lowest; the Lamellicornes that the Coprophagous are the highest. The
Sarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two.
Now, however, the Rhyncophora are tetrameral. In like manner are the
Phytophagous beetles, such as the Borkenkäfer and Holzschröter. They
consequently form the main stem, unto which all the true Phytophaga
must be annexed. But among them also belong the Pentameral, namely, the
Holzböhrer, Schnell-and Prachtkäfer; I have therefore disposed them in
this order, and I believe quite correctly.
The Lamellicorn or Dung-beetles are pentameral, and on that account
to be co-arranged with the Necrophaga or Carrion-feeders and
Sexton-beetles, as well as with the parasitic Lampyridæ, and the
predaceous Raub-and Laufkäfer, despite their exceedingly great
difference of living and even anomalous structure. On the contrary,
most of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living, and
tolerably too in structure, with the Dung-beetles, at least the
Mulmfressenden, such as the Meal-beetles or Tenebrionidæ, and indeed
the Stenelytra also, while the Cantharides are parasitic at least as
larvæ.
It seems also to me, that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung,
and that therefore those very Fungivora, whose structure does not point
the way otherwise, can be placed with the Mulm-and Mistkäfern, although
they are only tri-and tetrameral, like the Lycoperdinæ and Erotyli.
Besides this the antennæ of the Fungivora are usually thickened, and
even club shaped, whereby they thus stand nearer to the Necrophaga,
such as the Speckkäfern and Sexton-beetles, as being those which
likewise live upon putrid substances. It is difficult to separate the
Coccinellidæ from them; their external resemblance to the Erotyli is
also striking.
The pentameral Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfern form, as it were, the trunk or
main stem of the Zoophagous beetles, to which are annexed likewise the
pentameral Malacopterous chafers, namely, the Lampyridæ, as parasites.
But the heteromeral Cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode
of life, so that they are not in a natural system, even if devoid of
principles, to be separated from the Malacopterous beetles.
The nourishment of the Lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most
perfect in kind. Mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared
aliment, or, as it were, a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared
by Nature, like as Man restores it by art. Thus the lower Thricozoa,
e. g. the Mice, eat the crudest vegetable substances, such as roots
and seeds; those that stand higher, grass and leaves; then snails,
worms, and insects; finally flesh, and last of all fruits, as the Bears
and Apes. But Man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to
rapid decomposition by cooking, whereby a mixed kind of food results,
which bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which, as just
observed, is a food cooked by nature.
According to these considerations I now arrange what have been called
Beetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical
principles.
The Beetles again commence, like the whole class of Flies, from below,
and the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the Tracheo-and
Dictyoptera, while the superior project above them, as was the case
also in the preceding classes.
In a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes, namely,
the Protozoa, Conchozoa, Worms and Crustacea, a fact which is, properly
speaking, self-evident, and which is rendered clear by the following
table. We have thus:
_Order_ I. Tracheopteroid Coleoptera--_Phytophaga_.
_Order_ II. Dictyopteroid " --_Zoophaga_.
_Order_ III. Ceratopteroid " --_Rypophaga_.
It can also be said; the first correspond to the Worms, the second to
the Crustacea, the third to the Flies.
Lastly, it may still be said; the first correspond to the Protozoa, the
second to the Conchozoa, the third to the Ancyliozoa.
_Order 7. Tracheopteroid Beetles--Phytophaga._
3527. Body cylindrical, head mostly long, antennæ setiform, maxillary
teeth obtuse, tarsi mostly tetrameral.
They gnaw hard seeds, leaves, and wood, and mostly live concealed. The
larvæ almost or entirely apodal.
_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Beetles--Rhyncophora._
Head rhynchiform or snout-shaped, tarsi tetrameral.
_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Beetles, Blattkäfer._
Head tolerably short as well as the antennæ, tarsi tetrameral.
_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Beetles, Holzkäfer._
Head pretty short, antennæ very long, tarsi tetra-and
pentameral--Borkenkäfer, Holzbohrer and Schröter.
_Order 8. Dictyopteroid Beetles--Zoophaga._
3528. Body long and depressed, antennæ short, maxillæ large with
pointed teeth, feet mostly pentameral and without ungues.
They subsist upon living or dead animals, dwell usually in water or
upon dry land, and run very swiftly. The one kind seize upon living
beasts, and on that account constantly swarm about them, as the
Raub-and Laufkäfer; the others only subsist as larvæ by suction upon
other beetles or snails externally, but live, as Flies, upon leaves and
flowers, as the Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.
_Fam. 4. Neuropteroid Beetles--Water-beetles._
Like the following, but all three parts of the body closely annexed,
and rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet--Parnidæ, Hydrophilidæ,
Dyticidæ.
_Fam. 5. Orthopteroid Beetles--Prædatoria._
Maxillæ very large and pointed, antennæ setiform, wings hard and
tolerably flat like the body, tarsi mostly pentameral.--Raub-Lauf-and
Sandkäfer.
_Fam. 6. Hemipteroid Beetles--Parasitica._
Body pretty cylindrical, head rounded with moderate sized maxillæ,
elytra narrow and soft, tarsi penta-and heteromeral.
They hang as larvæ like Mites to other beetles, and suck them; but
after the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers--Lampyridæ
and Cantharidæ.
_Order 9. Ceratopteroid Beetles--Rypophaga._
3529. Body quadripeltate and mostly short, with hard elytra, thorax
large, head small, with short claviform antennæ and blunt maxillary
teeth; feet mostly furnished with ungues, tarsal joints varied. Their
habitation is very varied, being both free and concealed, and they live
for the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters, such as
fungi, dry rot, and even animal ordure.
_Fam. 7. Phytophagoid--Necrophaga._
Body mostly rounded, with hard and large elytra; antennæ claviform;
tarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral--Lycoperdinæ, Erotyli, Coccinellidæ,
Byrrhidæ, Dermestidæ, Sylphidæ. They correspond to the Worms and
Tracheopterous insects.
_Fam. 8. Zoophagoid--Mulmkäfer._
Body elongated and also nearly spherical, mostly of a dark spotted
colour, with hard elytra, thorax rounded, head retractile, palpi
filiform, tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number--Helopidæ,
Diaperidæ, Tenebrionidæ, and Pimeliariæ.
They live usually in dark situations, eating meal and dry-rot; have an
unpleasant smell. They correspond to the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders,
as likewise to the Dictyoptera.
_Fam. 9. Perfect Beetles_--_Erdkäfer_ or _Lamellicornes_.
Mostly large, convex and short bodied Beetles with large thorax, broad
head, lamellated antennal clubs, spinose tibiæ and pentameral tarsi.
Their habitation is in dung or under the earth, where they live in the
larval state frequently for years before they change; some Chafers
eat also leaves of trees and flowers. They are distinguished by their
striking size and singular forms, being mostly furnished with horns on
the thorax or head. I do veritably believe that they may be generally
interpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their
class, although they are generally placed or arranged midway between
the lower forms, while the Sand-and Laufkäfer are esteemed the most
perfect.
_Tabular Co-arrangement._
The Dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner,
from which their three Cardinal relations of Proximity, Repetition, and
Serial analogy or Parallelism, admit of being distinctly recognized.
_PARALLELISM OF THE LOWER ANIMALS._
| | IX CL. PTILOTA. |
A. PROTOZOA. | VII CL. WORMS. | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA. |
| | |
I CL. INFUSORIA. | O. 1. _Weisswürmer._ | O. 1. _Diptera._ |
| | |
F. 1. Monades | F. 1. Saugwürmer | F. 1. Schmeissen |
2. Rhizopoda | 2. Tæniæ | 2. Dasseln |
3. Rotifera. | 3. Ascarides. | 3. Gölsen. |
| | |
II CL. POLYPI. | O. 2. _Rothwürmer._ | O. 2. _Hymenoptera._ |
| | |
F. 1. Hydræ | 4. Earth-worms | F. 1. Bees |
2. Alcyonia | 5. Nereides | 2. Wasps |
3. Actiniæ. | 6. Serpulæ. | 3. Terebrantia. |
| | |
III CL. ACALEPHÆ. | O. 3. _Sternwürmer._ | O. 3. _Lepidoptera._ |
| | |
F. 1. Physaliæ | 7. Holothuriæ | F. 1. Moths |
2. Beroeæ | 8. Echinidæ | 2. Spinner |
3. Acalephæ. | 9. Asteridæ. | 3. Wanner. |
| | |
B. CONCHOZOA. | VIII CL. CRUSTACEA. | Co. II. DICTYOPTERA. |
| | |
IV CL. MUSSELS. | Co. 1. KREBSE. | O. 4. _Neuroptera._ |
| | |
O. 1. _Röhrenmuscheln._ |O. 1. _Pfriemenkrebse._| F. 1. _Nagbolden._ |
F. 1. Pholades | F. 1. Entomostraca | A. 1. Kieferläuse |
2. Tellinidæ | 2. Branchiopoda | 2. Termitidæ |
3. Cardiacea. | 3. Phyllopoda. | 3. Phryganeidæ. |
O. 2. _Spaltmuscheln._ |O. 2. _Scheerenkrebse._| F. 2. _Raubbolden._ |
4. Mytilaceæ | 4. Squillæ | 4. Hemerobiidæ |
5. Arcaceæ | 5. Macroura | 5. Raphidiidæ |
6. Ostraceæ. | 6. Brachyura | 6. Libellulidæ. |
| | |
V CL. SNAILS. | Co. II. ASSELN. | O. 5. _Orthoptera._ |
| | |
O. 1. _Androgyni._ | O. 3. _Saugasseln._ | F. 1. _Saltatoria._ |
F. 1. Tritoniæ | F. 1. Lernoeæ | A. 1. Achetidæ |
2. Patellæ | 2. Arguli | 2. Gryllidæ |
3. Pulmonea. | 3. Pyncnogonides. | 3 Locustidæ. |
O. 2. _Dioecii._ | O. 4. _Nagasseln_ | F. 2. _Cursoria._ |
4. Capulidæ | 4. Læmodipoda | 4. Mantides |
5. Turbinidæ | 5. Amphipoda | 5. Blattidæ |
6. Buccinidæ. | 6. Isopoda. | 6. Forficulidæ. |
| | |
VI CL. KRACKEN. | Co. III. KOBE. | O. 6. _Hemiptera._ |
| | |
O. 1. _Rumpfkracken._ | O. 1. _Langkobe._ | F. 1. _Leptoptera._ |
F. 1. Salpæ | F. 1. Poduræ | A. 1. Aphidii |
2. Ascidiæ | 2. Juli | 2. Cicadæ |
3. Cirripedia. | 3. Scolopendræ. | 3. Fulgoridæ. |
O. 2. _Kopfkracken._ | O. 2. _Kurzkobe._ | F. 2. _Pachyptera._ |
4. Brachiopoda | 4. Acaridæ | 4. Water-bugs |
5. Pteropoda | 5. Scorpions | 5. Narrow bugs |
6. Cephalopoda. | 6. Spiders. | 6. Broad bugs. |
| | |
C. ANCYLIOZOA. | IX. CL. PTILOTA. | Co. III. CERATOPTERA. |
| | |
VII CL. WORMS | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA | O. 1. _Phytophaga_ |
VIII CL. CRUSTACEA | II. DICTYOPTERA | 2. _Zoophaga_ |
IX CL. PTILOTA or FLIES. | III. CERATOPTERA. | 3. _Moderkäfer._ |
| Co. III. CERATOPTERA. | O. 3. _Rypophaga._ |
| O. 1. _Phytophaga._ | F. 7. _Necrophaga._ | F. 7. _Erdkäfer._
| | |
| F. 1. _Rhyncophora_ | A. 1. _Fungivora._ | A. 1. _Phyllophaga._
| | |
| A. 1. Langrüssler | Scaphidiidæ | a. Melolonthidæ
| 2. Kurzrüssler | Erotyli | b. Anoplognathidæ
| 3. Breitrüssler. | Encidæ. | c. Rutelidæ.
| | |
| F. 2. _Blattkäfer._ | A. 2. _Speckfresser._ | 2. _Anthobii._
| | |
| A. 1. Galerucidæ | 1. Dermestidæ | a. Lepitrichidæ
| 2. Chrysomelidæ | 2. Nitidulidæ | b. Dichelidæ
| 3. Crioceridæ. | 3. Silphidæ. | c. Glaphyridæ.
| | |
| F. 3. _Holzkäfer._ | A. 1. _Dung-feeders._ | 3. _Melitophaga._
| | |
| 7. Bostrychidæ | 1. Byrrhidæ | a. Cetoniæ
| 8. Elateridæ | 2. Sphæridiidæ | b. Trichii
| 9. Cerambycidæ. | 3. Histeridæ. | c. Goliathi.
| | |
| O. 2. _Zoophaga._ | |
| | |
| F. 4. _Water-beetles._| F. 8. _Mulmkäfer._ | A. 2. _Coprophaga._
| | |
| A. 1. _Sumpkäfer._ | A. 1. _Trachelidæ._ | a. Aphodii
| a. Heteroceridæ | a. Lagriæ |
| b. Parnidæ | b. Pyrochroæ |
| c. Hydrophilidæ. | c. Mordellæ. |
| A. 2. _Flusskäfer._ | _Serropalpidæ._ | b. Copridæ.
| d. Girinidæ | d. Mycteridæ |
| e. Haliplidæ | e. OEdemeræ |
| f. Dytiscidæ. | f. Melandryæ. |
| | |
| F. 5. _Mordkäfer._ | A. 2. _Stenelytra._ | _Arenicolæ._
| | |
| A. 1. _Raubkäfer_ | |
| a. Pselaphidæ | a. Cistelidæ | a. Æglaliæ.
| b. Scydmænidæ | b. Helopidæ |
| c. Staphylinidæ. | c. Cnodalidæ. |
| A. 2. _Laufkäfer._ | _Taxicornes._ | b. Trogidæ.
| d. Carabidæ | d. Niliondæ |
| e. Brachinidæ | e. Cossyhidæ |
| f. Cicindelidæ. | f. Diaperidæ. |
| | |
|F. 6. _Schmarotzkäfer._| A. 3. _Tenebrionidæ._ | _Geotrupidæ._
| | |
| A. 1. _Leuchtkäfer._ | |
| a. Lampyridæ | a. Tenebriones | a. Geotrupes.
| b Melyridæ | b. Toxicidæ |
| c. Cleridæ. | c. Opatridæ. |
| A. 2. _Ziehkäfer._ | _Melanosomata._ | b. Lethri.
| d. Notoxidæ | d. Blapsidæ |
| e. Horiidæ | e. Pimeladiidæ |
| f. Cantharides. | f. Sepidiæ. |
| | |
| O. 3. _Moderkäfer._ | F. 9. _Erdkäfer._ | A. 3. _Lohfresser._
| | |
| F. 7. Aaskäfer | A. 1. Phyllophaga | a. Lucanidæ
| 8. Mulmkäfer | 2. Coprophaga | b. Passalidæ
| 9. Erdkäfer. | 3. Lohfresser. | c. Oryctidæ.
_Second Province._
--FOURTH CIRCLE--SARCOZOA.
_Pisces, Reptilia, Aves and Thricozoa._
3530. These animals necessarily pass through all 4 circles, and each
class therefore divides into 4 orders, or into 5, if the senses be
allowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves.
Two points of departure for classification here admit of being thought
of, either wholly from below, or first of all from the commencement of
the present circle. In order to be convinced of this, we need only make
a slight attempt. The animal series is as follows:
A. SPLANCHNOZOA.
_Circle I. Intestinal animals_ _Protozoa._
Class 1. Gastric animals Infusoria.
2. Intestinal " Polypi.
3. Absorbent " Acalephæ.
_Circle II. Vascular animals_ _Conchozoa._
4. Venous animals Mussels.
5. Arteriose " Snails.
6. Cardiac " Kracken.
_Circle III. Respiratory animals_ _Ancyliozoa._
7. Reticular animals Worms.
8. Branchial " Crabs.
9. Tracheal " Flies.
B. SOMATOZOA.
_Circle IV. Sarcozoa._
10. Osseous animals Fishes.
11. Muscular " Reptiles.
12. Nervose " Birds.
_Circle V. Aistheseozoa._
13. Sense-animals Thricozoa.
3531. Now it is here conceivable, either that the families of Fishes,
Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, pass parallel to all the preceding
classes from the Infusoria upwards, or that they first commence with
the class of Fishes.
In regard to this question the Birds and Thricozoa give the most clear
and decisive answer. If we adopt the last proposition, then the Birds
must follow each other thus:
1. Fish-like Birds Palmipedes.
2. Reptilian " Grallæ.
3. Typical " Gallinæ.
4. Thricozooid Birds Struthionidæ.
According to this, the Aquatic Birds would occupy the lowest rank, just
as they have actually done hitherto in all other systems. The three
other families too do not admit of any other position. But what is to
be done meanwhile with the large majority of other Birds? They would
extend or pass beyond the Thricozoa, and have thus no anatomical system
whatever for their basis. Besides, Humming-birds, Sparrows and Linnets
would in this way rank higher than the Gallinaceous and Struthious
Birds, which some indeed believe to be the case, but without any proof,
so that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion.
The Thricozoa must stand thus:
1. Icthyoid Cetacea.
2. Herpetoid Pachydermata.
3. Ornithoid Ruminantia.
4. Typical All the remaining Thricozoa.
In the systems now in vogue the Thricozoa certainly follow in
this manner, and no scruple whatever is made of placing the Mice,
Ant-eaters, Shrews, and Bats above Elephants, Horses, and Deer. Yet
apart from all this, the former must pass beyond the Thricozoa, and
would thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps
the organs of sense, of which there are but five, while the families of
Thricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous, namely, besides
those named, the Seals, Dogs, Bears, and Apes.
The above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside
without limitation or reserve, although they may have held good for
hundreds of years. But what does or will not hold good in an age that
is devoid of principles?
It is thus evident that the smaller Birds stand below the Aquatics,
just as the smaller Thricozoa do beneath the Whales, quite apart from
organic structure, which in every respect is imperfect. They must
correspond, consequently, to the Asarcous animals, wherewith also their
great number agrees.
If this holds good of the two highest classes, so also must it hold
good of the two lower, namely, Fishes and Reptiles, and we shall thus
have:
I. Protozooid Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.
II. Conchozooid Fishes, &c.
III. Ancyliozooid " &c.
IV. Icthyoid " &c.
V. Herpetoid " &c.
VI. Thricozooid " &c.
VII. Ornithoid " &c.
3532. But this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs, and
they are called, in the language of Physio-philosophy, more correctly:
I. Intestinal Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.
II. Vascular Fishes, &c.
III. Pulmonary " &c.
IV. Osseous " &c.
V. Muscular " &c.
VI. Nervose " &c.
VII. Sensorial " &c.
But as these names are unused, and give or convey only the anatomical
idea, but no external image, the first appellations are to be preferred.
_Tenth Class._
_Osteozoa, Glossozoa--Pisces._
3533. No one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of
confusion as that of Fishes. Nor does this result simply from the great
deviations in their structure from the normal type, these being rather
useful than otherwise for the purposes of classification; but mainly
from the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as
a guide. Thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature
of the osseous tissue, at another to the fins, now to the teeth or
to the scales, ay, even to the fin-rays, and all this because the
characteristic or typical organ has never been sought after, nor the
presence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known.
3534. The characteristic organ of Fishes is the Osseous system, which
is consequently the principle also of their division.
The physical nature, form, position, and number of the osseous parts
must therefore be principally considered, and hence, above all, the
substance or texture of the bones; the limbs also, and the maxillæ with
their teeth, as well as the teeth upon the palate, upon the tongue and
the branchial arches.
With regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we
encounter a great difficulty. The Cartilaginous Fishes appear to belong
to each other, and are also usually arranged together. Yet amongst them
we find those species, such as the Lampreys, which obviously occupy
the lowest grade of all Fishes, while the Sharks and Rays remind us of
the Reptilia and Thricozoa, as well by their external structure as the
development of their sexual parts, since they possess perfect testes,
and ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts, while they no longer
deposit roe, but large ova inclosed in leathery shells, like the
higher Reptilia. Now, if we separate these Fishes from the Lampreys,
with whom in the scaleless tegument, the branchial foramina, and
even the external form they have many points of resemblance, nothing
else remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place, and so
parallelize them with the Thricozoa. But one is next constrained to
unite into one family the Pikes and Herrings, which perhaps admits of
being done.
There belong namely to the upper Fishes without doubt the Abdominales,
which are divisible into five families: the Carps, Pikes, Shads,
Salmons, and Herrings. Now, if the Sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on
account of their scaleless body and amorphous maxillæ, four families
will still be left, which should correspond to the Fishes, Reptiles,
Birds, and Thricozoa, so that no place is left remaining for the
Sharks. Now, however, the Salmons correspond decidedly to the Reptilia;
and the Flying Fishes, which are ranged below the Pikes, probably to
the Birds. If we unite them with the Herrings, then the Sharks may
occupy the place of the Thricozoa.
This being preassumed, we can now attempt the classification. The
substance or texture of the bones is of such importance, that
notwithstanding the separation of the Sharks and their congeners, the
other Cartilaginous Fishes must be left along with them, and range
upon the lowest stage, so that they thus correspond to the Intestinal
animals.
The next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and
irregular form which it imparts to the body, so that the Regular-shaped
can be separated in a tolerably "tranchant" manner from the Irregular
Fishes.
The regular form of a Fish is obviously the ellipse, as we find to
be the case in our fresh-water Fishes, namely, the Perches, Salmons
and Carps. They are collectively covered with large scales, which is
therefore also a sign of their regularity.
The Irregular Fishes are cylindrical, fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform,
usually destitute of scales or covered with plates, scutes, and spines.
Thus, since the Cartilaginous Fishes are collectively irregular in
form, the Irregular Osseous Fishes must be allowed to follow them.
The greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs,
especially the posterior pair, which in the other classes also are
generally imperfect and make their appearance the last. In Fishes
they are not divided into digits, but only into rays, which probably
correspond only to the digital ungues or to feathers. An animal which
has fin-rays is assuredly a Fish, for fin-rays do not occur in any
Reptile.
The posterior fins change even their situation. Those Fishes in whom
they are placed near to the anus, are obviously the more perfect, as
the Abdominales.
In others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins, and are even
attached to what has been called the "girdle" or humerus--Thoracici.
In others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the
throat--Jugulares.
Lastly, they are actually wanting--Apodales.
In the Lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins.
The skeleton of Fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than
in other animals, but has actually a greater number of bones, such as
the rays in the perpendicular fins, which are wanting in all animals,
even in the Reptilia. An animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed
among the Fishes, and consequently the Lepidosiren also.
The misshapen Fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages, the
regular the upper, not directly by reason of their form alone; but
because the other organs are also more imperfectly developed, the bones
being cartilaginous, the tegument asquamous, mucous, or covered with
spines, scutes, and plates; the fins wanting or abortive, or displaced
from their proper situation; the head disproportionate in size to the
body, the mouth wide or narrow, the eyes placed superiorly or upon the
forehead.
A lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins, such
namely as extend from the head to the tail. In the Abdominales,
Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays, the perpendicular fins are small; in the
Thoracici, Jugulares, and Apodes they are, on the contrary, mostly very
long.
Moreover, a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin,
which denotes that the anus lies far forwards, and therefore that the
tail has a great preponderance over the trunk. In the Abdominales and
the Sharks the tail is short; in the Rays thin and terminated abruptly,
as in Reptiles and Thricozoa. Thus the higher the animals ascend the
more does the tail diminish in length.
Regard being had to all these relations, the Irregular Fishes must be
viewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals, and
the Cartilaginous Fishes will indeed make the commencement; to these
are annexed the Irregular Osseous Fishes, and nearest to them indeed
those with arrested ventral fins, whether wanting or placed on the
throat; then come the Regular Fishes, and of these first of all the
Thoracici, and next the Abdominales. In this manner we obtain four
divisions.
A. Body irregular.
I. Pisces Cartilaginei.
II. Stummelflosser--Apodales and Jugulares.
B. Body regular.
III. Thoracici--Tunnies, Breams, and Perch.
IV. Abdominales--Carps, Pikes, Salmons and Herrings, Sharks.
Now, these divisions, having been discovered by a simple analysis
or testing of facts, are to be arranged according to philosophical
principles, and further subdivided, whereby the ground and legality of
their existence will be recognized.
A. IRREGULAR FISHES.
3535. Body deviating from the elliptical form, devoid of scales,
or covered with spines, scutes, and plates; head and tail
disproportionate; fins mostly arrested.
They correspond to the unarticulate Proto-and Conchozoa; their
irregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these
animals.
_Order 1. Intestinal, Protozooid Fishes._
3536. Mouth round and without maxillæ, or disproportionately narrow and
wide.
There can be no doubt that the Lampreys are the lowest Fishes, since
they remind us in every respect of the Worms by their naked, mucous,
and lineiform body, with indistinct head, almost devoid of bones and
true teeth, having a circular mouth, obliterated nostrils, puny eyes,
and finally branchial cysts, which occupy a higher rank only from their
opening into the oesophagus. They pass therefore parallel to the
Infusoria, or rather to the commencements of the second animal series,
namely, the Etozoa Ancyliozoa.
Now, although much dispute prevails concerning the division of Fishes
which should be associated with the Lampreys, yet it appears to me
that no others but the narrow-mouthed Fistularidæ and Pipe-fishes
can follow, since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous
bones, but in the structure also of their branchiæ. They will thus
truly occupy the place of the second family. Whether the narrow-mouthed
Globe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a
third family, may seem to be matter of doubt. I adopt the first course,
and arrange at present the wide-mouthed or Frog-fishes and Shads in the
third family.
_Fam. 1. Infusorial Fishes, Lampreys._
Body vermiform, naked, and slimy, without membral fins. Ex.
Branchiostoma or Amphioxys, Myxine, Petromyzon.
In these Fishes the mouth is quite in front and round, being without
maxillæ and adapted for the purposes of suction; only one nostril, but
mostly several branchial foramina, which lead to cysts provided with
reticular branchiæ, but without opercula.
The Branchiostomata are the smallest Fishes, not much above 1" in
length, almost devoid of head, yet with traces of eyes and a nostril.
The Myxinæ crawl even into the rectum of other Fishes, and live therein
like Entozoa. The river or lesser Lampreys stick in the mud; the
Lampreys cling fast by suction to stones, and do not draw the water in
through the mouth, but through the branchial foramina themselves, like
the lower animals.
_Fam. 2. Polypary Fishes, Narrow-mouthed._
Body cartilaginous, mouth having maxillæ, but unusually narrow,
only one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum--Fistularidæ,
Pipe-fishes and Globe-fishes.
In this family we still meet with species entirely naked, but covered
also with plates, scutes, nails, and spines. The corymbiform or tufted
branchiæ of the Syngnathi or the Lophobranchii still remind us
strongly of the cystiform reticular branchiæ of the first family.
_Fam. 3. Acalephoid Fishes, Wide-mouthed._
Body naked or covered with plates; mouth in front and mostly unusually
wide.
I here arrange in doubt the Frog-fishes and the Shads, although the
last are Abdominales. But they deviate from the Carps and Pikes by
their asymmetrical, naked or mailed body, the large transverse mouth,
the eyes staring upwards, and the arrested branchial opercula.
_Order 2. Vascular, Conchozooid Fishes--Stummelflosser._
3537. Asymmetrical Osseous Fishes, Apodales, and Jugulares.
Among the true Osseous Fishes the Eels must undoubtedly range the
lowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body, and the want
of ventral fins. To them are allied the Jugulares, namely, the Blennii
and Gadidæ, as well as the Plaice; lastly, the asymmetrical Thoracici
without scales, being quite naked or covered with scutes, as the Gobii
and Triglæ.
_Fam. 4. Mussel-Fishes, Eels._
Body naked and serpentiform, without ventral fins.
The Eels, from their naked, cylindrical or riband-shaped body, the long
dorsal and coccygeal fin, the small branchial foramina occasionally
confluent beneath the neck, and by their dwelling in the mud, rank
among the imperfect Fishes. The one set have soft, the other hard,
fin-rays, and on that account they have not simply been separated, but
even far removed from each other. This difference alone is not so great
as to justify their being arranged, when the structure of the body
agrees in other respects, into distinct orders. The influence of the
dorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of Fishes
is so slight, and its value generally, in comparison with other parts,
to be taken so little into account, that a natural arrangement can
never result from these appendages, which do not deserve to be called
organs, and viewed as principal characters.
_Fam. 5. Snail-Fishes, Haddocks._
Jugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial
operculum, and hard fin-rays.
These Fishes are allied to the Eels by the aborted ventral fins, the
tolerably cylindrical, naked, or small-scaled body and soft dorsal
fins. The viviparous Blennius bears with us its name of Aalmutter not
in vain, for it resembles a shortened, slimy Eel. The Gadidæ are indeed
less slimy and have in part scales, but, by reason of their lengthened
form and their fins, cannot be removed far from the Eels; the same
holds good of the Plaice.
_Fam. 6. Kracken-Fishes, Grundeln._
Asymmetrical Jugulares and Thoracici, with naked and mailed body, in
addition to hard fin-rays.
Here belong the Gobiidæ and Triglidæ, the first whereof are usually
naked, the second mailed, with roughnesses upon the head and spines on
the opercula; in all the eyes placed high up.
B. REGULAR FISHES.
3538. Body elliptical, mostly covered with scales, Thoracici and
Abdominales; eyes placed sideways.
_Order 3. Pulmonary, Ancyliozooid Fishes._
3539. Regular Thoracici.
The position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is
obviously a step further in the perfection of structure, and these
Fishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds, in whom,
apart from the asymmetrical form of body, the position of the fins is
mostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it. The anus is still
situated far forwards, and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the
trunk. The dorsal fins are still very predominant. Among them we still
meet with naked or microlepidal species, which in their abnormal form
also remind us of the irregular Fishes, as the Tunnies and Haberdines
or Stock-fish. They are therefore to be regarded as the lowest.
As is the case here in Fishes, so also in the Ancyliozoa the truly
regular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time, or at
least constitutes a persistent character.
_Fam. 7. Worm-Fishes, Tunnies._
Tolerably naked or microlepidal, cylindriform or very much compressed,
with small head and mouth; the teeth very feeble, only like a brush;
the branchial opercula without spines. Here belong the proper Tunnies
and Haberdines: all of them marine Fishes.
_Fam. 8. Crustacean Fishes, Brassen._
Body perfectly regular, covered with great scales; mouth small with
strong teeth; branchial opercula unarmed. Here belong the Labridæ or
Lipped Fishes, Seabream and Osphromanus.
_Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Fishes, Perch._
Body quite regular with large scales, mouth of moderate size with
scythe-shaped teeth, branchial opercula armed. Here belong the
Scianoidæ and Percoidæ. Dwell in the sea and rivers.
_Order 4. Sarcose Fishes._
3540. Abdominales, dorsal fins small, with soft ramified rays, mostly
placed far behind. Plainly regular Fishes with large scales. The head
is regular, with the eyes upon its sides; the set of teeth varied;
the trunk large, tail small, as are also the dorsal fins, which
proceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail, a fact
indicating their gradual disappearance, and therefore a sign also of
greater perfection. Added to this, they are generally distributed over
the whole earth in rivers and seas. Finally, it is they that yield
the most nutriment to Man, which is also a constant sign of greater
perfection; as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the Fruit-trees
or plants; in the animal kingdom by the Oysters, Snails, Sepiæ,
Holothuriæ, Geese, Fowls, Cattle, &c.
_Fam. 10. Typical Fishes, Carps._
Body of the Carps covered with large scales, mostly but one dorsal
fin placed pretty far back, mouth nearly edentate, supra-maxillary
bones arrested, large teeth on the posterior branchial arches, or
what have been called pharyngeal bones. They are for the greatest part
fresh-water Fishes, and those which are most used as articles of food.
_Fam. 11. Reptilian Fishes, Salmons._
Mouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; behind
the radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales.
Here belongs the Lizard-like fish (Saurus), so called on account of its
resemblance to the Lizards. Live in sea and fresh-water.
_Fam. 12. Ornithic Fishes, Herrings and Pikes._
The Herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; only
one dorsal fin; mostly large scales.
Body of the Pike slightly scaled, furnished mostly with a small dorsal
fin situated very far back, mouth full of teeth, but none of these in
the rudimental intermaxillary bone. Dwellers in the sea and in fresh
water.
Among the Pikes is placed the Exocoetus or Flying fish.
_Order 5. Sensorial Fishes._
3541. Bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the snout.
_Fam. 13. Thricozooid Fishes, Sharks._
Abdominales; bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the
projecting snout; mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures.
Here belong the Chimæræ, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays. The last ought
to be held as higher in rank, partly on account of their slender tail,
partly because the huge Rays, which are called Cephalopterus, have
the anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize
their prey with them as with hands. All lay, with the exception of
the Sturgeons, large and leathery ova, and in this approximate pretty
closely to the Reptilia.
It has been already remarked, that the large Cartilaginei would
not pass correctly into the others, and obviously seem to claim
the highest post. At some later period the principle may probably
be discovered whereupon their union with the higher Osseous fishes
depends. Both are at all events Abdominales.
Eleventh Class.
_Myozoa, Rhinozoa--Reptilia._
3542. Body entirely naked or covered with scales, with distinctly
separate and red-coloured muscles; two nostrils permeable throughout.
As the Muscular system is here the characteristic organ, it must be
regarded principally in the division of the present class; the limbs
also exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class, since they
are in some cases wanting, while in others two only, in some four,
are present. In place of fin-rays true toes have, however, made their
appearance, these again indicating the greatest variety in the number
of the joints; but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five
toes.
The osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the
Thricozoa, and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in Fishes.
The dental formula begins also to be regular. The teeth stand usually
in the superior intermaxillary bone, and are sometimes pointed, at
others obtuse; in the Ichthyosauri and Crocodiles they are even
inserted by gomphosis, as in the Thricozoa. In many Serpents additional
kinds of teeth occur, namely, the curved poison-teeth or fangs, which
have an involuted groove traversing their concavity. In most Reptiles
teeth also occur upon the palatal, but there are no longer any upon
the lingual bone. In the Chelonia or Tortoises the teeth are entirely
wanting, and they are also scarcely indicated in the Asquamous
Salamanders and Frogs.
The os quadratum is found as in Birds; in Serpents, however, the
mastoid bone has been freed, and hence the capability possessed by
these creatures of expanding the mouth.
Viewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs, the Salamanders
and Frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank; but their
scaleless tegument, their development out of spawn in the water, as
well as branchiæ brings them near to the Fishes. In other respects
their position is determined by the dental formula, which, as I have
already shown, belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system.
The position of the nostrils is now, throughout the class, in front of
and upon the snout, being no longer situated almost on the forehead
or vertex, as in Fishes. Their relation to the scales is likewise of
importance for the purposes of division.
The naked Salamanders and Frogs will occupy the lowest place. By their
form, absence of teeth, and mode of life, the Chelonia are allied to
them.
Then follow the Serpents and Lizards with a perfect set of teeth. The
Serpents are distinguished from the Lizards by their want of feet and
the long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath.
Among the Lizards apodal species occur, as the Blind-worms; but
they have under the skin some pedal bones, and are, in addition to
this, sufficiently distinguished from the Serpents by the short and
sheathless tongue.
Among the Lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual
organs, like as in the Serpents; others with unusually large eyes,
e. g. the Chameleon, Gecko, Ichthyosauri, and Crocodiles. All other
Lizards, the Serpents, Chelonia, Salamanders and Frogs, have small eyes
and consequently follow each other.
The Crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis, and consequently
resembles the Thricozoa.
I divide the present class therefore into the following groups.
A. DERMAL REPTILES--SMALL-EYED.
_Order 1. Protozooid Reptilia-Kröten._
3543. Body slimy and scaleless, or maxillæ devoid of teeth.
_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Reptiles, Petromyzoid--_Caudate Batrachia,
Salamanders_.
Body naked and furnished with a tail.
These cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the
Lampreys, or are Petromyzoid, being provided with setaceous and
scarcely discernible teeth, frequently only one pair of feet; they are
developed also out of spawn in the water, and many retain the branchiæ
during the whole of life.
_Fam. 2._ Polypary Reptilia, Kugelfischartige--_Stutzkröten_, _Frogs_.
Body thick and naked and without a tail, but with four feet.
The Frogs and Toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn, but
soon lose their branchiæ. In their form and even the structure of their
mouth they are Kugelfischartige, i. e. remind us strikingly of the
Globe-fishes, among the Engmäulern or Plectognathi.
_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Reptilia, Welsartige--_Chelonia_.
Body thick and coated with scales, maxillæ quite edentulous.
The Chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank; they lay
large ova covered with a calcareous shell, but frequently live or
dwell in the water, and have, in their mode of living as well as form,
a striking resemblance to the naked Batrachia. Through their want of
teeth they range among all the succeeding families.
_Order 2. Conchozooid Reptilia--Ophidia._
3544. Body cylindriform and scaly, teeth acuminate, tongue
longitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath; no feet and eyelids.
The Serpents stand without doubt below the Lizards; yet it is difficult
to arrange them properly into families. The poison-teeth appear to
indicate a lower character, because the cranium is thereby removed or
recedes from the usual type of structure, while the superior maxilla
becomes very much arrested. But as there are moveable and immoveable
poison-teeth, and the latter gradually pass over into the ordinary
kinds of teeth, while externally also, no character has been found to
distinguish the venomous from the non-venomous Serpents, it is best at
present to discontinue this separation.
Then the Serpents can be brought according to the structure of their
scales into 3 families. They are either of equal and small size,
around the whole body; or there are plates upon the belly and tail; or
finally, the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets.
_Fam. 4._ Mussel-Reptiles, Eel-like--_Schuppenschlangen_.
All the scales around the body small and of equal size; upon the
belly only being somewhat larger. Here belong the venomous Hydridæ or
Sea-snakes, and huge Boas or Pythons. If once the venomous Serpents
could be distinguished as a distinct family, they will indeed be placed
higher, and the non-venomous be separated from them. Then probably the
Boas may be raised, together with their allies, as the highest family.
_Fam. 5._ Snail-Reptiles, Haddock-like--_Tafelschlangen_.
Plates under the belly, those beneath the tail being halved or divided
into two.
Here belong our Colubri, but also the venomous Adders.
_Fam. 6._ Kracken-Reptilia, Grundelartige--_Schienenschlangen_.
Entire plates upon belly and tail, as in the Rattle-snakes.
_Order 3. Ancyliozooid Reptilia--Lizards._
3545. Scales, the usual kind of teeth and tongue; inferior maxillæ
anchylosed in front, mastoid bone not freed, mostly feet and eyelids.
They divide likewise into three families.
_Fam. 7._ Worm-Reptiles, Tunny-like--_Schleichen_.
Body round and serpentiform, with small scales, feet rudimental, or
even wanting.
Here belong the Cæciliæ, Blind-worms, and Scinci. I have united these
animals, which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the Serpents and
Lizards as well as the Salamanders, and placed them as a distinct
family between the two former. By reason of their rudimental feet they
keep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein. Their
motion is serpent-like, because they lie upon the belly and cannot
assist themselves with the feet.
_Fam. 8._ Crustacean Reptiles, Bream-like--_Schuppenechsen_.
Four perfect feet, body covered all round with small granular scales,
tongue short and hardly slit.
Here belong the Flying Lizards, the Iguanæ and Basilisks. They usually
climb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries.
_Fam. 9._ Ptilotoid Reptilia, Perch-like--_Schienenechsen_.
Four perfect feet, but plates upon the belly and tail, tongue thin and
bifid. Here belong the common Lizards and the "Sauvegards" or Monitors.
Their body is usually depressed. They cannot climb, but run about
briskly upon the ground and eat beetles, and even the higher animals.
Many are a fathom in length.
B. SARCOSE REPTILIA--LARGE-EYED.
3546. These animals have tubercles, spines and plates, with four
perfect feet, as in the higher Lizards, but the toes are of pretty
equal length; there are no palatal teeth, and the tongue is not
fissured. They are of varied size, lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal
mode of life, and have a slow pace, occurring too only in warm climates.
_Order 4. Sarcose Reptiles._
3547. Feet abnormal, being fin-and wing-shaped, adapted for climbing
or clinging. They correspond quite closely to the three next animal
classes.
_Fam. 10._ Ichthyoid Reptilia, Herring-like--_Ichthyosauri_.
All four feet converted into fins.
Here belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals, which formerly
lived in the sea. They had gomphotic teeth almost like the
Crocodile.--Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus.
_Fam. 11._ Typical Reptiles, Salmon-like--_Geckos_.
Climbing feet, or retractile claws as in the Cats, and perpendicular
laminæ or plates under the soles, by means of which they cling to
walls. They usually dwell in houses and catch beetles--Chamæleo, Gecko.
_Fam. 12._ Ornithoid Reptilia, Pike-like--_Dragons_.
Body short and bird-like, with very long neck and a long digit, unto
which an alary membrane has probably been attached.
Here belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known
by the name of Pterodactylus. They have been hitherto discovered in
different parts of Europe, and probably flew about, like the Bats, by
night.
_Order 5. Sensorial Reptiles._
3548. Teeth wedged into the jaws, toes regular.
_Fam. 13._ Thricozooid Reptilia, Shark-like--_Crocodiles_.
Feet and toes of equal length, with swimming webs between them.
The Crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect
Reptilia, on account of their notched teeth and regular feet. In many
respects they remind us, like the Sharks do among Fishes, of the
Thricozoa.
_Twelfth Class._
_Neurozoa, Otozoa_--_Aves_.
3549. In these animals it is again shown in a striking manner, that
the characteristic organ is the principle of classification. Without
recourse being had to the varied structure of the head, especially of
the beak, the division of Birds would not be possible, although the
feet frequently yield good characters.
3550. The development of the young makes an essential distinction upon
a large scale, since one great body of Birds must be fed as nestlings,
whilst the other, when scarcely emerged from the egg, runs about and
seeks its own nourishment. Although in the lower animals the young
do not require the assistance of the parents, and, on the other hand,
those of the Thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother; yet
still those Birds which can, upon issuing from the egg, at once nourish
themselves, such as the Fowls, Geese, &c., are probably the most
perfect, for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals, and
for the Ostrich to be a Thricozoon, there is indeed as little wanting
as to the Crocodile.
3551. There is no doubt whatever that the Natatores in every respect,
both in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of
living and feeding, repeat the Fishes. This opinion the empirical
zoologists have already adopted from the Physio-philosophy.
The same may be said of the Grallæ or Wading Birds in reference to the
Reptiles. Their feet, neck, and beak are serpentiform, and associated
with a frog-like body. Their mode of living and feeding is likewise
amphibious. But these birds pass over so directly into the Fowls,
that the latter could not be arranged elsewhere, apart even from
their displaying by their domestication to Man the higher grade of
understanding, which is manifested for the first time in the class of
Birds.
The Bustards and Ostriches are, finally, the highest stage of Birds,
and form the closest alliance with the Thricozoa.
3552. This point being once settled, it is self-evident that the Birds,
which do not stand in need of being fed, occupy the uppermost place,
and consequently the nestling or parent-fed Birds the lowest, i. e. the
former correspond to the Sarcozoa, the latter to the Dermatozoa.
A. SPLANCHNIC BIRDS.--NESTHÖCKER.
3553. Remain, after exclusion from the egg, in the nest and are fed;
neck and feet short, toes four in number and ununited, beak pointed.
By their short neck, which rarely appears longer than the head, these
Birds approximate the Reptiles and Fishes, in whom also the head has
scarcely separated itself from the thorax.
The uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character,
as it is found in the Dermal Reptiles and Fishes; while in the Sarcose
Reptilia and Fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the
greatest variety, both as regards the form and length of the feet
themselves, as the structure of the toes; and such is the case too in
the higher organized Birds.
The same holds good also of the form of the head, and especially of
the maxillæ and teeth, which are very uniform in the lower Fishes and
Reptiles, but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds,
exactly as in the Natatores and Grallæ, in the Gallinæ and Struthionidæ.
_Order 1. Protozooid Birds--Tenuirostres._
3554. Bill awl-shaped.
These Birds present a resemblance to each other, not simply in their
mode of feeding, since they are collectively insectivorous, but also
in the slenderness of their form, and in the dazzling, varied, sharply
defined, and very striking colours of their plumage, as well as in
their habits, for they employ their feet and tail usually for the
purposes of support, and so climb about the upright stems and branches
of trees.
Among them also occur the smallest sized Birds, a fact which, compared
with a similar one in the Thricozoa, indicates likewise their lower
grade or rank.
_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Birds, _Tree-runners or Creepers_.
Bill awl-shaped, three toes in front--Humming-birds, Tree-creepers.
The small size of the Humming-birds seems to render them the lowest
in rank of the class, and by this means the system obtains a point of
departure, unto which similar forms may be annexed. Their manner of
feeding is rather a process of lapping, than an actual snapping with
the bill; their food also, which consists of small Beetles and their
larvæ, requires scarcely any operation of the bill, so that here the
cibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage, and remind
us of the proboscis in Flies, Butterflies, and Bugs.
_Fam. 2._ Polypary Birds, _Woodpeckers_.
Bill straight and chisel-shaped, two of the toes directed forwards and
two backwards.
The Woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher, because their bill is
specially active in seeking out larvæ, and their body is held securely
by the toes and stiff tail.
_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Birds, _Cuckoos_.
Bill rounded, slightly arched and obtuse; feet scansorial.
These Birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones, keep
themselves more concealed, and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer
countries. Some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other Birds.
_Order 2. Conchozooid Birds--Conirostres._
3555. Bill short, thick, and straight, without a notch, three toes
directed forwards.
These Birds usually perch upon branches, without, however, being able
to walk upon them, since they usually hop, and must therefore make an
auxiliary use of their wings. They are all of them granivorous, and in
a condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill, as well as
pound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard.
Their instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect,
added to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of Rapaces,
that they could not be arranged lower; probably they ought even to rank
higher.
_Fam. 4._ Mussel-Birds, _Sparrows_.
Bill short and coniform, without bristles; eat simply grains.
_Fam. 5._ Snail-Birds, _Crows_.
Bill long and coniform; eat grains, beetles and flesh, and pass
gradually over into the Rapaces.
_Fam. 6._ Kracken-Vögel, _Parrots_.
Bill very thick and curved. The food consists of grains and fruits.
Their spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed.
_Order 3. Ancyliozooid Birds--Dentirostres._
3556. Bill with a notch; food consists of worms and flesh.
_Fam. 7._ Worm-Birds, _Cantores or Songsters_.
Bill tolerably long and straight; eat worms and berries.
_Fam. 8._ Crustacean Birds, _Fly-catchers_.
Bill straight, with sharp edges superiorly, point de-curved or bent
downwards. Their aliment consists of insects, which they mostly snap at
during flight--Fly-catchers, Shrikes, Swallows.
_Fam. 9._ Ptilotoid Birds--_Rapaces_.
Bill unciform; seize upon the Sarcozoa with their claws.
B. SARCOSE BIRDS--NESTFLÜCHTER.
3557. Run about soon after being hatched, and nourish themselves. Bill
and feet very varied, the former being mostly obtuse.
These Birds do not fly much nor hop, but walk, run, or swim. In them
are found all the diversities of bill and feet; the latter are mostly
placed far back, so that the body is usually directed upwards.
Their food also is very varied, consisting of seeds, grass, fruits,
worms, and flesh.
_Order 4. Sarcose Birds._
3558. Neck long, i. e. much longer than the head and bill, frequently
longer than the body.
_Fam. 10._ Fish-Birds, _Natatores_.
Natatory feet short.
Mostly large Birds, which live upon fishes, worms, and many of them
even upon herbs. Their bills are so varied, that they could represent
several families, a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their
higher position. It may be regarded as an instructive hint, that
animals occupy a higher rank, if in them a richness or variety of
forms is to be perceived. This is the case throughout the Thricozoa.
The Natatores, through the structure and posterad insertion of their
feet, through their closely-set plumage, which frequently presents
short and scale-like feathers, by their swimming and diving, and
lastly, through their fish-catching, approximate as closely to the
structure and mode of living of Fishes as it is possible for a Bird to
do, while still retaining the characters of its class. Many row even
with the wings, and consequently use them as veritable fins.
_Fam. 11._ Reptilian Birds, _Grallæ or Waders_.
Legs, neck, and bill very long.
These Birds are a lively image of, or a composition from, the Reptilia,
having a Frog's body with its long feet, and a Serpent's neck with a
Tortoise's head.
They wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish; have also bills of
very varied structure, yet generally very long and slender, being in
some cases naked, in others covered with a skin.
_Fam. 12._ Typical Birds, _Gallinæ_.
Bill and legs shorter, the former being arched, the latter armed with
strong toes for scraping.
Feed usually upon grains and worms, and live in dry situations. The
Marsh-hens pass at once into the true Fowls, and these are attached,
like as is no other family, through their capacity for domestication,
to Man.
_Order 5. Sensorial Birds._
3559. Run only, cannot fly.
_Fam. 13._ Thricozooid Birds, _Bustards_.
Fowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes--Bustard, Cassowary,
and Ostrich.
These Birds have mostly such shortened wings, that they cannot elevate
themselves from the earth. In the Cassowary we find, in place of the
primary feathers upon the wings, five barbless quills like so many
claws. The Ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the Mammalia. It
has not incorrectly been compared with the Camel, since the Ruminant
animals in general have many resemblances in common with Birds,
especially in the development of the horny substance, which obviously
agrees with the feathers.
_Thirteenth Class._
_Aistheseozoa, Opthalmozoa--Thricozoa._
3560. All the senses perfect, five digits; the face covered with skin
and flesh, the body with hairs; mammæ present.
3561. The Thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes, and
indeed, so far as the development by grades makes no distinction, in
equal proportion.
The differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly
pronounced as in this; and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning
the rank of the families than in the former classes. It turns out,
therefore, that they are not treated according to sound or solid
principles, but that these, after the manner in which Natural History
is still prosecuted, are despised.
Upon viewing superficially the groups of Thricozoa, it is certainly
difficult to determine, which are the lowest families, although the
uppermost ones are very well known; so that here matters are the
reverse of what they were in Plants. In the case of Birds the empirical
inquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper, nor which the
lower groups; while in the Reptiles and Fishes he fares still worse.
It is pretty generally conceded that the _Whales_ are the lowest in
point of rank, because their posterior feet are wanting, and in this
they certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the
Thricozoa; yet still it is just these animals which form the proper
starting-point for the present class. Even the empirical naturalists
here begin to employ physio-philosophical language, and designate these
animals by the title of Fish-like Thricozoa. But, if they repeat the
Fishes, then there must be Thricozoa, which stand or rank below them,
and pass parallel to the Dermatozoa. Which these latter are, is not
indeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and
brought into their proper station or place.
If once there are Ichthyoidal there must also be Herpetoidal or
Reptile-like Thricozoa. Now, if the Whales correspond to the former,
then the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough
decided. To the Whales no other animals admit of being annexed but
the _Swine-like_ genera, such as the Hippopotamus, Pig, and Elephant,
which, through their muscular mass, almost naked skin, and residence in
marshy situations, agree very closely with the Reptilia.
In the next place come the _Ruminantia_, to take their site opposite
the class of Birds, with whom they correspond in their susceptibility
to domestication, large ears, fine sense of hearing, and timid
disposition. The horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype
(nachregung) of the feathers. These three families may be aptly termed
_Ungulata_ or Hoofed-animals.
Were matters to fare simply thus, then the center-building of this
class would stand firm, and it would consequently not be difficult to
say which animals stood below and which above it. For to the Apes are
allied the Bears, to these the Dogs, Cats, and Martens, and to the
latter again the Seals; all would rank above the Ungulata or Hoofed
animals, and represent the proper or typical class of Thricozoa.
But the Thricozoa are Æsthetic or Sense-animals, and consequently the
upper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense, if the lower
correspond to the anatomical systems.
Now, if the eye has attained its maximum development in Man, the same
must be said of the ear in the Apes, of the nose in the Bears, of the
tongue in the Carnivora, and of the skin in the Seals.
Having so disposed of these, the only remaining Thricozoa are the Bats,
Shrews, Moles, Marsupials, Sloths, and Rodentia.
In common parlance we compare the Bats with the Birds on account of
their wings, unto which may be further added the large size of their
ears. Their close relation, however, with the Shrews and Rodents
assigns them a lower rank. They must be placed parallel with the
Ptilota or Flies. The dental formula of the Bats resembles too so
strikingly that of the Shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone
place the former in the neighbourhood of the Apes. They have obtained
this post, without doubt, simply because they have but two mammæ, and
these placed upon the chest.
The Moles cannot be removed from the Shrews.
The choice of position now remains between the Marsupials and Rodents.
And to determine this point cannot prove difficult, for every one
will place the former above the latter on account of their size, more
perfect dental formula, and the hands, upon whose model the hind-feet
have been in many species formed. To the Marsupials are annexed the
Sloths, because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones.
Viewed in this and in every other respect, the Rodentia stand or rank
the lowest; and since the members of this family are much more numerous
than those of any other, we may conclude that they fill up several
families of the asarcose animals.
3562. The series would accordingly be as follows; first of all Rodents,
then Sloths and Marsupials; with Moles, Shrews, and Bats, all as the
repetition of the Dermatozoa. They are all Myoidal or Mouse-like in
character. Next come the Whales, Pigs, and Ruminants as the repetitions
of the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds.
The Carnivora with the Bears, Apes, and Man, as being the proper
representatives of the senses, conclude or wind up the list. They alone
have a regular dental formula. We have thus--
I. Splanchno-Thricozoa; Mice, Edentata, Marsupialia, Shrews and Bats.
II. Sarco-Thricozoa; Whales, Pachyderms, Ruminants.
III. Æsthesio-Thricozoa; Carnivora, Seals, Bears, Apes and Man.
3563. It is here shown, just as distinctly as in the series of the
classes, that no simple scale exists in the history of development, and
consequently in the arrangement of animals. The Mouse-like species
stand off from the rest, and then follow the entirely different
Ungulata with the Pigs and Ruminants, which once again diverge in like
manner, and make room for the development of the Seals, which then
proceed through the Dogs, &c., in a less interrupted series up to Man.
He who marvels at this, let him take and set the table of the
class-series before his eyes, and he must give utterance with us to the
following words; namely, that the lower animals diverge or turn aside,
and the entirely different Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds follow, which,
once again diverging, make room for the development of the Thricozoa,
or, in other words, the "Compendium Animalium." A perfect parallelism
is thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and
the families of Thricozoa; but no linear or continuously progressive
connexion is discoverable between one set and the other, but an
appearance by fits or starts of new forms, just as the systems and
organs also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system, but
sudden productions "en avant" with new tissues, forms, and functions.
The animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple, with its
nave, choir, chapels, and towers, while these again are present with
the whole diversity of forms, which belongs to them in their several
characters or bearings.
A. SPLANCHNO-THRICOZOA--PFOTENTHIERE, MAUSARTIGE.
3564. Small animals with irregular set of teeth; four feet with claws.
The regular set of teeth has included all kinds of teeth, and with them
four or six incisors.
A set of teeth is irregular, which has more or less than the ordinary
number of incisors, in which moreover one or the other kind of tooth is
wanting, or if it is separated by a breach or interspace.
The small Thricozoa divide into three orders.
The one have blunt uniform molars, two rodent or gnawing-teeth, and no
canines--Rodentia.
The others have, one might say, a wholly aberrant and confused dental
formula, there being at one time too few, at another too many teeth;
molars uniform, with perfectly irregular incisors and canines--Sloths,
Marsupials.
Others, lastly, have a tolerably regular set of teeth, presenting
quadriacuminate molars, mostly small canines, and rodent-like
incisors--Shrews and Bats.
_Order 1. Gedärm-, Eyer, Schleimthier-Haarthiere--Rodentia._
3565. Rodent teeth, without canines.
The dental formula of the gnawing Rats and Mice is so varied, and so
devoid of influence upon their bodily structure and mode of life, that
all attempts to arrange these animals in accordance with it have failed.
3566. The lower position of the Rodentia admits of being easily proved
by taking to our aid the meaning of the dental system. The splanchnic
or visceral teeth obviously rank lower than the membral teeth. Now, it
so happens that the anterior teeth are in the Rodentia the principal
organ, not only of the dental formula, but of the entire animal.
Without gnawing-teeth the Mice could not maintain their existence,
much less their character. They thus depend wholly and solely upon the
visceral teeth, and are consequently the lowest Thricozoa.
In addition to this comes their small size, which is by no means a
character to be despised, and one to which all naturalists pay regard,
even while they keep it, upon the other hand, in the background; or
else they must place the Elephant below the Field-mice.
3567. I divide them, as well according to structure as habit, into
three groups. The one has the front and hind feet of equal length, with
blunt claws for digging.
The other has similar feet, with sharp claws for climbing.
Lastly, the third has the hind feet longer than the fore for leaping.
_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Thricozoa--_Wühlmäuse._
Eyes and auditory conchæ feebly developed, feet for scraping, tail lax;
live always under the ground, and eat roots and grains--Spalax, Rat,
Common and Field-mouse, Beaver; mostly only three molars.
_Fam. 2._ Polypary Thricozoa--_Klettermäuse_.
Eyes, ears, and tail large, the latter being stiff and hairy, claws
pointed; live mostly upon trees, eating nut-kernels and fruit; usually
four molars--Squirrels.
_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Thricozoa--_Laufmäuse_.
Eyes and ears large, tail hairy, hind feet longest, claws obtuse,
lamellar or plicated teeth; live upon the surface of the earth and eat
grass--Hares and Guinea-pigs; mostly more than four molar teeth.
_Order 2. Ader-, Geschlechts, Schalthier-Haarthiere--Kaumäuse._
3568. Teeth and toes deviating completely from those of every other
order; nor in a less degree the method of propagation.
In some instances all the teeth are wanting, in some they exceed the
ordinary number, and are quite uniform; sometimes the lateral teeth
only are similar, but in this case there are no canines and incisors;
or else there are canines with more than six incisors, or also with
rodent teeth.
In like manner the toes are irregular; the one kind being
disproportionately large and the other absurdly small; some are for the
most part wholly connate; in many cases there are hands posteriorly.
The claws also are in some instances obtuse, in others sharp for
climbing, or else asymmetrically large and unciform. Hands adapted for
swimming or flight also occur.
Finally, the sexual parts are quite aberrant, being mostly very large
and singularly formed; the mammæ frequently lodged in a pouch, or at
least furnished with marsupial bones. The young are born as naked and
immoveable embryos, and suckled for a very long time.
All this reminds us of the Conchozoa or Shell-animals as doth also
their unusual covering of belts, scales, spines and long hairs.
_Fam. 4._ Mussel-like Thricozoa, _Sloths_.
Lateral and canine teeth equal in size and obtuse, incisors mostly
wanting, and occasionally all the teeth; claws very large and
curved--Ornithorynchi, Ant-eaters, Armadillos and Sloths.
_Fam. 5._ Snail-like Thricozoa, _Herbivorous Marsupials_.
Rodent teeth, usually with stunted proximal and canine teeth, lateral
teeth level; toes mostly connate and very unequal; they live in the Old
World upon roots, grass, and fruit--Wombat, Dasyure, Kangaroo, Opossum.
_Fam. 6._ Kracken-Haarthiere, _Carnivorous Marsupials_.
Mostly more than six incisors, triangular molars and large canines;
live in the New World and in Australia, eating worms, insects, eggs and
flesh--Vulpine Phalanger, Phascogale, Beutelratze.
The abnormal structure of the sexual parts reminds us of the same
relation in the Snails and Kracken.
_Order 3. Lungen-, Fell-, Ringelthier-Haarthiere--Raubmäuse._
3569. Molar teeth mostly quadriacuminate, with a break in the series,
canines and pointed incisors, or rodent teeth with lateral incisors,
five toes; live upon worms and insects.
_Fam. 7._ Worm-Thricozoa, _Moles_.
Claws, sharp incisors or rodent teeth, with lateral incisors or false
molars; live exclusively under the earth, and cast up the mould.
_Fam. 8._ Crustaceous Thricozoa, _Shrews_.
Paws, rodent teeth, with small lateral incisors and canine teeth. Many
burrow passages without throwing up the soil.
_Fam. 9._ Ptilotal Thricozoa, _Bats_.
Alary membrane between the feet and anterior digits; pointed canine and
incisor teeth.
_Order 4. Sarco-Thricozoa--Ungulata._
3570. Body large and heavy; teeth stunted, molars uniform, tolerably
obtuse; feet fin-or hoof-like; mostly udders, rarely mammæ.
_Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Thricozoa, Whales._
Skin naked; no hind feet; two horizontal caudal fins; toes of the
anterior feet surrounded by a common skin; no auditory conchs;
posteriorly two udders. All live in the sea.
It is hardly necessary, in speaking of the Whales, to direct attention
to their monstrously-developed osseous system and large fleshy tongue,
as also to their correspondence with Fishes in the entire form, manner
of living, and imperfect nose. Their head is still confluent with the
neck, the teeth are horny plates of coalesced hairs, or uniform simple
points, as in Fishes. Most of them have even dorsal fins; the two
udders are hardly separated from the sexual parts.
_Fam. 11. Reptilian Thricozoa, Pigs._
Four feet with hoofs; canines and mostly also incisors; stomach simple,
do not ruminate--Nylghau, Pig, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse. These
animals love the marshes, and are through their mode of living, as also
their form, similar to the larger Reptiles; or, in other words, through
their colossal skeleton, with preponderating muscular mass, they are
Myozoa, through the proboscis or snout, Rhinozoa.
_Fam. 12. Ornithic Thricozoa, Ruminants._
Toes bifid, surrounded by a hoof; above there are rarely incisor and
canine teeth; udders behind; stomach fourfold; they ruminate. The
horn-formation indicates a relationship with feathers; the want of
incisor teeth, large ears, and timidity of disposition that of the
family with the class of Birds.
Both families enter into connexion with the Whales through the size
of their body, the structure of their feet, form of the head and
disposition towards water and mud. They are quadrupedal Whales, which
have come out of the water, and adopted a manner of living like the
Amphibious Reptiles and Grallatorial Birds.
_Order 5. Æsthesio-Thricozoa--Unguiculata._
3571. Here for the first time an equiponderance of the sensorial organs
makes its appearance and along with it therefore a resemblance between
the animals, which is no more interrupted by such strange or odd
forms, as in the preceding orders.
All of them have divided toes with claws or nails, and all kinds of
teeth with multiacuminate enamelled molars.
3572. No doubt can exist about the animals belonging to the present
order; they are the Apes, Bears, and Carnivora generally, as Seals,
Cats, Dogs, Martens, and such like beasts.
I also cherish no doubt concerning the rank of the two first families,
namely, the Apes and Bears, although they have been separated in a
strange manner by the interposition of the Bats and likewise the
Shrews. At some future time one will not believe that the Bats and
Shrews were once placed next to the Apes.
3573. Doubt, however, may exist concerning the rank of the Carnivorous
or Rapacious animals; so that here the principles of our philosophy
must be brought to bear in our behalf. I regard then these animals as
the highest representatives of the sensorial organs. By this step three
families at once take their proper positions, viz.:
Man upon the station or rank of the Eye.
The Apes on that of the Ear.
The Bears upon the post of the Nose.
Difficulties are consequently presented in regard only to the Rapacious
animals, but which are removed, so soon as the three families just
named are parallelized with the others thus:
Bone, Tongue, Whales.
Muscles, Nose, Pigs--Bears.
Nerves, Ear, Cattle--Apes.
Senses, Eye--Man.
Now the Seals range of themselves next the Whales.
There are thus left the Rapacious animals proper, which as Dermatozoa
or Sentient animals must consequently correspond to the Splanchnozoa.
In favour of this, evidence is afforded not only by the particular use
made of their feet, but their great number also, which can admit of
comparison with no individual family or order.
Now, however, there are three orders of Murine animals.
1. Rodent Mice--the Rodentia proper.
2. Chewing Mice--the Sloths and Marsupialia.
3. Rapacious Mice--the Moles, Shrews, and Flitter-mice, or Bats.
In like manner do the rapacious Carnivora divide into three groups.
1. The mostly sneaking and scansorial Martens and Viverræ.
2. The sneaking and fossorial Skunks, Gluttons, and Badgers, with soles
and blunt claws.
3. The high-legged Digitigrades, as Dogs, Hyænæ, and Cats.
As I have given up the dental formula in the Rodentia as a means of
division, so now it seems to me that it must be abandoned also in
the Beasts of Prey. The whole appearance of them and their mode of
living, which is still the main point in view, obviously directs us
more towards consideration of the feet, than of the dental formula. The
Marten or Weasel kind were formerly compared with the Mice, and called
on that account Mustela. They cannot be regarded otherwise than as the
lowest in rank.
Unto them are obviously annexed the short-legged Civets, despite their
cunoidal set of teeth. Many have half soles or pads under the feet.
With these again the Fox-like animals, notwithstanding their viverrine
dental formula, enter into alliance. I believe that I have rightly
parted the Badger from the Bears, and rightly done it too in this place.
The highest are without doubt the Dogs, Hyænas, and Cats, with their
long and upright legs, not to speak of their mental faculties. We
accordingly obtain the following arrangement.
_Fam. 13._ Dermal Thricozoa--_Carnaria_.
All kinds of teeth included; six broad incisors, a longer canine,
two to three small false molars, a large carnivorous tooth and large
Querzahn, and frequently also the Kornzahn. Mostly five separated
toes, with nails resting upwards, and either sharp or obtuse feet,
occasionally soled. They eat flesh, mostly that of warm-blooded
animals, and kill their prey themselves.
_Alliance 1. Rodent-like Unguiculate Animals--Schleicher._
Feet short and oblique, mostly sharp claws without entire soles.
_1. Mole-like Animals--Martens._
Sharp claws without soles, and no Kornzahn--Martens and Otters.
_2. Squirrel-like--Civets._
Sharp, curved, and mostly retractile claws, superiorly the
Kornzahn--Civet, Paradoxurus.
_3. Leporine or Hare-like--Ichneumons._
Straight claws with half soles--Ichneumon, Ryzæna.
_Alliance 2. Kaumausartige--Fossores._
Large and straight claws with soles, no Kornzahn.
_1. Sloth-like Animals--Mephitic Animals._
Dental formula, like that of the Marten--Skunk, Mydaus.
_2. Wombat-like--Gluttons._
Dental formula, like that of Marten, but behind the carnivorous is a
small tubercular tooth which is wider, being broader than long.
_3. Opossum-like--Badgers._
The tuberculous tooth larger than the carnivorous tooth, and nearly
quadrangular.
_Alliance 3. Raubmausartige--Digitigrada._
Legs high and upright; no soles.
_1. Mole-like--Dogs._
Claws blunt, the Kornzahn both in upper and lower jaw.
_2. Shrew-like--Hyænas._
Claws blunt; no Kornzahn but a small Querzahn.
_3. Bat-like--Cats._
Claws sharp, curved, and retractile; no lower tubercular tooth, but a
small upper one.
_Fam. 14._ Lingual Thricozoa, _Seals_.
Feet fin-shaped, the hinder pair stretched out, dental formula
complete, but the lateral teeth tolerably even, and six or four
incisors; tongue mostly somewhat slit. They correspond to the Whales.
_Fam. 15._ Nasal Thricozoa, _Bears_.
Nose elongated into a snout, walk upon soles; all kinds of teeth, of
which, however, the carnivorous or tearing tooth is similar to the
grinders, six incisors.
The slower gait, originating from their walking on the soles of the
feet, with the less pointed molars, assign to these animals a less
rapacious habit of living. They therefore kill no large animals, and
are satisfied with worms and even roots, fruit, and honey. They repeat
the Pigs.
_Fam. 16._ Nasal Thricozoa, _Apes_.
The ears begin to acquire the human form, as do even the teeth; never
more than four incisors, but a longer canine; hands both fore and aft.
These animals live upon fruits and beetles, and are by their scansorial
feet destined to live upon trees. Their varied, piping, and sonorous
cry is a property of the sense of hearing, and along with it the larynx
also usually obtains a stronger amount of development.
3574. It seems that every family of Thricozoa contains five genera,
and that these accord with the organs of sense. In many families this
relation is at least striking, e. g.
Among the Pigs the Elephant is obviously characterized by the nose, the
Hippopotamus by the skin, the Pig by the dental system; and thus by the
sense of taste, the Rhinoceros by large ears, the Horse by the eyes,
thus
1. Skin Hippopotamus.
2. Tongue Pig.
3. Nose Elephant.
4. Ear Rhinoceros.
5. Eye Horse.
In like manner do the Ruminantia or Cattle become distinctly marshalled
according to the five senses. The Camel recedes from the others by its
simply uplying hoofs, the Musk-deer by its monstrous canine; the Goat
is distinguished by its fine sense of smell, and the Giraffe by its
large ears, the Ox by the large and beautiful eye, thus
1. Hautrind Camel.
2. Zungen- Musk-deer.
3. Nasen- Goat.
4. Ohren- Giraffe.
5. Augen- Ox.
In the Bears also we are confronted by this principle of classification.
The Skin-bear is the Common Bear.
The Tongue- " is the Raccoon.
The Nose- " is the Nasua.
The Ear- " is the Arctitis.
The Eye- " is the Cercoleptes.
After this principle had been so strikingly verified in several
families, I proceeded with confidence also to those which were more
difficult, and it resulted that each consists only of five genera
severally distinguished by the predominance of some one organ of
sense. This method has been carried out throughout my "Allgemeine
Naturgeschichte."
_Fam. 17._ Ophthalmozoa, _Man_.
Superiorly or in front hands, inferiorly or behind soles.
3575. Here all the senses enter for the first time into a state of
perfect equiponderance or proportion. Skin naked, and therefore a
perfect organ of feeling; feet and hands differently constructed for
progression and manipulation; tongue and lips fleshy, while the latter
have hitherto been only tegumental; all the kinds of teeth different,
but still very similar, being of equal height and nearly equal
size; nose elevated by its whole length from the face, and fleshy;
ears oval, laid close against the head and having regular windings
or convolutions; eyes directed forwards, with perfect eyelids, and
moveable in all directions.
3576. Man by the upright walk obtains his character, namely, that of
bodily freedom, for his hind feet take the place of all the four feet
of other animals, by which means the hands become free and can achieve
all other offices, the feet alone serving to support the body.
He is the only animal that surveys with the axes of the eyes borne
parallel the most extensive horizon. All animals whose eyes look higher
up or above the ground, as the Horse, Elephant, Ostrich, and such like
creatures, have eyes directed sideways.
3577. With the freedom of the body has been granted also the freedom of
the mind. Man sees everything, the whole universe, while the animals
can only view individual parts thereof, two of these even invariably
appearing different, so that the images seen by them are never reduced
to unity.
3578. There is only one human family, only one human genus, and only
one species; and this just because Man is the whole Animal Kingdom.
3579. But yet there are five kinds or varieties of Men, according with
the development of the sensorial organs.
1. The Skin-Man is the _Black_, African.
2. The Tongue- " is the _Brown_, Australian--Malayan.
3. The Nose- " is the _Red_, American.
4. The Ear- " is the _Yellow_, Asiatic--Mongolian.
5. The Eye- " is the _White_, European.
_Co-arrangement._
3580. The classes of Sarcozoa pass or rank parallel to each other in
the following manner:
| CLASS X. | CLASS XI. | CLASS XII. |
| | | |
Anatomical | Osteozoa, | Myozoa, | Neurozoa, |
_Systems_. | _Fishes_. | _Reptiles_. | _Birds_. |
| | | |
I. _Intestinal._ | _Ord._ I. | _Ord._ I. | _Ord._ I. |
| | | |
|F. |F. |F. |
Stomach--Infusoria |1. Lampreys |1. Salamanders |1. Tree Creepers|
Intestine--Polypi |2. Plectognathi|2. Frogs |2. Woodpeckers |
Absorbents--Acalephæ.|3. Shads. |3. Tortoises. |3. Cuckoos. |
| | | |
II. _Vascular._ | _Ord._ II. | _Ord._ II. | _Ord._ II. |
| | | |
Veins--Mussels |4. Eels |4. Schuppen- |4. Sparrows |
Arteries--Snails |5. Haddocks |5. Tafel- |5. Crows |
Heart--Kracken. |6. Grundeln. |6. Schienens- |6. Parrots. |
| | chlangen. | |
| | | |
III. _Pulmonary_. | _Ord._ III. | _Ord._ III. | _Ord._ III. |
| | | |
Skin--Worms. |7. Tunnies |7. Schleichen- |7. Singing-birds|
Branchiæ--Crabs |8. Breams |8. Schuppen- |8. Fly-catchers |
Tracheæ--Flies. |9. Perch. |9. Schienen- |9. Hawks. |
| | Echsen.| |
| | | |
IV. _Flesh._ | _Ord._ IV. | _Ord._ IV. | _Ord._ IV. |
| | | |
Bones--Fishes |10. Herrings |10. Icthyosauri |10. Geese |
Muscles--Reptiles |11. Salmons |11. Geckos |11. Herons |
Nerves--Birds. |12. Pike. |12. Pterodactyli.|12. Fowls. |
| | | |
V. _Senses._ | _Ord._ V. | _Ord._ V. |_Ord._ V. |
| | | |
Thricozoa. |13. Sharks. |13. Crocodiles. |13. Bustards. |
| CLASS XIII. |
| |
Anatomical | Sense-animals,| Aisthesio- | Sense-Organs.
_Systems_. | _Thricozoa_. | _Thricozoa_. | 1. _Tegument._
| | 13. Mausartige |
I. _Intestinal._ | _Ord._ I. | 1. Wühlmäuse | I. _Ovum._
| | |
|F. |F. |
Stomach--Infusoria |1. Wühlmäuse |1. Martens |Vitellus--Infusoria
Intestine--Polypi |2. Kletter- " |2. Civets |Albumen--Polypi
Absorbents--Acalephæ.|3. Lauf- " |3. Ichneumons. |Envelopes--Acalephæ.
| | |
II. _Vascular._ | _Ord._ II. | 2. Kaumäuse | II. _Sex._
| | |
Veins--Mussels |4. Sloths |4. Skunks |Spawn--Mussels
Arteries--Snails |5. Beutelhasen |5. Gluttons |Milt--Snails
Heart--Kracken. |6. Beutelmarder.|6. Badgers. |Kidneys--Kracken.
| | |
III. _Pulmonary._ | _Ord._ III. | 3. Raubmäuse | III. _Limbs._
| | |
Skin--Worms. |7. Scheermäuse |7. Dogs |Papillæ--Worms
Branchiæ--Crabs |8. Shrews |8. Hyænas |Feet--Crabs
Tracheæ--Flies. |9. Bats. |9. Cats. |Wings--Flies.
| | |
| | | IV. _Cephalic
IV. _Flesh._ | _Ord._ IV. | | Senses._
| | |
Bones--Fishes |10. Whales |14. Seals |2. _Tongue_--Fishes
Muscles--Reptiles |11. Pigs |15. Bears |3. _Nose_--Reptiles
Nerves--Birds. |12. Ruminants. |16. Apes. |4. _Ears_--Birds
| | |
V. _Senses._ | _Ord._ V. | |
| | |
Thricozoa. |13. Aisthesio- |17. Man. |5. _Eyes_
| | | --Thricozoa.
| Thricozoa.| |
3581. By the accompanying table the parallelism of the different
families is recognized, as well as their remaining relationships, both
among themselves as also with the Asarcous animals, if their table at
p. 614 be compared with it, and which could not for want of room be
inserted here.
3582. It is, moreover, proved from this table that the classes stand
one above the other, but yet that each recommences from below, so that
the lower animals of a higher class are more stunted or rudimental
than the upper ones of a lower class. Thus the Salamanders are more
rudimental, that is, they have organs more imperfect than the Sharks;
the Tree-creepers are more rudimental than the Crocodiles, the Mice
than the Fowls and Bustards.
Nevertheless these stunted animals stand higher than those of the lower
classes, because they are characterized by a higher organ.
What holds good of the classes holds good again of the orders and
families also. The lower animal of a consecutive family is again more
rudimental than the upper one of the antecedent family. Thus the
Ornithorynchus is more rudimental than the Beaver, the Shrew-mouse more
rudimental than the Opossum and such like creatures.
In the highest families the equiponderance is first restored, and the
lowest Man is still higher than the uppermost Ape.
IV. PSYCHOLOGY.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMALS.
3583. The present section treats concerning the functions of the Whole
animal, just as the preceding one did of those belonging to individual
organs. It is at bottom the psychological part of Physio-philosophy.
The functions are so numerous and difficult also to arrange, that I
place this section here, to point out rather its situation than to
follow out or trace its development.
3584. All the functions of an entire animal are spiritual or sensorial
functions; at least they are conditionated by the senses, and I will
also speak of them only in this respect. The mechanical and chemical
functions have been already comprehended in the physiological part. The
senses only make their appearance gradually in animals, and with them
also the spiritual functions.
A. FUNCTIONS OF THE DERMATOZOA.
1. _Enterozoa or Oozoa._
3585. These animals are governed chiefly by a passive sense of feeling,
from their consisting for the most part of a naked, homogeneous, and
gelatinous integument, and living in water, an element wherein the
other senses can be but slightly active.
3586. Their sense of feeling stands upon the lowest grade, since it is
only the sensibility of the tegument, there being no articulated organs
of touch, so that it consists only in the discrimination of an opposing
object.
The ability or power to discriminate is not yet consciousness; for unto
this a reflexion upon the object discriminated is necessary.
The Infusoria, Polypi, and Acalephæ, simply feel that something else is
there, but they are so completely imprisoned in this feeling that they
are unable to submit the same to an internal process of comparison.
3587. By reason of this inability to compare their own feelings, not a
trace is left unto them of internal change; so that these creatures are
truly devoid of memory or recollection.
The Infusoria have only sensation, nothing else; they are therefore in
ceaseless motion. They are actually capable of nothing but moving and
eating. Of all other spiritual functions they are utterly devoid.
3588. Their spiritual life is in some degree a mesmeric condition.
Destitute of the senses of seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting, they
feel every thing, or, properly speaking, perform all these functions
at _one and the same time_, and by _one_ organ, the visceral mass.
By mesmerism they find their food, perceive the light, and become
transparent unto themselves, just as they are really in a physical
point of view. For they are only viscera or visceral nerves.
_Development of the Mind._
3589. The mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these
animals. The human body has been formed by an extreme separation of
the neuro-protoplasmic or mucous mass. So must the human mind be a
separation, a memberment of infusorial sensation.
3590. The highest mind is an anatomized or dismembered mesmerism, each
member whereof has been constituted independent in itself.
The skeleton of this dissected mind, when scientifically represented,
would be the science of the mind, i. e. Philosophy, properly so called.
Pneumato-philosophy is the likeness of Physio-philosophy. For spirit is
only the tension of nature, and nature only the spirit set in motion.
The philosophy of spirit must develop itself out of the philosophy of
nature, as doth the flower out of the stem. For nature is the spirit
analyzed and at rest, which we can handle at our pleasure. It does not
appear only for an instant; but as stone, air and such like entities,
abideth always, as if to solicit and preserve us for its investigation.
A Philosophy or Ethicks apart from Physio-philosophy is a nonentity, a
bare contradiction, just as a flower without a stem is a non-existent
thing.
3591. As many essential members as Physio-philosophy hath, into so many
must Pneumato-philosophy also divide, and this too so exactly that the
two shall cover each other.
The reason why one has hitherto rambled about in Pneumato-philosophy
without ballast and without compass, depends solely upon the disregard
which has been paid to the science or knowledge of Nature. It is in
fact not difficult to understand how impossible it must be, from
observations made upon the rapidly evanescent phenomena of the spirit,
to thence abstract a system of the laws in conformity wherewith this
spirit manifests itself or acts. Spirit is nothing different from
Nature, but simply her purest outbirth or offspring, and therefore her
symbol, her language. With such a basis as this, we shall no longer
pursue the _ignes fatui_ of the mind, but first of all endeavour
to banish them into the provinces or realms of Nature, and there
co-ordinate them in conformity with her laws; then for the first time
shall we recognize the flaming lights of the mind and the divine
voices, which all matter proclaimeth through the speech of Man.
He, who were once in a condition to reveal or disclose this conformity
of Nature's phenomena with those of Spirit, will have learnt the
philosophy of the latter.
2. _Functions of the Vascular or Sexual Animals._
3592. These animals are no longer merely sentient, 'clairvoyant'
Acalephæ, because, in addition to the nervous mass, they are provided
with other systems, such as the sexual and vascular, with the special
organs of digestion and taste.
These three or four organs must also resolve themselves into three
spiritual functions; the vascular system furnishes special organs of
feeling and therewith a voluntary sense of feeling; the intestine and
chiefly the liver is now the cardinal organ, and will therefore execute
the mesmerically percipient functions.
3593. In the liver the faculty of anticipation and foresight, with
melancholy, choleric passion, and anger, appear to reside. Encephalic
thought is reflected in it.
The liver is the soul in a state of sleep, the brain is the soul active
and awakening. In it the spirit broods unconsciously for years, and
then breaks forth fearfully, as capriciousness, tyranny and sorrow, but
also as earnestness and strength.
Circumspection and foresight appear to be the thoughts of the Bivalve
Mollusca and Snails.
Gazing upon a Snail, one believes that he finds the prophesying goddess
sitting upon the tripod. What majesty is in a creeping Snail, what
reflection, what earnestness, what timidity and yet at the same time
what firm confidence! Surely a Snail is an exalted symbol of mind
slumbering deeply within itself.
The old artists must have felt this signification, as in many of their
representations they have introduced a Snail. One can hardly think,
that in so doing they wished to express such common and lascivious
ideas, as are at present manifested openly or secretly by our daily
enjoyments.
3594. The intestine must moreover be concerned with the sense of taste.
Taste, however, leads to voracity, gluttony, daintiness, sluggishness
and drowsiness.
3595. Taste in union with the sexual function is the expression of
venery or lust.
This is indicated by the secretion of slime, by the monstrous size too
of the sexual organs, and by their androgynism, which enables either
individual during copulation to enjoy the delicious feeling, belonging
to the male and female, either at once or alternately. Their food also
appears to be selected from a feeling of desire.
Circumspection in feeling, dainty voracity, and immoderate lust appear
to constitute the spiritual character of the Malacozoa, especially of
the Snails.
_3. Functions of the Respiratory or Arthric Animals._
3596. The Insect is mainly an aerial and motor organ, and therefore its
spirit is also of an aerial and motor kind.
The respiratory process produces strength, and this again courage, both
which are the distinguishing properties of Insects. The Insect is the
strongest and boldest animal upon the earth.
Health, plenitude of life, generosity, nobleness, and heroism dwell in
the thorax.
3597. But besides these virtues the spirit of the thorax is also that
of smell. Insects have an excellent sense of smell, the spirit of which
is _cunningness_ and treachery, wherein no animal will easily surpass
them.
3598. The Insect has moreover a spirit of motion or versatility of the
tactile sense, which is displayed in the representation of symmetrical
figures. This faculty proceeds especially from the creative sexual
functions--as mechanical or _artistic instinct_.
All spirit of motion launches out into mechanical instinct. It
disappears in all classes of animals, which chiefly correspond to the
sex and belly, as, e. g. in Fishes and Reptiles. On the other hand, in
the moveable thoracic animals or Birds, the mechanical instincts at
once re-appear.
Mechanical instinct and dexterity of limbs run parallel together.
The dexterity of the limbs taken up into the spirit is an _art-sense_.
B. FUNCTIONS OF THE CEPHALOZOA.
3599. Here the head is for the first time placed in a perfect
condition, and hence an antagonism arises for the first time between
head and trunk.
The Cephalozoon no longer distinguishes nature and self only like the
acephalous and amnemonic animals; but it distinguishes even its body
from its head, because the Fish has begun to be a double animal.
3600. The Cephalozoon hath _consciousness_; consciousness of its
condition, of its body, but not of its head and the operations therein.
It has _no self-consciousness_.
3601. As soon as an animal contemplates a part of its body, of its
world, and hath consciousness in a general sense, it has also _memory_.
For memory is a repetition of _its own_ condition, not the reiterated
feeling of a foreign object.
The Acephalous or anencephalic animals have therefore no memory,
because they live only in opposition to the world, but never in
antagonism to themselves. Every perception is therefore a new one for
them, because it is always an actual object which excites them. Whether
Insects have memory, has not yet been made out.
3602. The brainless animals have no ideas, and naturally so, because
they have no consciousness.
It would appear likewise that they do not feel pain.
The Cephalozoa have ideas, and quite certainly pains, because they
become partly an object unto themselves.
4. _Functions of the Osteo-or Glossozoa._
3603. The Fish's head is the lowest, and therefore its mind also will
manifest only the first function, that ranks above the mind of the
Acephalozoa, the _memory_.
With this memory, however, all the spiritual functions, exhibited by
the preceding classes, but chiefly mesmerism, have been bestowed.
3604. Fishes are again provident, zealous animals, that, drawn together
by mysterious bands, make the longest voyages, wherein they ascend and
descend rivers, knowing how to find their prey over miles in extent.
All the mechanical instincts are, on the contrary, obliterated in
them, as being fingerless, finned animals. Their principal business is
propagation--Pelvic animals.
3605. Gluttony is the principal character of the Glossozoa, in so far
as taste stands upon the lowest stage. Touch and taste are only motion
and deglutition.
Smell becomes evidently stronger.
The ear still ranks upon the lowest stage, but yet they hear closely.
In other respects they are mute, and exhibit all the consequences of
aphony.
3606. Fishes are of the Phlegmatic temperament.
5. _Functions of the Myo-or Rhinozoa._
3607. Reptiles are Cephalozoa with well-developed lungs and nose, and
are therefore gifted with voice.
3608. To memory comes the art of _ambuscade_ or lying in wait, a
property of the olfactory sense, the application of memory. The
circumspection of the Snails passes over into ambuscade and surprise.
With this character the higher perfection of the belly or of the
digestive system, along with the poisoning saliva, is in parallel
accordance. To take by surprise and to poison are acts of _one_ series.
3609. Reptiles appear enabled to _reflect_, i. e. several reminiscences
are at their bidding. Now, the comparison of these constitutes
reflection. They are therefore more sagacious than Fishes, docile and
in some measure susceptible of instruction.
3610. The courage, which they have probably obtained through their
aerial respiration, passes over more into impudence and sauciness.
3611. Reptiles are of the Melancholic crasis.
6. _Functions of the Neuro-or Otozoa._
3612. The spirit of the thorax and limbs is here predominant, whence
comes the restlessness and mechanical instinct of the Bird.
The motor sense, the ear, is the prominent one. The ear, however, is
partly the sense for the Indefinite, partly for the demolition of
matter. The auditory spirit is _fear_.
But it passes over into joy, passion, levity, if it perfectly perceives
tones.
3613. With the ear and the moveable organs of voice originates a
kind of language, which is in a condition to express a multitude of
sentiments. The language of Birds hath not a few tones, and expresses
not a few passions.
3614. The Bird knits or associates for the first time with some
completeness a sense, or definite sensation, to a simple tone. The Bird
hath for the first time _signs_, or symbols, which are not the things
themselves, but only _signify_ or mean them.
The Bird understands the relation of the spiritual expression to the
organ or matter. It comprehends a connexion where none is materially,
but which is only imparted by the idea.
The capacity to understand the thing in the image or idea, I call
_imagination_, and of this Birds furnish us with very definite proofs.
Birds can therefore dream.
3615. Reptiles and Fishes appear to have no ideas because they have no
_signs_, or tones, indicating the resolution of the organ into mind.
For the tone is none other than the ghost of the organ or animal.
Fishes and Reptiles do not indeed dream.
3616. The Bird, however, appears to get no further than to mere images
or ideas. The conception is wanting unto them.
It has therefore no sense of shame. But possesses in a full degree
circumspection, desire of imitation, comparison.
3617. To the Bird it is not simply the sensation of its body that
becomes, like a foreign product, objective; but its own product, its
voice, as something already distinct from its own mind.
3618. It is clear, that if all the sensorial functions were to become
objective to the Bird, it would be self-apparent and resolve itself
into self-consciousness. Thus does self-consciousness sprout forth
gradually with the sensorial functions.
3619. Birds are of the Sanguineous temperament.
7. _Functions of the Æsthesio-or Ophthalmozoa._
3620. All the faculties hitherto mentioned occur here. The soul of
the eye is still associated with them, and therewith the faculties of
perception, understanding and conception appear to be bestowed.
One cannot refuse understanding to the Thricozoa. The actions of the
Dog, Horse and Elephant, do not admit otherwise of being conceived; nor
also the shame and pride, fidelity, animosity, desire of revenge, and
yet many other properties exhibited by these animals.
But it is an understanding without self-consciousness, if we may so
venture to express ourselves; an understanding of many signs, but
devoid of any combination and separation of these signs; in a word,
there is no faculty of _judgment_.
The Thricozoa are Choleric animals.
8. _Functions of the Panæsthetic Animal._
3621. If finally all its organs become objective to the animal, through
contemplation of the universe, through hearkening of the animal
restored into symbols; it thus contemplates itself, is apparent unto
itself, and is quite conscious of itself.
Then is the animal equivalent to the whole animal kingdom and to the
universe.
3622. The universal spirit is _Man_.
In the human race the world has become individual. Man is the entire
image or likeness of the world. His language is the spirit of the
world. All the functions of animals have attained unto unity, unto
self-consciousness, in Man.
3623. The thorough penetration of all the animal's symbols, the
comparison of all the world's symbols, and thus free comparison is
_Reason_.
The understanding compares only the symbols of sounds, of men; but the
reason compares also the symbols of light, of the world.
Reason is world-understanding; the understanding is animal reason.
All the mental functions of animals have become ratiocinative in Man.
Feeling is in him consciousness, consciousness is self-consciousness,
the understanding is reason, the passion, freedom, the mechanical
instinct artistic sense, the comparison science.
3624. The spirits of the senses are Art-spirits, the spirit of reason
is the spirit of Science.
_Art._
3625. Art is the representation of the senses in Nature.
3626. The sense is, however, the last or ultimate design of Nature.
Art is consequently the representation of _Nature's design_. (Ed. 1st,
1811. § 3517.)
3627. That is beautiful which represents the will of Nature.
But non-beautiful is that which represents real Nature by means of art.
3628. Art is one universal business. Beautiful is that, which
represents the world within a fragment or portion of the world.
3629. There is also one natural beauty--unconscious formation of the
world's laws.
3630. The highest natural beauty is the universal portion of nature, i.
e. Man.
Man expresses the ultimate goal or purpose of Nature's design.
3631. The terminus or goal of Nature is, in Man to revert again into
herself. The human countenance most perfectly repeats the trunk,
and again reverts wholly and actually into the trunk. That human
countenance is beautiful, in which the vertebral column runs back again
parallel with the vertebral column of the trunk. The facial vertebral
column is the nose.
3632. The face is _beautiful_, whose nose runs parallel to the spine.
No human face has grown unto this estate, but every nose makes an acute
angle with the spine. The facial angle is, as is well known, 80°.
What as yet no Man has remarked, and what is not to be remarked either
without our view of the cranial signification, the old artists have
felt through inspiration. They have not only made the facial angle a
right angle, but have even stepped beyond this, the Romans going up to
96°, the Greeks even to 100°.
Whence comes it, that this unnatural face of the Grecian works of art,
is still more beautiful than that of the Roman, when the latter comes
nearer unto Nature? The reason thereof resides in the fact of the
Grecian's artistic face representing Nature's design more than that of
the Roman; for in the former the nose is placed quite perpendicular,
or parallel to the spinal cord, and thus returns whither it has been
derived.
3633. He who paints or otherwise copies Nature in a purely mechanical
manner, is consequently a bungler; he is devoid of ideas, and imitates
her no better than a bird does song, or an ape the postures of the
human body. The province of Art is alas! not yet understood.
3634. In Man all the beauties of nature are associated or combined.
3635. Thus, Nature can be beautiful, in so far as she represents the
individual ideas of Man.
3636. There are only two art-senses, the eye and the ear; and thus but
two departments of art, the Plastic and Sonant, or that of _form_ and
of _motion_.
3637. The province of form represents the material universe in its
ideas, its design, and thus in its freedom.
3638. The representation of the bodily universe in the ideas is the
_Architectural art_. (Ed. 1st 1811, § 3533.)
3639. The representation of heaven in the Plastic, is the church
architecture.
The temple or church is the art of heaven.
3640. The representation of the planet in the Plastic is the house.
The house is the art of the planet.
The architectural art is the cosmical art.
3641. The representation of the Individual is the _Sculptor's art_.
The sculptural art represents the Terrestrial, and in its highest
estate Man. It is the _Heroic art_.
3642. This art rendered manifest in matter, or repeated in light, is
Painting.
Painting represents the symbol, the naught of the world, the heavenly,
and also in its lowest estate a Spiritual.
Painting is the art of religion, the _Sacred art_.
Painting is the art of heathens, whose deities are men; Painting is the
art of Christians, whose Men, being sacred or holy, are gods.
God can be painted, but not formed or sculptured.
3643. The art of motion represents the material and the spiritual
motion.
3644. The representation of the world's material laws of motion is the
_Dance_.
3645. The representation of the motion of individuals is the _Histrionic
art_.
3646. The representation of the world's spiritual laws of motion, of
the laws of the dance, is _Music_.
3647. The spiritual representation of the Histrionic is the _Poetic
art_.
_Science._
3648. The representation of the rational world is Science.
3649. The first science is the _Science of Language_, the architecture
of science, the earth.
3650. The second science is the _Art of Rhetoric_, the sculpture of
science, the river.
3651. The third science is _Philosophy_, the painting of science, the
respiration or breath.
This, like painting, divides into a number of branches, whereof the art
of government is the highest.
3652. The fourth science is the _Art of War_, the art of motion,
histrionism, music, poetic art of science, the light.
As in the art of poetry all arts have been blended, so in the art of
war have all sciences and all arts.
The art of War is the highest, most exalted art; the art of freedom
and of right, of the blessed condition of Man and of humanity--the
Principle of Peace.
THE END.
End of Project Gutenberg's Elements of Physiophilosophy, by Lorenz Oken