from [Greek: khinema], motion, and
[Greek: graphein], to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
representing closely successive phases of a moving object are exhibited
in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of
vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a
development of the zoetrope or "wheel of life," described by W.G. Horner
about 1833, which consists of a hollow cylinder turning on a vertical
axis and having its surface pierced with a number of slots. Round the
interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages
of such a subject as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated
an observer looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently
in motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography was
afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained
successive pictures of a running horse by employing a row of cameras,
the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage
of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris
established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
photographic methods.
The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the
celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial
pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized
film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed
intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks
the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being
gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are
rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling
so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are
developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be
fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the
negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the
images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon
a distant screen. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures
are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the
film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture
dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting
cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by
one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by
means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent
backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but
directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.
Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being
in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects
they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting
them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and
moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with
a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images
on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to
maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment
between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent
by projection. In a process devised by G.A. Smith, the results of which
were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the
number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially
treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were
taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the
film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the
other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The
camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through
each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from
the negative thus obtained was used in a lantern so arranged that beams
of red (composed of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow
and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the
pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those made with
the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided
to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those
colours caused by the necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing
to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that
the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of
vision, gave a reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which
were sensibly the same as those of the original.
The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such
subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, to
be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail.
Machines of this kind have been devised in enormous numbers and used for
purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope,
mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin
words for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such
words as [Greek: skopein], to see, [Greek: graphein], to depict; they
have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer are
simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they are used in
public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of
the celluloid film and its employment in close proximity to a powerful
source of light and heat, such as is required if the pictures are to
show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as
far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means
must be provided to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of
films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
attention of inventors.
See H.V. Hopwood, _Living Pictures_ (London, 1899), containing a
bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is
supplemented in the _Optician_, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugene Trutat, _La
Photographie animee_ (1899), which contains a list of the French
patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: _Apparatus_.
CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated from a species
of _Senecio_, _S. cruentus_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a native of the
Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at Kew in 1777. It was
known originally as _Cineraria cruenta_, but the genus _Cineraria_ is
now restricted to a group of South African species, and the Canary
Island species has been transferred to the large and widespread genus
_Senecio_. Cinerarias can be raised freely from seeds. For spring
flowering in England the seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained
pots or pans, in soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with
one-sixth sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the
surface firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot them
singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They should be
grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so situated that the
sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the day, they must be
slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never allow them to get dry.
When well established with roots, shift them into 6-in. pots, which
should be liberally supplied with manure water as they get filled with
roots. In winter remove to a pit or house, where a little heat can be
supplied whenever there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should
stand on a moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every alternate
watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this way, will be in
bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of from 40 deg. to 45 deg.
at night, with a little more warmth in the day; and those sown in April
and May will succeed them during the early spring months, the latter set
of plants being subjected to a temperature of 38 deg. or 40 deg. during
the night. If grown much warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make
its appearance in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and
lower surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a great pest
on young plants, and can only be kept down by fumigating or vaporizing
the houses, and syringing with a solution of quassia chips, soft soap and
tobacco.
CINGOLI (anc. _Cingulum_), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province
of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by road, from the town
of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio
contains interesting works of art. The town occupies the site of the
ancient Cingulum, a town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by
Caesar's lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier
village) in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.)
made it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
heard of it. Under the empire it was a _municipium_.
CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The most prominent
member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest
with Sulla. After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian
legate, he was elected consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn
to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna
allied himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took
possession of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre
of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius
died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's colleague, and on the murder of
Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. In 84, however, Cinna, who was still
consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his
troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter
Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L.
CORNELIUS CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the
murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.
The hero of Corneille's tragedy _Cinna_ (1640) was Cn. Cornelius Cinna,
surnamed _Magnus_ (after his maternal grandfather Pompey), who was
magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for conspiring against him.
CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian age.
Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was the friend
of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the suite of the praetor
Memmius. The circumstances of his death have given rise to some
discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Appian and Dio Cassius all
state that, at Caesar's funeral, a certain Helvius Cinna was killed by
mistake for Cornelius Cinna, the conspirator. The last three writers
mentioned above add that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch,
referring to the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna
who was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity of
Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. The chief
objection to this view is based upon two lines in the 9th eclogue of
Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C. Here reference is
made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance that Virgil
deprecates comparison with him; it is argued that the manner in which
this Cinna, who could hardly have been any one but Helvius Cinna, is
spoken of implies that he was then alive; if so, he could not have been
killed in 44. But such an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by
no means absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a
reference to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at Caesar's
funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. Cinna's chief
work was a mythological epic poem called _Smyrna_, the subject of which
was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or Myrrha) for her father Cinyras,
treated after the manner of the Alexandrian poets. It is said to have
taken nine years to finish. A _Propempticon Pollionis_, a send-off to
[Asinius] Pollio, is also attributed to him. In both these poems, the
language of which was so obscure that they required special
commentaries, his model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.
See A. Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum Vitae_ (1830); L. Mueller's
edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
printed; A. Kiessling, "De C. Helvio Cinna Poeta" in _Commentationes
Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen_ (1878); O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte
der roemischen Dichtung_, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
Lit._ (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909).
CINNABAR (Ger. _Zinnober_), sometimes written cinnabarite, a name
applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common
ore of mercury. The name comes from the Greek [Greek: kinnabari], used
by Theophrastus, and probably applied to several distinct substances.
Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of
bright red colour, but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a
metallic adamantine lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system,
and are generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and optical
characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, and A. Des
Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the rotatory power of
quartz (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). Cinnabar has higher refractive power
than any other known mineral, its mean index for sodium light being
3.02, whilst the index for diamond--a substance of remarkable
refraction--is only 2.42 (see REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is
3, and its specific gravity 8.998.
Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, notably
Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria (Austria), Landsberg,
near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps
(Tuscany), the mountain Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the
province of Kweichow in China, whence very fine crystals have been
obtained. Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from
the hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat Springs,
Nevada.
Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, in which
the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter.
Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this compound
being dimorphous.
For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker's _Geology of
the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope_, U.S. Geol. Surv.
Monographs, No. xiii. (1888). (F. W. R.*)
CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC ACID, C9H8O2 or C6H6.CH:CH.COOH, an acid
found in the form of its benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in
storax and in some gum-benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of
phenyl propiolic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal
malonic acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde in
the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called "Perkin reaction";
the latter being the method commonly employed. In making the acid by
this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate
are heated for some hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made
alkaline with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and acidified
with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated,
C6H5CHO+CH3COONa = C6H5CH:CH.COONa+H2O. It may be purified by
recrystallization from hot water. Considerable controversy has taken
place as to the course pursued by this reaction, but the matter has been
definitely settled by the work of R. Fittig and his pupils (_Annalen_,
1883, 216, pp. 100, 115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown
that the aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt of the
fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of a
dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or prisms,
melting at 133 deg. C; on reduction it gives _phenyl propionic acid_,
C6H5.CH2.CH2.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and acetic
acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic and acetic acids. Being
an unsaturated acid it combines directly with hydrochloric acid,
hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On nitration it gives a mixture of ortho
and para nitrocinnamic acids, the former of which is of historical
importance, as by converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A.
Baeyer was enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo
(_q.v._). Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
acid, C6H4(NH2)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, as it
readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of cinnamic acid known
as _allo-cinnamic acid_ is also known.
For the oxy-cinnamic adds see COUMARIN.
CINNAMON, the inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, a small evergreen
tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, native to Ceylon. The
leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are
arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable
odour. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so
highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a present
fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod.
xxx. 23, where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon
(_Kinnamon_) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
name [Greek: Kinnamomon], and by other classical writers. The tree is
grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt, but
the produce of none of these places approaches in quality that grown in
Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very thin smooth bark, with
a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a
peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing aromatic taste. Its flavour is due
to an aromatic oil which it contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%.
This essential oil, as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly
pounding the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly
distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar
odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially
of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as it becomes old
it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. Cinnamon is
principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material,
being largely used in the preparation of some kinds of chocolate and
liqueurs. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and has a
reputation as a cure for colds. Being a much more costly spice than
cassia, that comparatively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently
substituted for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily
enough distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine, little
effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when
cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the
coloration depending on the proportion of the cassia.
CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the lime-alumina type,
known also as essonite or hessonite, from the Gr. [Greek: esson],
"inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and less dense than most
other garnet. It has a characteristic red colour, inclining to orange,
much like that of hyacinth or jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years
ago, by Sir A.H. Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones,
commonly regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The
difference is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of
hessonite being 3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about
4.6. Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5.
Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found generally as
pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix is not unknown.
CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished in the second
half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary (probably in this
case a post connected with the military administration) to Manuel I.
Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and
Asia Minor. He appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176, which thus
continues the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, and embraces the reigns of John
II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful campaign of the latter
against the Turks, which ended with the disastrous battle of
Myriokephalon and the rout of the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably
an eye-witness of the events of the last ten years which he describes.
The work breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its present
form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt state. The
author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed with the superiority
of the East to the West, and is a determined opponent of the pretensions
of the papacy. But he cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes
with the straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on
occasion to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the
style (modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free from
the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.
_Editio princeps_, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, _Corpus Scriptorum
Hist. Byz._, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann,
_Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert_ (1888); H. von
Kap-Herr, _Die abendlaendische Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (1881); C.
Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
CINNOLIN, C8H6N2, a compound isomeric with phthalazine, prepared by
boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with freshly precipitated
mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered and the hydrochloride of the
base precipitated by alcoholic hydrochloric acid; the free base is
obtained as an oil by adding caustic soda. It may be obtained in white
silky needles, melting at 24-25 deg. C. and containing a molecule of
ether of crystallization by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free
base melts at 39 deg. C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with
mineral acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate, and leaves
a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is also very
poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, _Berichte_, 1897, 30, p. 521). Cinnolin
derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin carboxylic acid, which is
formed by digesting orthophenyl propiolic acid diazo chloride with
water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting
at 225 deg., which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin.
This substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to
dihydrocinnolin.