BIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS.
A.--_ORGANOSOPHY_.
I.--ORGANOGENY.
A. _Galvanism._
867. If we take a retrospective glance at the _development_ of the
planet, we find that it commenced with the simplest actions, and
then assumed a more elevated character by gradually drawing together
several actions and letting them work in common. In magnetism the
earth-element alone was active, and this having freed itself from the
other elements by crystallization, asserted itself as a particular
form upon the planet. By this single act of the planet, an extensive
series of positions or numbers originated, which may be called _mineral
individuals_.
868. Up to the formation of the solar system or of the planet, the
character of creation is _analytic_. The three primary ideas emerged
from each other as gravity, light and heat, and appeared as fire.
These three united actions emerged again from each other and became
air, water and earth, which together make up the planet. This was
therefore the descending creation. But from and after this period, the
character of the development of the planet becomes _synthetic_, for the
divided elements again united with each other. By synthesis only or by
combination of the elements does the planet progressively advance,
and by it only does it divide into lesser planetary masses or bodies,
called _individuals_. This is the ascending creation.
869. To the earth-element, in which the active magnetism is isolated,
comes the element-water; and by the identification of both into _one_
body, a new process is evolved, which we have recognized by the term
_chemism_--salt. Then the earth-element combines with air and becomes
an Inflammable, in which the process is likewise extinguished and only
a dead product is left--the Inflammable. Then it combines with fire
and is converted into ore. There never originates therefore from the
twofold combination of the earth-element with any other element, but
one product, that namely in which the Earthy obtains the preponderance,
or a mineral.
870. _Two_ elements only belong to the essence of chemism, and they
indeed are the two lowest, the elements carbon and oxygen, both being
reduced to their primary condition, i. e. to that of an alkali in
natron, and an acid in the hydrochloric or that of common salt.
871. As the principle or rationale of chemical action consists only
in the potentiality of two elements to revert to their polar, or the
oxygenous, condition, this action must thus become extinct, so soon as
the creation of the new or secondary element has resulted. For if the
tension equalizes itself in the two, and the two only be coexistent, so
in accordance with the compensation no new tension can originate, and
yet such is the groundwork of all chemical action. The result of the
chemical process is consequently death; and furthermore, because it is
also a simple bin-elementary process, it cannot be the ultimate goal or
limit attained by the development of the planet.
872. The next stage to which the genesis of the planet ascends consists
in the bin-elementary processes being associated with the _third_
terrestrial element. In this manner a process originates in which the
powers of _earth_ and of _water_ marry or conjoin with the power of
_air_, and thus originates a chemical power or chemism, influenced by
the air.
873. The chemism, when influenced by air, is one of a perpetual
character; for this power dies only because the tension of its two
elements is balanced or equalized; the influence of the air is,
however, none other than the constant renewal of the tension.
874. Now, the process of tension in the air is electrism or that action
in which the two poles being devoid of indifference range opposite to
each other, can therefore never unite, and the end attained by which is
oxydation. The new process is consequently a chemical power constantly
excited by electrism--it is an _electro-chemism_. (Ed. 1st, 1810.) This
composite process is known under the name of _Galvanism_.
875. Hereby the galvanism has been most rigorously and
characteristically separated from the chemism, and the succession of
stages been exactly indicated. By the accession of a single but higher
nature-factor, namely, the air, chemism advances one and _only_ one
stage higher. We have consequently made no leap or abrupt transition
in tracing out our genesis of nature. Magnetism is the uni-elementary,
chemism the bin-elementary, galvanism the tri-elementary process of the
_planet_, in so far as it is occupied with its own evolution, or that
of the _Solid_.
876. Considered in relation to the result and also the internal nature
of the process, galvanism is in no wise different from chemism, but
only in reference to the continuance of the tension. The fluid and
solid are in both the co-equal media or means; the decompositions,
separations and combinations also, are alike in both. The air has no
other office than to sustain the opposition, which in chemism proceeds
through the difference of the two unipolar elements, acid and alkali.
877. The air maintains this animosity of the elements only
by oxydation, and so far takes part in the contest like a
fellow-combatant; yet this invariably happens only while the water is
preserved by these means in its primary condition, that of the acid.
The air breathes life only into the chemical body, without being body
itself. No galvanism therefore continues, if it be denied the access of
air. The chain or column enters it is true into tension also without
air, but remains only for a short time in that state, or so long only
as there is a trace of oxygen in the water.
878. Galvanism, as a tri-elementary process, represents the planet in
its _totality_. The galvanic column is an entire planet, a planet upon
the planet, the planet individualized.
879. The individual, taken in a strong sense, is an entire planet taken
up into Singulars, a triplicity of the elements in the particular or
_special_ unity. In galvanism there consequently issues forth for the
first time an individual, which is equivalent to a cosmic totality.
Galvanism is the metatype of the planet. All other and profounder
processes are not total in character, nor metatypes of a whole system,
but only moieties thereof.
880. The planet, regarded in itself, in its three elements, apart
from its relation to the sun, is a galvanic body, a column, just as
inversely this is a planet.
881. The attributes, which consequently belong to the planet,
abstractedly from the sun, must belong to every galvanic process, or
to such a body. The planet is a Whole included in itself, and thus is
galvanism. The latter acts only in a closed chain, or only by its own
body or its materiality forming _one_ circle that returns into itself.
The three elements are mutually self-excited and moved, and that indeed
from internal causes, though not apart from external conditions. Thus
galvanism is like an individual planet.
B. _Primary Organism._
882. An individual (total, self-included) body, excited and moved by
itself, is called _Organism_. _Organism is what individual planet is._
The metatype of the planet is organism; or a planet upon the planet
is organism. The planet is not itself an organism, because it is not
individual or galvanic in every point.
883. The self-excitation of the individualized elements, is called life.
884. Galvanism is the principle of life. There is no other vital force
than the galvanic polarity. The heterogeneity of the three terrestrial
elements in a circumscribed individual body is the _vital force_. The
galvanic process is one with the vital process.
885. Organism is galvanism residing in a thoroughly _homogeneous mass_.
The galvanic column is no organism, because it only admits the galvanic
process just as the planet does, in individual places. A body only,
which is zinc-pole, silver-pole and moist pulp at every conceivable
point, is an organism. A galvanic pile, pounded into atoms must become
alive. In this manner nature brings forth organic bodies.
886. Electrism has a basis; it is the air. Magnetism has a basis; it
is the metal. Chemism has a basis; it is the salt. So has galvanism a
basis; it is the organic mass.
887. Accordingly, what would be organic, must be galvanic; what would
be alive, must be galvanic. Life is not different from organism, nor
also from galvanism. For life is verily the vital process. But the
vital process is an organic, galvanic process. Galvanism lies at the
basis of all the processes of the organic world. They are either
modifications of it, or only its combinations with other and still
higher actions. A living thing, which is not galvanic, is a nonentity.
888. With galvanism consequently the first step has been made out of
the inorganic into the organic kingdom. Every aught of nature, which
has hitherto originated, is inorganic. These, however, were mere
individualities. The character of the Inorganic consists consequently
in something being a Singular, a moiety, or a metatype of a Singular;
the character of the Organic in its being the metatype of a whole or
round number. Organic things are internal self-exciting numbers; the
inorganic things are fractions.
889. Every fraction is dead. No moiety can attain to life, for it does
not receive its complement. What is simply fluid, cannot be organic,
because it is not the totality of the planet. What is simply solid,
cannot be organic. It is only a third of the organism. Every organism
is produced according to the laws of galvanism, according to the law of
the triplicity.
890. As the terrestrial magnetism is indeed only one, but includes an
infinity of magnets, which are rendered manifest in the progress of the
earth's life; so also in the great galvanism of the earth an infinite
number of subordinate galvanic triplicities reside inclosed, which
become gradually detached, and, instead of the universal galvanism,
represent an infinity of individual galvanisms. The universal galvanism
cannot exist, without establishing itself as an infinity of individual
galvanisms. As magnetism is only associated with the net of metallic
veins, so is the absolute only, with the universality of its finite
positions. The number of organisms is infinite, both in coexistence as
also in consecutive existence.
891. An organism is an individual in the rigid sense of the word,
because it is ruined, so soon as one of its three members parts from
the rest. In this sense only are there properly speaking organic
individuals.
892. If we do not confine indivisibility to what is mechanical, but
extend it also to the chemical; individuals may be likewise granted
to the mineral kingdom. The minerals are chemical individuals; for by
separation they are likewise annihilated as such, and moreover the
relation of mixture of chemical bodies is not one of an arbitrary
kind. The gray ores are a definite mixture of sulphur and antimony,
and are thereby individuals. The silver, lead, and copper, that
are accidentally mixed in this compound, do not at all alter the
individuality, and by no means prove a capacity residing in the
matters for mixture in all conceivable numbers. Such a mixture would
be a medley only. In plants and animals casual component parts occur
also frequently. Thus the individuality of the ruby-silver appears
to consist in the definite mixture of sulphur and arsenic, with the
addition perhaps of antimony. The silver is only mingled with it,
and therefore present in all numbers. The same holds good of the
bi-sulphurets of iron, and the glance-ores. (Ed. 1st, 1810.)
_Creation of the Organic._
893. It has been demonstrated from the genesis of the Organic, that
its essence consists in the universality of the planetary processes.
Every organic individual has essentially three processes in itself,
which must be regarded as its fundamental processes, whereof no one can
ever be wanting. Seeing, that if this be the case, the body is only a
chemical or magnetic, a crystallized carcase.
894. The first three planetary processes, namely, the earth-process,
water-process, and air-process, or the _forming_, _chemicalizing_, _and
electrifying or oxydizing processes_, are also the first three vital
processes.
895. It has been shown, that with every new process and with every
new combination of processes, the materials also of the same were
altered, ennobled, rendered more composite, and thereupon also more
decomposible. Herein also nature advances consecutively and creates new
materials for the organic world.
896. In the metamorphosis of the earths, when the chemism was added to
the process of formation, not only the alkalinity and acidity issued
forth in the calcareous earth and the salts, but the pure Earthy also
became free from fixity, and manifested itself as _carbon_ in the
carbonic acid.
897. The last product of an antecedent stage is always the basis of
that which is subsequent. _The fundamental matter of the organic world
is consequently the carbon._
a. ELEMENTARY BODY--PRIMARY MUCUS.
898. If in this carbon the three processes of the planet, namely, the
formative or its special, the chemicalizing or fluidizing, and the
electrifying or oxydizing, process, concentrate themselves, and are
present with all their energy in every atom of the organic body; so
must the mass of carbon be at the same time solid, fluid, and aerial,
oxydizable in every spot, and thus also _soft_. Now a carbon mixed
identically with water and air is _Mucus_.
899. Mucus is oxydized, hydrated carbon; or expressed in purely
philosophical language, mucus is the universality of the minerals and
elements, or the synthesis of earth, salt, Inflammable, and ore in
water and air.
900. Every Organic has issued out of mucus, is naught but mucus under
different forms. Every Organic is again soluble into mucus; by which
naught else is meant, than that the formed mucus becomes one devoid of
form.
901. _The primary mucus, out of which every thing organic has been
created, is the sea-mucus._
902. Mucus belongs originally and essentially to the sea, and has not
been mixed with the latter through the dissolution in it of putrefying
substances.
903. The sea-mucus has originated in the progress of planetary
development, like the calcareous earth has with the carbon and like
the sea-salt. As little as this could have entered the sea originally
through solution of rock-salt; so little could the mucus through the
perishing of animals and plants, for none of these were yet present,
but could be first developed, only with the production of this mucus.
904. The sea-mucus was originally generated through the influence of
light and by the denudation of the crude masses, especially of the
earths and salts, which was thereby effected; while with the metals and
Inflammables ranging opposite to these, the carbon thus became free,
and betook itself as carbonic acid to the water and air. Thus also has
salt been produced.
905. The sea-mucus, as well as the salt, is still produced by the
light. Everything takes place through the differentialization, or by
the absolution of fixed poles on the earth-element. _Light shines upon
the water, and it is salted. Light shines upon the salted sea, and it
lives._
906. All life is from the sea, none from the continent.
907. All mucus is endowed with life.
908. The whole sea is alive. It is a fluctuating, ever self-elevating
and ever self-depressing organism.
909. Where the sea-organism by self-elevation succeeds in attaining
unto form, there issues forth from it a higher organism. Love arose out
of the sea-foam.
910. The primary mucus was and is still generated in those very parts
of the sea where the water is in contact with earth and air, and thus
upon the shores.
911. The first creation of the Organic took place, where the first
mountain summits projected out of the water; and thus indeed without
doubt in India, if the Himalaya be the highest mountain.
912. The first organic forms, whether plants or animals, emerged from
the shallow parts of the sea.
913. _Man also is a child of the warm and shallow parts of the sea in
the neighbourhood of the land._
914. It is possible, that Man has only originated on one spot, and that
indeed the highest mountain in India. It is even possible, that only
one favorable moment was granted, in which Men could arise. A definite
mixture of water, definite blood-heat, and definite influence of
light must concur to his production; and this has probably been the
case only in a certain spot and at a certain time.
915. The first men were the littoral and mountainous inhabitants of
warmer countries, and found therefore at once reptiles, fishes, fruit,
and game for food.
CHANGE.
916. The number of individual organisms is not persistent. For they
are verily only products of a ceaseless polarization or a constant
evocation of poles in the great galvanism, positions of the general
galvanism in time. Thus, as the poles change, so also do the organic
individuals. The kingdom of organisms is an iron bar, in which the
magnetic poles originate and vanish or change, according as the
polarizing magnet is removed. Organisms change, because they are
numbers, thoughts of God.
917. The process of change in organic individuals is that of their
destruction.
918. But this destruction is as nothing for nature. There originate
again in the same moment other organisms in other situations. The
process that destroys the poles is only one that effects their change.
919. The world-organism only is eternal, and devoid of change, with the
exception of that which is within its poles. It can itself change with
no other, because it is only one.
920. No individual organism is eternal, because it is only a changing
pole of the world-organism.
921. There is no constancy in the individualities. Change only is
persistent.
922. The world only is persistent. Nothing in it is constant. Were
individuals not to perish, but live for ever, the world must then die;
for the life of the world, like every life, consists only in the change
of poles. Individuals could in no way therefore continue alive, if
the world were to remain alive, because this is only possible through
change of the individuals, which are its organs; nor could they, were
the world to die, because the totality of individuals is the world
itself.
923. Death is no annihilation, but only a change. One individual
emerges out of another. Death is only a transition to another life, not
unto death.
924. This transition from one life to another takes place through the
primary condition of the Organic, or the mucus.
925. If new individuals originate, they could not therefore originate
directly from others; but they must be redissolved into mucus. Every
generation is a new creation.
b. FORM--GLOBE.
926. The organism is a metatype of the planet and must also have the
corresponding form. It is the _Sphere_. This results also from the
combination of the three actions, which being in equiponderance could
only produce the globe.
927. The sphere must commence with the idea of the point. For the idea
of the sphere is the idea of the centre, which is a point. The point,
however, is not different from the sphere. It is only the infinitely
small or minute sphere.
928. The primary mucus is globular in form. The primary mucus does not
swell into a single sphere, but it divides into infinitely numerous
spheres. For were it only one sphere, it would be the planet itself.
But it is an individual, or only one sphere in the great sphere. The
idea of the great sphere consists however of an infinity of small
spheres.
929. The primary mucus consists of an infinity of points. This admits
of being proved by its mode of origin. It is formed on the limit
between water and earth, consequently in a line. This line, however,
becomes constantly dissevered by disquietude, and divides therefore
necessarily into infinitely numerous points.
930. The primary Organic is a mucous point.
931. The organic world commences not merely with one point, but with
infinitely numerous points. Where earth, water, and air are found in
_one_ spot, there also is an organic point.
932. The organic points originate upon the surface of the earth, not
in it, and not in the air. For only between earth and air do all three
elements enter into collision.
PRIMARY VESICLE.
933. Through the oxydation of the air an opposition of the component
parts, or of the Fluid and Solid, issues forth in the organic point,
and these mutually conditionate each other. The Fluid and Solid
cannot, however, be otherwise conditioned, seeing that the former
is the Contained, the latter the Containing. The Solid is only a
precipitate from the Fluid wrought by the influence of the air. The
air, however, is externally related to the mucus-point. The Solid can
therefore originate nowhere else than between the Fluid and the air. It
consequently surrounds in accordance with its genesis the Fluid. The
physical cause thereof is naturally the oxydation of mucus upon its
periphery. A globe, the middle of which is fluid, but the periphery
solid, is called a bladder or cyst.
934. The first organic points are vesicles. The organic world has for
its basis an infinity of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1813. §. 922.)
INFUSORIA.
935. The mucous primary vesicle may in a philosophical sense be aptly
called infusorium, like as we designate the primary condition of
the embryo, by the word vitellus. Now are we making use of definite
expressions.
936. Everywhere, where the three elements cooperate, are infusoria
present--thus upon the sea-shore, the tide-mark or strand, and shallow
watery places.
937. The infusorium is a galvanic point, a galvanic vesicle, a galvanic
column or chain.
938. In every infusorium there is triplicity of the poles, or properly
speaking, of the processes. Each one maintains itself by the nutritive,
digestive, and respiratory process, or what amounts to the same, the
infusorial globule of mucus assumes a figure, its peculiar fluidity is
formed in its interior, and it becomes oxydized. As is well known, no
infusorium can live without moisture, and none if the access of air
having been prevented, or the water boiled, it is freed from the air
and the Earthy.
939. If the organic fundamental substance _consist_ of infusoria, so
must the whole organic world _originate_ from infusoria. Plants and
animals can only be metamorphoses of infusoria.
940. This being granted, so also must all organizations _consist_ of
infusoria, and during their destruction dissolve into the same. Every
plant, every animal is converted by maceration into a mucous mass;
this putrefies, and the moisture is stocked with infusoria.
941. Putrefaction is nothing else than a division of organisms into
infusoria, a reduction of the higher to the primary, life.
942. Organisms are a synthesis of infusoria. Their generation is none
other than an accumulation of infinitely numerous mucous points,
infusoria. In these the organisms have not forsooth been at once wholly
and perfectly depicted as on the smallest scale, nor contained in a
state of preformation; but they are only infusorial vesicles, that by
different combinations assume different forms, and grow up into higher
organisms.
THEORY OF GENERATION.
943. The theory of generation is in _this_ sense a synthetical and
epigenetic, not an analytic.
944. The theory of preformation contradicts the laws of nature's
development.
945. Generation is a successive formation, both in relation to the
quantity as well as the quality, and the specific organs. It having
been preposited, that an organism has several organic systems, so
must these range according to their importance, and like the systems
of nature, behind each other, and be also developed in this order. As
the whole of nature has been a successive fixation of æther, so is
the organic world a successive fixation of infusorial mucus-vesicles.
The mucus is the æther, the chaos for the organic world. The semen of
all animals consists also of infusoria; the same may be said of the
vitellus. The pollen of flowers consists in like manner of microscopic
vesicles with globules, which have a life of their own and move
themselves in water. Many confervæ indeed divide evidently into a
multitude of living, self-moving globules, which, after they have swam
about for some time, again unite to form a stem of conferva.
946. Every generation consequently commences à priori or from the
beginning. The organic substance must again be dissolved into the
original chaos, if any thing new should reoriginate.
947. Out of an organic menstruum only can a new organism proceed, but
not one organism out of the other. A finished or perfect organism
cannot gradually transform itself into another.
948. The generative juices, or semen and vitellus, are none other than
the total organism reduced to the primary menstruum.
949. Physically regarded also every individual originates only from
the Absolute, but no one out of the other. The history of generation
is a retrogression into the Absolute of the Organic, or the organic
chaos--mucus, and a new evocation from the same.
950. This development from mucus is only applicable however to the
generation of the perfect organisms, but not to the origin of the
organic body, or the infusorial mass. The former originate only from an
organic mass that has been already formed; but the infusorial mass, as
constituting the organic primary bodies, cannot have originated in the
same way. It does and must originate directly from the Inorganic. For
whence can the organic matter have otherwise proceeded?
951. The infusorial mucus-mass originated, as has been already
remarked, at the moment when the earth's metamorphosis was at an end;
at the moment, when the planet succeeded in so bringing together and
identifying all the elementary processes, that they were all together
or at one and the same time in every point.
952. Hence the organic primary body originated also by synthesis, not
by analysis, if regard be paid to its factors. But do we consider this
substance as first emerging into view, when the coarse, abundant,
isolated materials, such as earth, metals, Inflammables, and salts
had separated themselves from it; that this organic primary body then
remained behind as it were for the first time: it has then originated
through analysis, or was preformed; but so preformed as are also the
metals, and as is everything. It need scarcely be observed, that this
last separation from out the Earthy is the _carbon_, the dissolution
of the earths into atoms, and thus again into points or globules
susceptible of form.
953. Everything is preformed in æther, like as every Mathematic is
preformed in zero, every Active in God; yet for that very reason
nothing individual is preformed therein; but it originates first
through _fixation of poles on the substance_. This is the true meaning
of the original generation of the Organic.
954. This origin of the organic primary bodies I designate _Generatio
originaria_, _Creation_.
955. But infusorial vesicles can also originate by mere division of
larger organic carcases, and these can again originate as well through
the combination of these secondary as of the primitive vesicles, or
as it were by coagulation only, such being the case indeed in the
intestinal worms also. I nominate this generation, _Generatio æquivoca_.
956. All generation is _Generatio æquivoca_; whether imparted by sexes
or not. For the generative juices of the sexual organs themselves are
naught else than organic primary mass, and have originated by division.
957. There are only two kinds of generation in the world. The creation
proper and the propagation that is sequent thereupon, or the _Generatio
originaria_ and _secundaria_.
958. No organism has been consequently created of larger size than an
infusorial point. No organism is, nor has one ever been, created, which
is not microscopic.
959. Whatever is larger, has not been created, but developed.
960. Man has not been created, but developed. So the Bible itself
teaches us. God did not make man out of nothing; but took an elemental
body then existing, an _earth_-clod or carbon; moulded it into form,
thus making use of _water_; and breathed into it life, namely _air_,
whereby galvanism, or the vital process arose.
961. The original origin of organization has been imparted by the
co-operating influence of heat and light. By the heat, because
without this no galvanic and no chemical process is possible;
further, because heat is the totality of æther, the moved æther, the
ætherial air, and thus the menstruum of all action. But the heat is
not sufficient to animate the three terrestrial elements, because it
imparts only the possibility of procedure and of action; while it does
not differentialize, nor posit tension, but maintains everything in
identity, fluidity. In the heat alone every thing must become fluid and
finally decompose. Unto heat therefore the accession is yet necessary
of the Cosmic-differencing, or the light. The light inspires the body
prepared by heat with life, antagonism, polarity.
962. The æther imparts the substance, the heat the form, the light the
life. (Oken first started this opinion in his work, 'Die Zeugung,'
Frankfurt, Wesche, 1805.)
c. _Processes of the Organic._
963. The life of the organic body is not a single but a threefold
action, consisting of the actions of the three terrestrial elements,
which become the three fundamental processes of the body, or of life,
and in which _three_ processes galvanism consists.
1. EARTH-PROCESS, NUTRITIVE PROCESS.
964. The magnetic earth-process is virtually the formative; and in
organic bodies is called the _nutrient_ process.
965. The process of nutrition is the principal process in the organic
world. Its product or its basis is the fundamental mass of the body
itself. As crystal and the process of crystallization are related to
each other, so are the body and the process of nutrition.
966. The process of nutrition is the sustaining, and proper fundamental
process of the organism.
967. It is present entire and indivisible in every part of the body.
Whencesoever it is ablated or withdrawn, there is death.
968. It operates according to the laws of crystallization.
969. Its very forms are crystals modified by the organic mass or, what
amounts to the same, by the other processes combined therewith. The
organic body is an accumulation of an infinity of (organic) crystals
(cells).
970. In the planetary process of formation, which is a process of
crystallization, the organism is continually comprehended. It is the
planetary body ever becoming; the latter is an organic body, which has
ceased to become.
2. WATER-PROCESS, DIGESTIVE PROCESS.
971. Another action, that helps to constitute the organic body, is the
chemism, which is not only the process of liquefaction, but the process
also of the formation or creation of new organic matter. It is known to
us under the name of _Digestive process_.
972. The digestive process elevates the Inorganic up to the organic
mass, like the chemism has converted the Earthy into carbonate of lime
and finally into muriatic natron. The digestive process is the _process
of the formation of mucus_. Regarded philosophically the nutritive
juice (or chyle) is naught else than mucus. This is also correct in a
physiological point of view.
973. The digestive process is the second organic process, in so far as
it has been fashioned after the type of the water; but the first, in so
far as every Organic has originated out of water.
974. As forming only the mucus it is not directly distributed in every
part of the body like the nutritive process, which is the body or
planet itself. But it interposes, or is mediate, everywhere.
975. As the water of the planet is related to the continent or earth's
nucleus, so are the digestive matters or the mucus of nutrition to the
body. The Earthy, however, is the principal mass of the planet, upon
which the others have been supported. So is the nutritive body the
principal mass, upon which the digestive body has been supported.
976. No organism is conceivable without a digestive process.
3. AIR PROCESS, RESPIRATORY PROCESS.
977. The action of the air finally settles down also in mucus. It is
that which sustains the constant heterogeneity of the organic factors,
the electrical tension. The electrical tension has, however, oxydation
for its result. The organic process of electricity is thus at the same
time a process of oxydation. It is called _Respiratory process_.
978. Without respiratory process, no organism is conceivable. By
its influence difference has been induced in the chyle, and by this
difference only does the latter become decomposible or serviceable for
the process of nutrition.
979. The respiratory process is also present not immediately in every
part of the body, but only mediately. It is the atmosphere of the body.
980. The mutation, which the juices undergo through the process of
respiration, is none other than an emergence from their state of
indifference. Thereby each point of the juice becomes polar towards
every other; all are mutually attracted, all repelled, whereby a
decisive vortication originates.
981. As every globule of sap or mucus is indifferent, it has thus
naturally an affinity for air. The air itself is comprehended, like the
water and the earth, in the organism. And thus it may with full force
be said; that the organism is elevated by respiration to the element
air, by digestion to the element water, by nutrition to the element
earth. So that respiratory process = air-process, digestive process =
water-process, and nutritive process = earth-process.
982. The first three organic processes are consequently true synotypes
of the planetary processes--are planet-forming processes in miniature
in individuals. The fundamental organism has thus been shown to be in
its apparent processes a synotype or likeness of the planet; in other
words, a microscopic planet.
983. These three processes constitute the galvanic process. Making
use of the expressions applied to the inorganic kingdom, we found the
organism to be a combination of magnetism, chemism, and electrism;
while in organic parlance it is a nutritive process, maintained by
respiration and digestion. The processus nutritorius, digestivus,
respiratorius, together constituting galvanism.
4. MOTION.
984. Motion is no peculiar or self-persistent process, but the
necessary manifestation of galvanism. Motion has been established with
the three organic fundamental processes.
985. Every motion depends upon the galvanic process. Taken in a strict
sense, there is no _process_ of motion, but motion only. For motion
is verily but the phenomenon of galvanism. The process of motion is
synonymous with the galvanic process.
986. The galvanic process is a process of motion effected in circles,
in its own factors, in its planet, but not from without; it is
consequently an actual vital process.
987. As the process of motion is the phenomenon common to all three
organic fundamental processes, so is the whole organism characterized
by it. The essence of the Organic depends consequently upon its
automatic or self-motion.
988. _Self-motion_ is the only, but essential and ultimate, distinction
between the Organic and Inorganic. (Ed. 1st, 1810. § 904.) All other
distinctions that have been advanced do not suffice; because they do
not comprehend the totality of the organism, nor the three fundamental
processes in _one_ phenomenon, but only individual attributes.
989. A circumscribed, closed mass, which moves itself, is an organism.
The perpetuum mobile is only the organism.
990. Every Inorganic moves not itself, but is only moved by external
influences; because every Inorganic is only a part of a whole.
991. The organic motion is present and possible in every point of a
body. A mass that is automatic, or thoroughly moved by itself, is an
organism.
992. The Inorganic consists in motion having vanished from it, and in
being simply mass. But the Organic consists exactly in this alone,
namely, that the Massive has disappeared, or that the mass is in
constant motion. The Organic becomes destroyed, so soon as motion
disappears in it; the Inorganic is destroyed, so soon as motion enters
it. Motion is therefore the soul, whereby the Organic is elevated above
the Inorganic.
2. ORGANOGNOSY.
_Division of the Organism._
PLANETARY AND COSMIC ORGANISM.
993. Hitherto we have regarded the organism merely in a general point
of view; namely, as regards the substance, form, and processes, which
must indiscriminately occur in every organism. We have seen that it is
composed of at least _three_ elements, the earth, water and air. There
is still, however, one combination that is possible and therefore also
actual, namely, with the æther or the _fire_.
994. The organic world has two stages in its development. Upon each
stage, however, it is the totality or synotype of nature, yet is
different in each.
995. The organism represents the whole solar system; but this divides
into two stages. The lowest of these is the Planetary, or totality of
the Earthy, Aqueous and Aerial; the higher is the Solar or Cosmic,
namely, the totality of earth, water, air and fire. Thus there is
a tri-elementary and a quadri-elementary totality. As the first is
already an organism, so much the more too must be the second. Thus
there must be one organism, which comprehends indeed all systems in
itself, but with the preponderance of the Planetary; and one with the
preponderance of the Solar.
996. In the planetary organism the æther-systems will be either
wanting, or only indicated as mere projections; they are there only,
in so far as the planet itself is not without light. In the solar
organism, however, the planetary systems are subordinate to the æther
processes; the former are only there, because the sun cannot be without
planets. In the planetary organism the æther-system has only been taken
up into the Terrestrial; but in the Solar the Terrestrial has been
taken up into the æther.
997. In the planetary organism all the processes launch out into
production or alterations of the matters; it is a chemical organism;
in the solar organism there are processes, which neither change, nor
produce matters, it may be therefore styled light organism.
998. The chemical organism is associated with the earth, the spiritual
with the water and air; the former must therefore consist principally
of carbon, the latter of the combination of oxygen with hydrogen, and
thus of nitrogen.
999. The carbon-organism must moreover in accordance with its import be
associated with the Inflammables and metals, and through these with the
silicious earth.
1000. The nitrogen-organism on the contrary with the salts and
calcareous earths; thus we have silicious organisms and calcareous
organisms; Inflammable organisms and salt organisms. From this it is
already clear, that the planetary or primary organism is not general,
nor indefinite, but the _plant_; for no General or Indefinite has
existence. The solar or quadri-elementary organism admits in like
manner of being recognized as _animal_. This is the philosophical
deduction. But there is also a physiological, which conducts to the
same result.
1001. The mucus-vesicle can feasibly pass into two kinds of condition
only. It either remains in the water, or is cast upon the shore, or
in the mud. In the last case it continues to lie, and is only supplied
with light, and oxydized by the air upon the upper side; in the first
case, on the contrary, it rolls about constantly in the water, and is
alternately illumed and oxydized upon all sides. The first vesicle thus
obtains a single axis from above downwards, between light and darkness;
the second on the contrary gains a multitude of axes from without
inwards, where it is alone dark and deoxydized. The first is thus
devoid of any middle point, and finds its centre of gravity only in the
middle of the earth, while the latter acquires its centre of gravity in
its Interior, and this renders the Interior polar towards all points of
the circumference. The plant is only one axis, or from having no middle
point, is properly only one radius, which has its centre in the centre
of the earth; the animal is an infinity of axes or radii, which concur
or converge in the creature itself; the plant is an inverted cone, the
animal an infinity of cones or a globe.
1002. Thus the planetary organism originates, if the primary vesicle
having been taken out of the water is given up to the earth, to
immobility and to _darkness_. But the light-organism arises, if the
primary vesicle continue in water, or in the Moveable and Diaphanous.
Here then in their genesis an essential difference is declared
between the two organic worlds. Planetary organism originates, if
the vesicle develops itself apart from the water, in which case it
is withdrawn on one side from the light; but the light-organism
originates if it remains in water itself, where it can be supplied on
all sides with light. The essence of both is expressed by the names
_darkness_-organism and _light_-organism.
1003. The basis of both kingdoms is therefore exactly similar; the
vesicle and the mucus lie at the foundation of both. It depends solely
upon the surrounding element, whether out of one and the same mass this
or that organism should arise, or rather upon the active influence of
the light, this being conditioned only by the elements. Not a word can
accordingly be spoken about preformation. In darkness-organism the
water-vesicle has been placed between earth and air, and thus fettered
to the earth; in light-organism, however, the vesicle has been placed
in the water and so freed from the earth.
1004. The planetary organism has, in accordance with its situation and
import, been bound to the earth. It must originate like the metal in
the earth, in the darkness and, as it were, in a vein. But it is at the
same time a light-product; it must rise from out of the earth into the
air and towards the light. It is a mucus, living metallic vein, which
elevates itself from out the earth into the air.
1005. This organism, which originates in the darkness of the earth, and
grows therefrom into the air so as to meet the light, is _plant_.
1006. The solar-organism is, in accordance with its import, void of
connexion with the earth; like a planet it revolves freely about the
earth, and everywhere receives its image or likeness in the influence
of all four elements.
1007. The organism, which, free from the earth, has originated in
water, or properly speaking, in the transparency, is _animal_.
1008. The vegetable and animal are the only organic, kingdoms. In
both, nature has exhausted herself, and has in the last kingdom, as
in a mirror, been wholly reflected. They are together planet and sun,
or thus solar system. But since the animal comprehends all elements
in itself, so it contains also the plant, and is therefore for itself
vegetable and animal kingdom, or the whole solar-system.
1009. The plant hath no free system of motion, because motion is
wanting to it; bound to the elements, by these it is determined. The
element of motion, the æther, lies apart from it. It has only motion,
if and while the elements act upon, or solicit it, thereunto.
1010. It moves itself only by an external or _foreign_ stimulus. If
no foreign stimulus be present, it does not move itself. A root
grows, moves itself towards one spot, not because it there _seeks_ for
moisture, but because it is _affected_ by the moisture which is there
found. Were the moisture not to act upon it, it would wither.
1011. The animal has independent motion. For it has indeed taken up
the centre, the earth-and the light-system which is the principle of
motion, into itself.
1012. Thus the animal moves itself independently of external stimuli.
The animal can move itself from _want_ of stimulus. It moves itself to
_seek_ for, and thus from want of, nourishment, which consequently does
not act upon it; the plant cannot, however, move itself owing to want
of food, but only die.
1013. _This is the essential and only conclusive distinction between
animal and plant._ All others that have been advanced are not
sufficient.
_Processes of the Cosmic Organism._
ÆTHER PROCESSES.
1014. The primary or planetary organism cannot be the last product of
nature's development: for it is only indeed the metatype of the three
terrestrial elements, and consequently not of the totality of nature.
The mucus-organism ascends to a higher stage, since it superadds to
its three elements the primary element, or ascends itself to primary
elements. It becomes an _ætherial globe of mucus_.
1015. Hitherto there were merely three processes in the organism; to
these consequently the fourth is added, which is the æther-process. It
may be called the fire-process.
1016. With the fire-process the development of the organic world has
been carried to the highest pitch and therewith closed.
1017. The highest organism is a quadri-elementary individual, or a
quadri-elementary mucus.
1018. The four elements are, however, the universe. The higher organism
is consequently not merely a synotype of the planet, but of it and the
sun, or of the whole universe. The higher organism is an universe in
miniature; in the profoundest, truest sense of the word is it _small
world_, _microcosm_.
1019. The planetary, terrestrial organisms are related to the solar or
cosmic, as the planet is to solar-system.
1020. The cosmic organism has besides the systems of nutrition,
digestion, and respiration, those of the æther in itself, and thus of
the gravity, light and heat. These are immaterial, spiritual processes,
which produce no more matters.
1. _Process of Gravity._
1021. The organ of gravity is that of quiescence or rest, the organ
constituting the basis of the organic body, or rather of the other
æther-organs, the centralization.
1022. It imparts form to the higher organism.
1023. The quiescent, sustaining, form-imparting system is the rigid
earth-system, and appears as the _osseous system_.
2. _Process of Heat._
1024. As the heat is the motion of the æther, so is there a system of
motion in the organism.
1025. The system, which has no other function to perform than to move,
is the _muscular system_.
1026. The osseous system is related to the muscular system as mass to
motion, as Passive to Active. The former maintains the form, the latter
changes the same exactly like gravitation and heat.
3. _Process of Light._
1027. The light-system must be related to all other spiritual systems
and the three fundamental systems of the organism, or to the _simply_
organic systems as light is to matter, being thus polarizing or
_dominant_.
1028. Now the domination of light consists in the sustenance of
polarity in all matter. The air itself is preserved in its duplicity
only by light. All the points of the organism are polarized by the
light-system. The light-system acts consequently through the whole body.
1029. The light-system is not capable of producing matter, like the
terrestrial systems. This is self-evident.
1030. It does not polarize by effecting chemical changes. If
nevertheless these are present, they are thus only results, occurring
while the terrestrial processes are set in action by the process of
light.
1031. Light polarizes the Material by mere fixation or discharging of
poles, and thus in a spiritual manner. So also does the light-system of
the organism. It governs the organism not by mechanical power, not by
mass, but by a _spiritual breath or aura_.
1032. The organic light-system is the Animative of the organism. In it
the spirit exercises its power over the mucous mass. It is the _nervous
system_.
LIFE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
1033. The light-polarity can bring about no other tension in the mass
than that which is peculiar to it, and thus the galvanic tension, whose
highest and purest phenomenon is motion. The light-system principally
causes motion in the mass, like as in æther.
1034. The nervous system has, however, a life also in itself, or the
_internal_ light-polarity that is without any relation to the organic
mass. This action of the nerves is called _sensibility_, and its
phenomenon, _feeling_ or _sensation_. The system of sensation is the
nervous system as sun in itself; in the motor-system it is as sun in a
centre of planets.
1035. The organism, like the elementary nature, is completed by four
systems.
1. By the Nutrient,
2. " Digestive,
3. " Respiring, and
4. " Motive, unto which the nerves, muscles, and
bones belong.
1036. It is impossible for more than these to be developed in an
organism; impossible, for any thing else but what is in nature to
originate therein; impossible, that any thing new be born by it.
Everything in nature is only repetition of an Antecedent or something
that has gone before. How could the organism be aught else, how aught
else than the focus of the four elements!
SECOND KINGDOM.
VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
1037. The Vegetable Kingdom is the individual development of the three
planetary elements.
I.--_PHYTOGENY_.
1038. Phytogeny represents the developmental history of individual
plants, or, properly speaking, the idea of the plant.
1039. To the plant belong all the definitions that have been hitherto
deduced. It is an organism fettered to the earth, is developed only
apart from water, only in the dark, in the earth; is associated
with the metal, with the carbon; is a magnetic needle that has been
attracted out of the earth into the air towards the light. Seeds
germinate better if they have been protected beforehand from the access
of light; the radicle sinks, indeed, into the earth, because it obeys
the gravity, the quiescence or rest; but it is therein maintained,
because it is there humid and dark. This is a reason that has not yet
been connoted, for the plant having been fettered to the earth. There
are indeed plants which also take root in water, but the water is still
darker than the air. The root has, in this respect, completely the
character of the metal, that is a child of darkness.
1040. Consisting for the greatest part of carbon, plants are associated
with the pit-coals, through these pass over into the carbon of the
clay-slate rocks; finally, through the black-lead unto the iron. In
like manner, through their hydrogenous import, they pass over into
the inflammable asphalts, and through these unto sulphur. Metal and
sulphur have, in the Geogeny, announced themselves as the precursors,
or harbingers, of the vegetable world. In this respect, also, can the
vegetable kingdom be regarded as the mineral kingdom, that, having
continued to grow, has become alive. The ore, which becomes organic,
becomes carbon or plant.
PARTS OF THE PLANT.
1041. The character of each development consists in the separation
of the Indifferent or Chaotic into its ideas or actions, i. e. the
development of every system is first completed, when it is divided into
as many substantial systems as it numbers factors, or has processes in
itself.
1042. Although the plant is only essentially a planetary-organism,
it must yet be developed unto an æther- or light-organism; and it
therefore divides into planetary- and solar-or light-organs.
1043. The planetary organs are those that have the earth-, water-, and
air-process above them, and which are made known in the root, the stalk
and foliage, which together constitute the vegetable stem.
1044. The light-organs begin to be stirring in the blossom, and are
divulged as sexual organs. They are a repetition of the trunk.
1045. The vegetable body divides therefore into two great principal
parts, which are synotypes of each other, into _trunk_ and _blossom_ or
_inflorescence_. If we regard the vegetable trunk empirically; it is
then divisible into three stages, whereof each consists of the organs
of the three fundamental processes, which seek to separate from each
other.
a. The first stage is that of the _three tissues_ namely of the
parenchyma, medulla or pith; of the _cells_, _ducts_, and _tracheæ_ or
_spiral vessels_.
b. The second stage is _that of the shaft_ or main axis, where these
three have separated concentrically into cortex or _bark_, _liber_,
and _wood_, constituting the anatomical _systems_ or _sheaths_.
c. The third stage is that of the _caudex_ proper or the trunk,
in which the three tissues have separated in the direction of the
longitudinal axis into _root_, _stalk_ or stem, and _leaves_, these
making up the _organs_ proper or _members_. The inflorescence divides
into two stages, into _flower_ and _fruit_.
d. The fourth stage or that of the _flower_ repeats root, stalk and
leaves, in _seeds_, _pistil_ and in the _corolla_.
e. The fifth stage or that of the _fruit_ is a further repetition of
these three parts of the flower in the nut, plum and berry, unto which,
as synthesis, comes the apple.
A. _Vegetable-trunk._
1046. The vegetable-trunk is the development of the three
fundamental processes up to their complete separation or substantial
representation. It divides itself into the tissues or the pith
(parenchyma), into the shaft and into the trunk.
1047. The plant is a galvanic water-vesicle, and as such earth, water
and air. Upon this vesicle it is, however, the earth-element that
chiefly acts. While the earth seeks to encroach upon the vesicle, the
magnetic process becomes active therein, and it enters into opposition
with the air. The vesicle becomes now determined by two elements, by
the earth and by the air; it stands itself in the category of the water.
1048. The plant may be characterized as organic water which is
polarized upon two sides, towards the earth and the air. The vegetable
vesicle must therefore maintain two poles. While it would represent in
itself the magnetic pole, it endeavours to identify itself, to obey
gravity and merge into the darkness towards the mediate point of the
earth; but that it may remain a galvanic pole, it becomes excited by
the air, strives to become a Different and to attain the light.
1049. The vegetable vesicle receives two opposed extremities, an
identical earth-and a dyadic air-extremity; and thus the plant must
be regarded as the organism, which manifests a constant endeavour,
upon the one side to become earth, on the other air, upon the one side
identical metal, on the other duplex air.
1050. The plant is a radius, that towards the centre becomes identical,
towards the periphery divides or starts asunder. The plant is not
therefore an entire circle or globe, but only a section of such, a
cone, whose apex has been turned towards the centre of the earth, or
would become earth-centre. It can therefore have no middle-point. It
will on the contrary demonstrate that the animal is the totality of
radii, is consequently diameter, and has therefore a centre of its own,
or is entire globe. As the whole earth is surrounded by plants, and
all their roots turn towards the centre; the whole vegetable kingdom
only forms a sphere, composed of infinitely numerous cones. On the
contrary every individual animal forms a sphere for itself alone,
and is therefore worth as much as all plants taken together. Animals
are entire heavenly bodies, satellites or moons, which circulate
independently about the earth; all plants, on the contrary, taken
together are only equivalent to one heavenly body. An animal is an
infinity of plants.
1051. In so far as an organism strives unto identity or to gravity,
it seeks to produce the Metallic, the carbon, the Alkaline. The
indifferent and alkaline character appears in the earth-extremity of
the plant. Mucus and acid bodies are evidenced for the most part in the
root. In so far as the organism strives unto duplicity, it will produce
the salt, the acid and the Inflammable. Acids and electric bodies are
manifested in the air-extremity of the plant.
1052. The two vegetable extremities are accordingly related to each
other as alkali and acid, and as carbon and hydrogen. In the air the
water is divided into oxygen and hydrogen, acids and oils; in the earth
it hardens into earths and carbon.
1053. The earth-end or the alkaline extremity of the plant is the
_root_; the air-end, or the acid and oily, is the entire _stem-fabric_,
or body. The plant has first of all two cardinal organs, viz. root and
stem-fabric. Both together represent the water divided into earth-
and air-mucus. The root is the central extremity of the plant, and is
therefore prolonged or runs out into magnetic points; the stem-fabric
is the peripheric and therefore expands into branches and electric
surfaces.
1054. But besides the air, the _light_ also operates upon the plant and
stimulates it to grow aloft and produce a light-organ. This light-organ
can thus originate only upon the apex or summit. It is the _flower_.
The flower can therefore stand nowhere else than on the summit or end
of the plant. The light however acts upon many points of the upper
surface of the vegetable trunk and elongates the same. One plant can
therefore support numerous flowers, but all of these must stand upon an
extremity. Wherever therefore a flower may happen to stand, that spot
must be regarded as a summit or end. There is thus also, according to
the physiological view of the matter, a _light-organ_ in the plant,
which is its animal pre-affection. The chief antagonism in the plant is
in this respect therefore between trunk and inflorescence the former is
related to the latter as plant to animal. Were the plant to attain unto
animal functions; they could thus only take place in the flower.
I. _Tissues._
1055. The tissues are the unseparated organs of the three fundamental
processes, the earth-, water-, and air-process.
1. WATER-ORGAN, CELLULAR TISSUE.
1056. If a mucus-vesicle lie upon the ground, it thus continues
indifferent upon the lower or dark side, and is only affected by
the gravity and the water; the upper side, on the contrary, by the
differencing air and light. It is consequently prolonged into the earth
and into the air. It must pass over from the round into a linear
form. The elongation is not a mere protraction of the vesicle, but an
apposition of new vesicles. For it happens through polarization, and
thus by infinite repetition of the primary vesicle. The plant is thus a
body of infinitely numerous vesicles.
1057. In so far as the plant is a multiplication of the primary
vesicle, it consists of _Cellular tissue_. The anatomy of plants
informs us, that there is nothing _originally_ in the plant but
cellular tissue, and that other forms first emerge or make their
appearance in the sequel.
1058. The cellular tissue indicates the Indifferent in the plant, for
it is only an accumulation of the indifferent primary vesicles. In so
far as the plant consists thereof, is it indifference--water-plant.
1059. The cellular tissue is only oxydized, desiccated mucus. Chemistry
has proved, that the wood is only oxydized mucus.
1060. The cellular tissue being the water organized and saturated with
earth, or the organized mucus, has consequently the chemical function
in itself of solution, homogeneous production, or formation of mucus.
As therefore the plant originates, so does it enlarge. It originates
as vesicle, and its growth is a constant origination of vesicles; from
the Indifferent, which is the water. The sap contained in the cells
consists of water and starch-granules, which constantly circulate
therein in a circle.
1061. The fundamental form of the cells is the rhomboidal-dodecahedron
(Kieser's Phytotomie); for around a globe only 6 others of equal size
can be placed, whereby its 6 lateral surfaces are pressed in, which
during the induration impart to it the form of a six-sided column.
Above and below these 7 globes only 3 others admit of being placed,
whereby 3 point-converging surfaces originate, which thus complete the
middle globe as rhomboidal-dodecahedron.
2. EARTH-ORGAN, VASCULAR TISSUE.
1062. So long as the vesicles or cells lie as globes upon each
other, triangular interspaces are found between them, which stand in
conjunction with each other on all sides. As water is found in these
interspaces, it is plain that they do not entirely disappear with
the transformation of the cells into rhomboidal-dodecahedra. These
spaces are called intercellular passages or sap-tubes, _Vessels_. In
many plants, such as those which contain a milky juice, particular
sap-tubes run through a part of these intercellular passages, and are
probably formed by condensation of the sap. Both are therefore in a
physiological respect of one kind. At bottom also the blood-vessels of
animals are naught else but passages in felted cellular tissue.
1063. As the principal polarity of plants has been directed upwards,
and the cells therefore been protracted lengthwise; so also the chief
direction of the vessels is parallel with the axis of the plant.
1064. The vegetable sap ascends in these tubes, which must be therefore
viewed indeed as constituting the earth-or nutritive organ.
3. AIR-ORGAN, TRACHEAL TISSUE.
1065. The plant is not merely earth-and water-organism, but also
air-organism; and there must therefore be developed in it an anatomical
system, which coincides with the process of air.
1066. Besides the cells and tubes naught else is found in vegetable
tissue but spiral vessels; what are called scalariform tubes, annular
vessels, dotted ducts, vermiform or strangulated vessels, are no
peculiar formations in themselves, but only different conditions of the
spiral vessels.
1067. The spiral vessels are the air-system of the plant, and therefore
rightly deserve the name of _Tracheæ_. They exhibit the structure of
the air-tubes in insects, and contain, according to the most authentic
observations, air, and not sap, except in the period of adolescence,
as occurs in the animal kingdom.
1068. The spiral vessels consist of one or several filaments spirally
contorted, and held together by a delicate tubular-shaped membrane.
1069. They must be regarded as elongated cells, upon whose parietes
the starch-granules have been placed in serial juxtaposition with
each other, so as to form spirally-twisted filaments, as is to be
plainly seen in many cells and also in Confervæ. This spiral condition
originates without doubt from the spiral-shaped motion of the granules
in cell-sap.
1070. The ultimate cause of this spiral motion, as well as the position
of the parts, appears to reside in the rotation of the sun.
1071. Upon this also depends probably the winding of the stem of
plants, with the spiral-shaped position of the leaves and branches, as
probably even the contortions of the snail's shell and of the hairs
upon the crown of the head.
1072. The production of the spiral form originates from the antagonism
of the light with the matter. The number of spiral vessels is therefore
less in those parts that are beneath, than in those above, the earth,
or less in the root than the stem. The more indeed an organ has
been exposed to the air, by so much the more do the spiral vessels
preponderate, as e. g. in the leaves.
1073. An organ must necessarily be nobler in character, the more spiral
vessels it contains. The plant also that, with more spiral vessels,
exhibits them particularly arranged, must take a higher rank. The
lowest plants, as the mushrooms, lichens and mosses, consist therefore
entirely of cellular tissue; in the ferns therefore only a single
bundle of spiral vessels makes its appearance. When plants become
nobler, several fasciculi of spiral vessels originate; and in tracing
this feature we ascend from the ferns to the grasses and lilies, up to
the lower Dicotyledons. In the higher Dicotyledons the packets of the
tracheæ increase for the first time to such a degree, that they form a
closed circle, the fibrous ring or zone of wood.
1074. The tracheæ extend from one end of the plant to the other; many
are wont to terminate only in nodes, while these are to be regarded as
arrested branches. The air can therefore penetrate through the spiral
vessels from the leaves even to the apices of the roots.
II. _Anatomical Systems--Sheaths._
1075. These originate by vagination and separation of the tissues in
the transverse direction, and prevail throughout the whole plant.
The idea of the whole vegetable structure is extremely simple.
Originally the plant is a vesicle in water, or cellular tissue in the
seed; root and stalk also consist in their main bulk or proportion
of cellular tissue, which is called parenchyma. Therein the three
planetary processes reside inclosed. Such a plant is still in the
recognizable state of the primary organism. In the sequel, however,
through the influence of light, the polarity between light and
darkness issues forth in the parenchyma, the cellular tissue obtains
a linear direction, and becomes elongated into spiral vessels. The
spiral vessels form one or several fasciculi, which emerge out of the
parenchyma, by which they, and each packet individually, are circularly
surrounded. The cellular tissue is as it were the soil, in which the
fasciculi of spiral vessels are rooted as proprietary plants and out of
which they grow.
1076. The effort of the three vegetable processes, to separate their
organs from, and perfect them independently of, each other, is in
incessant operation, both from without inwards, as well as from above
downwards, because in both cases is light there, darkness here, dryness
there, humidity here. The cellular tissue, that has finally become
independent in the transverse direction or from without inwards, is
called _bark_, the self-substantial tubular tissue is called _liber_,
the non-dependent tracheal tissue, _wood_.
1. TRACHEAL-SYSTEM, WOOD.
1077. With increased influence of light the tracheal fasciculi also
increase, and form a circle of columns in the parenchyma around the
centre of the plant. Between the column, externally and internally to
the same, is the parenchyma. The more, however, the columns accumulate,
by so much the more does it diminish, and whereas the columns
previously stood singly in the parenchyma, the appearance is now as if
narrow _plates_ only of parenchyma traversed between the columns from
without inwards. Finally the columns predominate to such an extent and
approximate so closely, that the _plates_ almost disappear. They are
now called insertions of cellular tissue, or _medullary rays_. As the
tracheæ convey air, and have thus been more exposed to the process of
oxydation, they generally harden sooner than in other parts.
1078. Around the fasciculi of spiral vessels the cellular tissue also
strives to elongate, and begins at the same time to harden. Such
extended cells, in which the light has almost disappeared, are called
fibres. Indurated tracheæ and fibres are called _Wood_. The wood is
always in the vicinity of the spiral vessels. It is a production
synchronous with the latter.
1079. Only, where spiral vessels are, can genuine wood originate; but
it is not everywhere, where they are found, that woody fibres must be
also present, although the cells extend around all bundles of spiral
vessels. If the degree of oxydation of the cells be slight, they do not
harden, but continue herbaceous in texture. The parenchyma has now been
separated by a circle of fibrous columns into an external and internal,
or peripheric and central. The central parenchyma becomes void of sap
and spongy, because the plant imbibing its nutriment on the surface,
and the air and the light operating thereupon, the processes conduct it
thither. This withered parenchyma is called _pith_, which in accordance
with its origin merits no physiological consideration, nor is worthy
and susceptible of any philosophical construction.
2. TUBULAR SYSTEM, LIBER.
1080. As the plant draws in its nourishment from without, so is the
main proportion of the sap necessarily present in the periphery of the
spiral vessels. The elongated cells in the neighbourhood of the spiral
vessels, and which principally contain sap, are called _Liber_.
1081. Liber is necessarily present around every packet of spiral
vessels, and thus with fasciculi everywhere dispersed throughout the
stem. The liber is only situated beneath the bark, when the number
of the spiro-vascular fasciculi is so great, that they form a closed
circle in the parenchyma; it is only beneath the bark, in so far as
it accompanies the spiral vessels, but can only surround the latter
from without. As it is only the woody plants that have been usually
examined, the false idea has thus originated of the liber having, as it
were from its very essence, to be beneath the bark.
1082. In the liber is the main seat of vegetable activity. For it is
soft cellular tissue with open intercellular passages, wherein the sap
can move.
1083. Now as every fascicle of spiral fibres is surrounded by liber,
such a fascicle must be regarded as a whole plant. A plant consists
accordingly of as many plants, as it has or can have tracheal
fasciculi. Every plant is a trunk of infinitely numerous plants; for
every one can contain infinitely numerous tracheal fascicles. One plant
is a whole vegetable world. (Ed. 1st, 1810. § 1065.)
3. CELLULAR-SYSTEM, BARK.
1084. No spiral vessels lie upon the surface of the plant, for
where they originate, there the liber forms around them, and this
is consequently the External. The surface of plants is therefore
necessarily environed by liber, notwithstanding the greater influence
of the light. The cellular tissue upon the surface of plants is,
however, less rich in sap than the liber around the tracheal
fasciculi, because it is too rapidly evaporated and dried up by the
immediate contact of the air, light and heat. The surface of the
plant is too strongly oxydized by the air, and therefore the cells
harden. The sap also decomposes too rapidly and becomes rigid, so that
an irregular formation only can proceed from it. The external, more
inactive, or irregularly wood-converted layer of cells, is the _Bark_.
1085. The plant has thus likewise three anatomical systems, which
are nothing new, but only the repetition or rather vagination of the
three tissues; alburnum and cambium are only transitional, not special
formations.
III. _Organs of the Vegetable Trunk.--Members._
1086. Organs are separated parts of the body, and combinations of
single tissues and systems, and are consequently a Whole in Singulars.
There are, however, no uniform combinations; but one or the other
system asserts its preponderance and imparts the character.
1087. In conformity with the developmental progress of the whole of
nature, namely, that of always separating further its chaotically
mingled parts, individualizing and yet forming them with the others
into a whole, vegetation cannot continue stationary with the partition
into bark, liber and wood, seeing that they are always circumscribed
and form a body in common; but they must also sever this body itself
into as many members as it has constituent parts. This severance makes
its appearance in the longitudinal axis, because in this direction the
antagonisms of air and light with water and earth are more powerful.
1088. Through the separation of the vegetable trunk _three_ members
only can originate; one with the preponderance of cells or of bark,
one with that of vessels or of liber, and one with that of the tracheæ
or of wood. The cellular tissue has been posited as vegetable trunk in
the _root_, the vascular tissue as a special member is _stalk_, the
tracheal tissue _leaf_. In this manner the trunk of the plant divides
into three great divisions; more are not possible.
1089. Now the root is the perfected water-organ, because it is always
fixed in water; the leaf is the perfected air-organ, because it moves
in the air; the stalk is the perfected earth-organ, because it removes
the mass out of water and air. Root is a heap of cells; leaf a plane of
tracheæ; stalk a bundle of vessels.
1. WATER-ORGAN--ROOT.
1090. By the two polar systems, the earth-and air-system, the cellular
and tracheal system, is the development of the plant confirmed. Thereby
is it in the next place a twofold organism. By the first system it has
been turned towards the planet and immersed in earth and water, by the
second it has been turned towards the sun and immersed in the air. The
root and the fabric of the stem, or root and stem simply, have now
obtained their truest significance. Each is the whole plant, each the
whole organism; in the root this is only in its original purity, but in
the stem it is upon a higher stage. Root is stem in water and earth;
stem is root in air and light.
1091. The root has accordingly more cellular tissue, fewer tracheæ; in
the stem this condition is reversed. The root resembles young plants,
or such as still rank upon a lower stage, and have but few columns
of tracheæ. The root has therefore no marrow or pith. It may be said
that it should have no pith, because it is usually thinner than the
stem and richer in sap; but it has only the latter character, from
consisting for the most part merely of cellular tissue. Root is the
vegetable trunk with preponderating cellular tissue. In consequence of
the antagonism between root and stem, wherein even their difference
consists, the one strives to produce the Chemical, the watery earth or
the mucus, but the other the Electrical, the combustible air-bodies.
1092. The root, as producing mucus or infusoria, has therefore in
itself the organic process of putrefaction, in so far as the origin
of mucus and infusoria is a result of the putridity. It corresponds
to imbibition and digestion. To this is referrible the mouldy, and
as it were fetid, condition of the root. Through the process of
decomposition, which it evokes in its neighbourhood, it kills its
nutriment, takes possession of it, and thus originates completely,
as does every first organism, out of putrefaction, out of infusoria.
To the essence of the root belong therefore not merely food, but the
favouring relations of decomposition, as earth and water, whereby
the access of the air, as necessary to every galvanism, has not been
suppressed.
1093. The earth is not merely a mechanical station for the plant, in
order to give it the perpendicular direction, but it is necessary for
polar excitation, whereby the decomposition is imparted. A plant placed
upright in pure water, although with the roots, necessarily perishes.
Darkness is at the same time the lurking-place of putrefaction, as
being that which only plays its part in localities where the polarizing
and dissevering influence of light is wanting.
1094. The root always passes perpendicular into the earth, on account
of its greater weight due to repletion with water. In all zones
therefore the root stands perpendicular to the horizon, and thus the
whole plant, although this is somewhat inclined towards the sun.
1095. The developmental stages of the root pass probably parallel to
the parts of the vegetable stem.
a. In respect to the tissue, there are thus cellular roots, as is
probably the case in the fungi, and with the fibrils of all roots;
tubular or vascular roots as in the mosses, tracheal roots in the rest.
b. In respect to the systems the bulbs are the cortical or bark-roots;
the tubers the liber-roots; the fibres the woody-roots.
c. In respect to the members of the trunk, the turnip is perhaps the
genuine root, the tap-root the stalk-root, the so-called aerial roots,
the leaf-roots.
2. EARTH-ORGAN.--STALK.
1096. The stalk is the idea of the whole plant, posited under the
import of the organ of nutrition, of the vessels. The structure of the
stalk is therefore accordant with that of the root. The anatomical
systems are alike in both, bark, liber and tracheæ being in the same
envelope.
1097. In the stalk, however, the opposition of tissues and systems
emerges more strongly, and therefore they all become individualized
also to a higher degree. The spiral vessels become more freed from
the cellular tissue; the bark is more distinctly divided from the
liber; this again from the wood, and in its centre the cellular tissue
dries up into pith. As, however, the stalk is the first product
of the light-influence, the tracheal system cannot attain as yet
entire freedom. The cells have nevertheless been extended, and the
intercellular passages are formed into regular tubes. The _Stalk_ is
the trunk of the plant with a preponderating system of tubes.
1098. This separation of the tissues and systems, with the endeavour
upon the part of each to become individually perfect and isolated from
the other, is effected by the air and the light. As root imbibes the
mucous or slimy water, and sustains the chemical process in the plant,
so does the stalk set the water in motion, since it exposes it to the
air and light, whereby the chemical earth-process becomes separated
into different saps and elemental bodies.
1099. Through the influence of the air, light and heat upon the
stalk, as well as by its antagonism with the root, its elongation
is determined. The greater amount of energy of the aerial polarity
is in the higher regions; it is thus more excited by these than by
the lower, and the bud being lighter grows more rapidly in the upper
parts, and obtains an elongated form. The excitation is stronger also
upon the side exposed to the light. It grows also more strongly in
that direction, and thus the stalk stands indeed upwards, but somewhat
inclined from the perpendicular line towards the sun.
1100. The perpendicular direction of the stalk is, however, as
mechanically determined by gravity as the root. Paradoxical as this
assertion may appear, it is still correct; for if we think of a moist
globe, which is superiorly affected by air, light and heat, the upper
aqueous or mucous parts are thus lighter, and necessarily ascend
upwards through the pressure of the heavy or unheated parts, just as
the air-bubbles in beer ascend to the surface. The light it is true can
draw them somewhat sideways, chiefly because this side is more heated,
more decomposed, and also undergoes a greater amount of evaporation;
but the proper cause invariably resides in the ascent of the light
parts between the heavy or immoveable. The stalk therefore grows
upwards also in the darkness, and then indeed quite perpendicularly,
because it has not been diverted by light. Were the light merely the
Dirigent, it could not be comprehended, why towards the poles trees
still stand tolerably perpendicular, and do not lie completely upon
the earth. Were, however, the air that which determines the direction,
plants could not thus have been inclined towards the sun, nor could we
comprehend why the flowers and also the leaves obey the sun's course.
Finally, were neither air nor light the imparters of direction, then
the plant could shoot in no other direction than quite perpendicularly
upwards, as is done too for the most part by the fungi.
1101. The _winding_ of the stalk appears to originate from the
rotation of the sun. The next cause is probably the greater heating
and decomposition that occurs upon one side. In accordance with this
assumption the plants upon the northern hemisphere of the earth must
wind spirally upwards from left to right, or from morning towards
evening, if our gaze be directed towards the meridian, but inversely
upon the southern hemisphere. But this is not the case. May we
therefore conjecture that plants, twisted contrary to rule, have been
transported from their native soil?
1102. The kinds of stalk follow also, without doubt, the direction
of developmental stages of the vegetable trunk. There are therefore
cellular stalks in the fungi, vascular stalks in the mosses, tracheal
stalks in the ferns. A bark-stalk is the culm, a liber-stalk the scape,
a wood-stalk probably the trunk of a palm. A root-stalk is the rhizoma,
a perfect-stalk the stem, a leaf-stalk being probably the shrub.
_Ramification._
1103. The differencing, severing character of air and light must never
be lost from our thoughts, nor also that at a height this character
manifests itself more powerfully than on the surface of the earth,
where the stem abandons its androgynous position in relation to the
root. Through the constant process of differencing the tracheal
fascicles of the plant may finally become so independent that they
no longer stand in need of the others, and do not merely represent a
particular plant, but are perfected also as such.
1104. This dispersion of the tracheal fasciculi will not easily take
place upon the earth's surface, on account of its lesser degree of
aerial polarity, but at a certain height. If several stalks emerge from
the root, the bush or _shrub_ originates, but if only one, the tree. If
the subdivision first commence at a certain distance from the earth,
then do _Branches_ originate.
1105. The formation of branches demonstrates in part a great store of
tracheal fasciculi, and part by an easy differential capacity in the
plant. Both come to the same thing.
1106. Plants devoid of branches are similar or analogous to roots.
1107. The branches again ramify from the same cause by which the stem
ramifies. A branch or twig must be regarded as an entire fascicle of
tracheæ, which forms superiorly a closed vesicle or bud, that raises
the bark, bursts it open into scales and then opens itself. The opening
of the external tracheal tubes or vesicle becomes a leaf; a twig can
therefore occupy no other position than in the sheath or angle of
a leaf. Every succeeding leaf upon the twig is in the same manner a
ruptured vesicle of tracheæ. As many leaves therefore originate as
there are tracheal zones present.
1108. Every branch is an entire plant. All the tissues and systems
are found in it. Tracheæ free themselves from the stalk, pass towards
the circumference, break through the bark and carry with them the
liber, whose external layer again becomes bark. The branch is only
an elongated bud. The stalk is the soil or the root of the branches.
Branches, that have been cut off and stuck in the earth, grow. There is
nothing contradictory, in the tracheal fascicles of the branch growing
downwards into the stalk. A branched tree is a complete wood.
1109. From the same cause, or by the influence of water on different
situations in the earth, the root has branches. But as this influence
is weaker than that of air and light, so the number, density, and
length of the roots is less.
1110. The polarization of the tracheal fascicles into branches takes
place all around the stalk in one situation. The influence is equal
upon all sides. The idea of the formation of branches is the star.
All branches have a radiate position around the stalk--all form a
verticillum or whorl.
1111. Every other position of branches is only an alteration of the
verticillate arrangement.
1112. In most plants the arrangement of the branches admits of being
reduced to the spiral line. This position is only the verticil drawn
out.
1113. This drawing out takes place through the continued growth of
the stalk, in which the bundles of tracheæ, doubtless by the varied
operation of light, develop themselves in order, become individualized,
and issue from the stalk as branches.
1114. The crucial position of the branches depends upon the same growth
of the stalk, but one in which transverse polarities are present. The
irregular or dispersed position is most probably the last completion
of the spiriform.
1115. The spiriform arrangement stands in relation with the formation
of the tracheæ.
1116. The branches of the root observe no such regularity, partly on
account of weaker polarity, partly on account of the obstacles placed
in their way, at one time by the impenetrable earth, at another by want
of water.
1117. The more the stem is differenced, so much the higher is it
developed. Thus the richer in number the branches, by so much the
more perfect is the stem. The stelliform branches belong to the first
development. The plants, that have this arrangement, stand lower in the
scale. To this the crucial appears to succeed, as a mediate position
between the former and that which follows. The spiriform ranks higher.
In it the stem is manifestly differenced more multilaterally. The
dispersed arrangement appears to be the highest, because in it the
greatest freedom prevails, because the poles have acted on every part
of the plant, because they are everywhere in the air and in light.
Plants with dispersed branches are organized air; without branches they
are organized water as well as earth. Those plants only which have
circles of tracheæ or rings of wood, as e. g. the Dicotyledons, ramify;
these alone are, properly speaking, a conjunction by growth of many
plants, and one that is truly persistent, or that bears fruit several
times. The Monocotyledons being devoid of woody rings, do not, or but
very rarely, ramify. Most of them therefore die off after they have
once produced fruit. The ramification is a multiplication of the plant,
in which the buds continue to stand upon the old stem.
_Formation of Nodes._
1118. The formation of nodes, as in the grasses, is an attempt at
differentialization, that has not, however, attained to perfection.
A node is a branch-whorl which has continued to adhere to the stalk.
Therefore the tracheæ also terminate in the circumference of the node.
1119. The formation of nodes consequently ranks directly under
the stelliform formation of branches. Taken in a strict sense the
formation of nodes occurs only in plants with sheathing leaves or in
Monocotyledons.
3. AIR-ORGAN, FOLIAGE.
1120. If in the progressive separation of the tissues the tracheæ
finally obtain the preponderance, so that they issue forth free from
the envelope of cellular tissue, the _leaves_, or _Foliage_, then
originate.
1121. The ribs of the leaf are the fascicles of tracheæ that have
become free, and are still only connected together laterally by a thin
layer of cellular tissue.
1122. The leaves can be regarded as gigantic and unrolled spiral
vessels, and these again as microscopic and involuted leaves.
1123. As through the root the water-process enters the plant, and
through the stalk the earth-process, so does the air-process through
the leaves.
1124. It is probably the stomata through which the air is conducted
into the tracheæ; the connexion, however, has not yet been proved.
_Gemmæ or Buds._
1125. With the formation of branches there is at the same time a
diminution of the cellular tissue, and an increase of the tracheæ.
Entirely new spiral vessels commence in the branches, and are not
continued or prolonged into the stalk. The further indeed the extent of
the ramification, by so much less is the quantity of cellular tissue,
and by so much greater the number of the tracheæ. It comes at last to
this, that the tracheal fascicles, which were from all sides surrounded
by dense cellular tissue, are only then loosely connected by a thin
layer of such substance. This ramuscule is still therefore only a
hollow stalk, consisting of fascicles of tracheæ disposed in circles,
and so united by a thin cellular integument or membrane, that the whole
forms a vesicle.
1126. This vesicle is a _Bud_. A bud is at bottom none other than the
end of a twig that has become hollow.
1127. Several buds are usually involved in each other, i. e. many
vesicles of tracheal rings have been encased in each other. They issue
gradually forth and become shoots or buds. Buds are bulbs at the end of
the branches.
_Leaves._
1128. If the bud or the external vesicle ruptures, while the cellular
substance becomes consumed at the apex or between two or more tracheal
fascicles, it is then manifested as a _leaf_ or _Leaves_.
1129. Then the second vesicle grows forth, becomes petiolated, ruptures
and becomes leaf or leaves. In this manner a twig is formed, surrounded
in a spiral manner by leaves.
1130. The younger leaves have been originally inclosed in the older, as
in their sheaths.
1131. Every perfect leaf, i. e. every leaf-vesicle, must be regarded as
the terminal extremity of an entire twig, from or out of the angle of
which a new twig grows forth, that again as a bud ruptures, and from
which again a twig grows forth.
1132. All leaves therefore range directly opposite to each other. A
branch with many leaves is a system of branches, which grow out of each
other, like the articular pieces of the grass-culm or straw.
1133. A leaf is a whole plant with all its tissues and systems; with
cells, ducts, tracheæ; bark, liber, wood, stalk and branches. The leaf
is a tree of special form, a tree, whose branches or tracheal fascicles
all lie in one plane and are held together by parenchyma. It is the
bodily expression of the position of the tracheal circle in the stem,
only ruptured and to the greatest degree attenuated.
1134. In the division of the ribs of the leaf the internal arrangement
of the woody fasciculi in the stem has been placed before our eyes, as
by the scalpel of an anatomist.
1135. From the arrangement of the ribs of the leaf the structure of the
whole plant can be recognized and its character determined. The leaf is
the table of contents or index of the stem.
1136. Plants, which have no tracheæ, have also no leaf-ribs--Mosses.
1137. Plants, which have only isolated or non-ramifying fascicles of
tracheæ, have parallel leaf-ribs that do not ramify--Monocotyledons.
1138. Plants, which have a circle of tracheæ, or rings of
wood, have leaves with ramified ribs--reticular leaves or true
foliage--Dicotyledons.
1139. The stronger indeed the ramification of the leaf-ribs, by so
much the higher is the perfection of the leaf. The lowest leaf is that
devoid of ribs, the higher that with parallel ribs, the highest being
the reticular-veined leaf.
1140. The number and forms of the leaves that proceed from a bud,
depend partly upon the number of tracheal fascicles, which pass out of
the ramule into the leaf, partly upon the form of the leaf-bud.
1141. If the bud be simply ruptured at its apex or only between two
fascicles of tracheæ, there then originates the spathiform leaf.
1142. If the cellular substance between several tracheal fascicles be
consumed by the severing action of light and by the air, then the bud
divides into several leaves.
1143. The fundamental form of the leaf is the oviform, because the
bud is to be thought of as being round. Through the elongation or
compression of the bud, lanciform, cordiform leaves, &c. originate.
Besides it appears, that the leaf-buds, at least those of the
reticular-veined leaves, burst in a circinate manner, like the ferns,
and unroll themselves. Therefore the leaves are unilateral and clasp
the stem inferiorly; or the petiole displays its spathiform origin.
In this case the leaf is not a part of a hollow globe, but the entire
globe, that has ruptured in the transverse direction at the extremity
of the petiole. Such is the case at least in the demispathiform leaves
of the Umbelliferous plants.
1144. The primary position of the leaves like that of the branches
is thus verticillate, yet always, however, under the idea of one
being encased within the other. The leaves are here only the ultimate
branches.
1145. If the leaves upon the ramules issue from each other, then this
happens in the same manner as with the branches.
1146. The verticillate position of the leaves is therefore the lowest,
next succeeds the crucial, then the spiriform, and lastly the scattered.
1147. The spathose leaves are only to be regarded as a single bud, and
therefore differ from the whorl, in so far as we regard this as the
development of several leaves, that have not, however, been extruded
from each other.
1148. Divided leaves originate through a higher operation of light.
In them the formation of ribs preponderates, and therefore they rank
higher than the undivided.
1149. From this cause the pinnate leaves are the highest.
1150. From the same cause the radical must be worse developed than
the ramular leaves. They are usually non-pinnated, undivided, because
they have more cellular substance in their composition than the upper
leaves. In the leaf-system, consequently, the whole idea of the plant
has been recontained; on the earth resides the chemical character,
as is evidenced by cellular, dense and misshapen leaves; above in
the air, on the contrary, the leaves are more delicate and are
divided--indicating an electric character.
1151. The division and pinnation of leaves can only progress according
to the odd numbers, 3, 5, 7, because the midrib determines the odd
leaflet.
1152. Leaflets occurring in pairs, or equally pinnated, are arrests of
development.
1153. The even number or the symmetrical form is unnatural in the
vegetable kingdom.
1154. The leaves are, like the young bark, and thus the whole trunk of
the plant, green, because the vegetable kingdom represents the lower
totality of the earth, the planet, whose synthesis is the water.
1155. From the same cause, the chief colour of the animal kingdom is
red, the colour of fire. Thus, plant is to animal, as green is to red.
1156. The division of leaves passes also parallel to the stages of
rank in plants. _Cellular leaves_ are the scales of mosses and ferns;
_vascular leaves_, the long riband-like leaves of Monocotyledons;
_tracheal_ leaves the reticular leaf of Dicotyledons. The _cortical
leaf_ is the sheath; the _liber leaf_ is probably the fat leaf; the
_wood leaf_ the acicular leaf. The _radical leaf_ is the undivided
reticular leaf; the _stalk-leaf_ the free or ragged reticular leaf; the
_perfect leaf_ the pinnate. The _bracteal leaves_ repeat all forms in
the thyrsus, since they are floral leaves.
1157. The accessory leaves or _stipules_ are none other than the
remnant of the sheath-formation, out of which all the leaves, and
therefore the wings of the leaf-petioles or phyllodia, have issued
forth.
1158. The thyrsus has also its series of leaves; the scale-like or
radical leaf is involucre and bractea; the vascular or spathe-leaf is
calyx; the tracheal or reticular leaf is corolla.
1159. The vegetable trunk, namely, root, stalk, and leaf, is a perfect
organism, which can exercise all the functions which belong to its
individual life. If it therefore produces anything, that can be nothing
new, but only itself repeated. This repetition of itself is called
propagation. The organs of propagation are thus none other than a
repetition of the organs of the vegetable trunk. The plant thereby
steps forth out of its individuality into the province of the genus.
B. _Æther Organs._
THYRSUS OR FLOWER.
1160. Hitherto we have regarded the plant as simply a planetary
organism, namely, as a trunk with water-, earth-, and air-organ. But
the primary vesicle does not lie wholly in the dark, but is illuminated
upon its apex by the sun. Every operation, however, produces its like;
thus in the plant a light-organ must also be developed. As the light
evokes heat in the æther, so also does it evoke a heat-organ in the
plant. As the heavenly bodies corevolve in æther by means of light and
motion, or the gravitation condenses the æther into matter, so also
must an organ of gravity originate also in the plant. These organs
are not, however, predominant in the plant, because it is essentially
planet or vegetable trunk. They can be therefore nothing else than the
parts of the trunk itself with the properties of the æther or fire.
They are thus a repetition of the trunk, wherein, in place of the
material processes of growth, those of the light, heat, and gravity
occur. The light-organ excites the heat-organ by polarization unto
motion and thereby originates the organ of gravity.
1161. The process in which through polar tension the trunk has been
reproduced, as the Whole in miniature, is called sexual process. The
æther-organs are thus sexual organs. These sexual organs can only be
a leaf-formation, because the last development of the stem is the
leaf. The leaf-formations which, by means of polar tension, reproduce
the trunk, are the _Flower_. The light-organ is the _corolla_. The
heat-organ is the _pistil_. The organ of gravity the _seed_. The pollen
upon the stigma sets the pistil in a state of tension with the trunk,
whereby the sap, out of which the seed attains to perfection, ascends.
Without this tension the pistil would not have had strength sufficient
to perfect the seed. It would wither ere the latter had obtained
sufficient nourishment.
1162. The development of the flower takes place through
differentialization, individualization, or complete separation of the
trunk-organs. The trunk indeed summons up all power in the leaves, to
separate the three vegetable tissues and represent each as a particular
organ; only in this formation it does not wholly succeed; for in a leaf
the ribs or tracheal fascicles are still held together by cellular
tissue. In the first place with the perfect separation of the tissues
or, properly speaking, with the ex-organization of each of them unto
an independent Whole, the limit of the vegetation is attained and the
growth completed. This was the course of the whole of nature; in every
system she has proceeded to individual consummation of the factors,
to their liberation from chaos; and the developments of the systems
were concluded, so soon as all factors became independent, or so soon
as every factor had itself become an entire nature. Such was the case
in the genesis of elements, and such in the metamorphosis of the
earth-element into earths, salts, Inflammables, metals.
1163. This complete severance and individualization can no longer be
effected by the air, but must be achieved by the light. The air is
itself not the wholly differencing element, but derives its potency
only from the light. All ultimate separation and individualization is
reserved for the light.
1164. Root and stem are the water-and earth-plant, the leaf is the
air-plant, the flower is the light-or rather fire-plant.
1165. In the flower the problem has been solved, of producing an entire
plant simply by the light without earth, water, and air, or as it were
in a merely spiritual manner.
1166. The plant is a flower that has been posited under three ideas,
under the idea of earth, water, and air. As in æther or fire all the
elements are dissolved; so are all the elements of the plant in the
flower.
1167. The flower is truly, not merely in idea, the whole plant with all
systems and formations, posited under a _single_ idea, under that of
the æther, namely, of the gravity, light and heat, or the fire.
1168. The flower as the æther-organ of the plant is not so independent
as an animal, but subordinated to the planetary systems, being only a
separation of the parts of the trunk, not a new formation, as in the
animal kingdom.
1169. The flower as the highest formative consummation of the plant, or
as the highest vegetable organ, is the extremity of the ramules. (Ed.
1st. 1810. § 1176.)
1170. Although the flower is a repetition of the whole plant,
namely, of the root, stalk, and leaf; it can still only be a direct
transmutation of the leaf. For every Superior proceeds from that which
is immediately subjacent. The light-organ can only be developed out
of the air-organ, not out of the water-organ. The transition from the
water-organ into the light-organ is necessarily indicated through the
aerial form. Preparations are necessary, gradual dismemberments must
precede, before the isolated consummation can result. The air purifies
the organs, in order that they may become participant of light.
1171. The flower is the totality of the leaves of a ramule placed upon
the extremity of the latter. For a flower is the whole plant, and is
the Ultimate of the plant.
1172. The flower is a terminal leaf-bud. A leaf-bud, after whose
rupture the ramule cannot grow any more.
1173. The flower necessarily stands in a whorl-shaped manner, because
it is the end of the branch; it is the terminal whorl of the plant.
1174. With the flower the ramule or the plant dies off, partly because
it is the extremity, partly because wholly separated tissues cannot
live. In the flower therefore the plant reverts to its origin. It is a
ramule, whose buds have continued stationary.
1175. The idea of the vesicle lies at the basis of the flower. It is an
entire vegetable vesicle, a leaf-bud that has not been drawn asunder.
The flower is the last vesicle into which the stalk swells out.
1176. The flower-vesicle agrees with the leaf-vesicle. The form of the
flower must pass parallel to the form of the leaves. This has reference
principally to the position and number of parts.
_Division._
1177. The flower is the synthesis of the entire plant with complete
analysis of the organs. Flower, pistil, and seed are the leaves, stalk,
and root separated, and yet all combined to form a common organ.
This flower regarded in its analysis is the flower proper; in its
dissolution it is called _fruit_.
1178. The flower-vesicle is according to its essence a threefold
vesicle. In it the leaf-system or the air-plant has been represented,
but in like manner and of necessity also the earth-and water-plant,
or the vesicles in which stalk and root have been taken up into
the kingdom of light. Thus there is the _leaf-_, _stalk-_, and
_root-flower_.
1179. The leaf-flower is in the periphery, the stalk- and root-flower
in the centre of the vesicle. For the former is the metatype or copy of
the leaves, the latter of the stalk and the root.
1180. The leaf-flower is the highest and the very first to be
developed. It is that, which chiefly corresponds to light; the
trunk-flower is, however, the lowest, the last developed, because it
is only the trunk that has been prolonged with difficulty to form a
flower. It is the child of the heat and gravity.
1181. It may be also said that the leaf-flower is the electrical, the
stem-flower, however, the chemical. In the latter the chemical process
must still act visibly, it must still be produced mucus; in the former,
however, this must disappear and resolve itself into purely electrical
bodies.
1182. The flower consists of three leaf-buds. The leaf-bud is the
corolla or blossom. The stalk-bud the pistil. The root-bud the seed.
1183. The corolla is the external whorl of leaves, is first developed,
has the form of a leaf, is a vesicle, secretes in itself electrical,
inflammable bodies, and is directed towards the sun.
1184. The difference between corolla and pistil is that of the two
principal tissues, the tracheal and cellular tissue. By the light
the tracheal fasciculi become finally separated from the cellular
substance, evolved to a higher degree as the child or product of light,
and planted outwardly. The corolla is the tracheal circle, which has
forcibly gained its freedom.
1185. The pistil is the vascular substance that has become freely
evolved, yet to the highest stage; in a similar relation likewise does
the seed stand to the cellular substance. In the fruit therefore the
flower again reverts to the primary condition of the plant.
1186. The flower and pistil are therefore those very organs which have
been most antagonized in the plant. They are in the highest state
of polar tension, and stand opposite each other like electrism and
chemism, or as light and matter. This antagonism in the Organic is
called _sex_.
1. FLORAL ENVELOPES.
1187. The blossom is the leaf-formation, in which the separation of the
principal tissues is completely attained, where the tracheal fascicles
entirely separate from the cellular substance, and become a leaf with
free ribs. The cellular substance becomes the _corolla-petal_, the rib
the stamen.
1188. The blossom passes through the three stages of leaf-varieties
before it attains its completion, and divides therefore into three
whorls, which correspond to the root-leaves, stalk-, and ramular or
perfect leaves. The radical or squamose leaf appears in its repetition
as _involucrum_ or _spatha_. The stalk or vascular leaf as _calyx_. The
perfect or tracheal leaf as _corolla_.
a. _Involucrum._
1189. As the root puts forth numerous branches, so the involucrum or
spatha frequently incloses many blossoms that constitute the thyrsus
or synthetic form of inflorescence.
1190. The thyrsus or dense panicle is the whole ramage or branch-fabric
repeated in the involucrum; it is therefore just as manifold as the
former.
1191. The inflorescence is still as complex as the arrangement of the
branches, because with every flower the ramule dies off or ceases to
grow, whereby very numerous and strange relations are brought to light.
1192. The involucrum corresponds to the scale-leaves or bracts, and
is therefore as a rule polypetalous. The involucral leaves stand upon
a lower stage of development, are for the most part only squamose or
spathiform, rarely divided or pinnate.
1193. The involucral leaves necessarily stand, as being the radical
leaves of the flower, at the bottom of the peduncles or flower-stalks;
each flower-stalk therefore has usually an involucral or bracteal leaf
also.
b. _Calyx._
1194. The repetition of the cauline or spathe-leaf in the flower is
the _Calyx_. It does not stand therefore at the base of the peduncle,
but towards its summit, and is the external bud of the blossom; it
is mostly spathiform, rarely or but slightly cloven, and very rarely
polysepalous; it is generally green like the leaves. Although the calyx
is no essential organ in itself, still it is rarely wanting and is
often itself the supporter of the corolla and stamina.
1195. As the calyx is more incomplete than the corolla, so it has
usually but three lobes, and if it has five, then they are frequently
placed irregularly.
1196. The developmental stages of the calyx are also three.
Corresponding to the scale-like leaf or bract, it is only squamiform,
as in the catkins of the hazel and fir-cones; corresponding to the
spathe-leaf, it is tubular or unisepalous; corresponding to the
reticular leaf, it is multisepalous, and mostly deciduous.
1197. The tubular calyx exhibits likewise three stages of
development. At first it is scale-like, confluent with the ovary or
epigynous--_ovarial corollæ_. It is next spathe-like, simply connected
with the corolla or perigynous--_calycine corollæ_. Lastly, it
resembles the reticular-veined leaf, being free from both the above
organs, or hypogynous--_pedunculate corollæ_.
c. _Corolla._
1198. From the character of the corolla or crown as being a ramular
leaf all its properties admit of being deduced. It is the upper
leaf-bud, inasmuch as the ramular leaves stand above those of the
stalk. It is, on this account too, the internal, inasmuch as the lower
leaves admit within them the upper.
1199. The corolla is homologous with the whole mass of the petiolated
or ramular leaves. Thus their arrangement, form, and number taken
together are not worth more than the characters of the corolla, nor are
they worth less, because they are relations of deeper organs.
1200. The corolla stands also in a whorl, because it is the totality of
leaves.
1201. The laws of the leaf-formation are also the laws of the
corolla-formation. The corolla will therefore represent at one time a
greater, at another a less, ramified leaf-system.
1202. The corolla is the last verticil in the series of leaf-whorls;
for it represents the last leaf-form, and must fade, because the
tissues have completely separated from each other, namely, the tracheæ
as stamina, from the cells that constitute corolla leaflets or petals.
No part can carry on life by or for itself.
1203. The parts of the corolla range in an alternating manner with
those of the calyx, because they are the next supra-consecutive bud.
1204. In accordance with the three stages of the leaf-formation the
corolla is also resolvable into three forms. The scale-or root-leaf
returns in the several squamiform micropetals of what have been called
the Apetalous plants; it corresponds to the involucrum--squamoid
corolla. The spathe-or stalk-leaf appears in the tubular-shaped or
Monopetalous corolla. It is a leaf-bud, which has only ruptured at the
apex, like most calyces, unto which it corresponds--spathoid corolla.
Lastly, in the polypetalous corolla the reticular or petiolated leaf
appears upon its highest stage--reticular or phylloid corolla. The rank
of the leaves consequently determines also that of corollæ.
1205. Although we regard the corolla as a whorl of leaves, namely, as
several leaf-buds approximated, a yet clearer insight into its numbers
and positional relations is attained, by viewing it only as the lobes
of a single leaf.
1206. If we regard the petals of a polypetalous corolla in the
import or light of _pinnate leaflets_, the legitimate regularity of
their numerical relations, and the so-called irregularity of their
arrangement is easily explained. The papilionaceous corollæ have been
manifestly constructed according to the plan of the pinnate leaf; the
vexillum or vane corresponds to the odd leaflet, the alæ or wings to
the two anterior, the carina or keel to the two posterior pinnate
leaflets; and hence their consecutive ratio of decrease in respect to
size.
1207. All irregular corollæ admit of being referred to the
papilionaceous form. One petal is always found, which separates from
the others, is either larger or smaller, or entirely ablated, and
consequently corresponds to the odd pinnate leaflet or vane.
1208. The irregular monopetalous or tubular corollæ admit also of
being referred to the papilionaceous form. They need only be regarded
as a confluence of petals. The labiate corollæ are one of the same
character; but, on the contrary, the lower lip is trifid, the upper,
and thus the keel, bifid. Here the papilionaceous corolla stands,
properly speaking, reversed.
NUMERICAL LAW.
1209. The number of petals in the corolla ranges parallel with the mode
of development of the pinnate leaves. But at first the odd terminal
leaf necessarily originates, because a leaf must have several pairs of
ribs, before it splits in a ptiloidal or pinnate manner. The primary
number of petals is therefore one. This number is found in those plants
called apetalous, where the small lateral petals are abortive, and
frequently the terminal petal itself, as in the catkin, where only the
calyx has been left remaining.
1210. The normal ratio, in which the numbers of the petals progress, is
the odd or uneven. For a leaf is to be regarded as a single fascicle of
fibres with cellular substance. This packet of fibres grows straight
out. It is solicited by the light to give off bundles of fibres; there
is thus no existing cause, why it should only give off such upon one,
and not upon the other, side of the bundle. At the first division
therefore it must be an _odd_ leaflet, which is the principal bundle of
fibres, while two _even_ pinnate leaflets take their origin upon its
sides.
1211. The second number of petals is therefore _three_; for this is the
first number in which a pinnate leaf can appear. This number is much
more frequently met with than the former, because all division of a
terminal bud necessarily strives after the representation of the whorl.
Under this head come most Monocotyledons, as grasses, rushes, lilies.
1212. Of the three petals of a corolla all three are not of equal
import, two only are alike as being lateral pinnate leaflets; the
third, however, is present as the odd or uneven leaflet.
1213. Upon this inequality of import depends the irregularity of many
ternary corollæ, e. g. of the Orchideæ, Apiaceæ, and even many Irides
and lilies.
1214. If the trinity or ternary division depend upon the pinnated leaf,
so must also the next number depend thereupon.
1215. The third prevalent number in the vegetable world is the quinary.
The quinary division originates, when to the two pinnate leaflets two
others are superadded. The pentapetalous corolla is also an _odd_
pinnate leaf in a whorl-shaped position with four pinnate leaflets.
1216. The pentapetalous is naturally higher in rank than the
tripetalous, and this than the monopetalous, corolla.
1217. In the former four petals are of equal rank, but the fifth or
odd petal differs from them. This difference is shown in its position,
size, form, design, and colouring. The odd leaf is usually larger, of a
rounded form, having more ribs and other spots or markings.
1218. It appears as if, with this second liberation of fibrous
fascicles from the main bundle, the differentialization were closed.
For most corollæ are only quinarily divided, or admit at least of being
referred back to that number.
1219. It is readily comprehended why there are only three breaks
present in the number of petals, that these are denoted by one, three,
and five, and that they rarely ascend to seven, nine, and so on. For
the posterior pinnate leaflets are wont also to abort or be arrested in
the leaves.
1220. There can be no plant with _originally_ two corolla-lobes or
petals; for the fibrous bundle does not thus divide itself; one main
fasciculus is always left. The cause why the principal bundle does not
divide into two equal fasciculi resides in the very nature or essence
of the stalk. The idea of the stalk operates throughout the whole
plant. The odd or uneven leaflet is only the last expansion of the
stalk. The even leaflets are its branches.
1221. For the same reason there can be no _originally_ quaternary
corolla.
1222. There can be none that is originally sexanary.
1223. But an originally septenary corolla is conceivable, if forsooth
the energy of light is still in a condition to separate two bundles
of fibres. How rarely this occurs is well known, and thus it still
continues doubtful whether this form is not to be explained by an
arrest of development.
1224. Nature can produce no originally octo-, deka-, or
dodeka-petalous, &c. corolla.
1225. Corollæ with originally nine, eleven, and more numbers are not
impossible. The last seem only to exist.
1226. All corollas having even numbered petals, originate through
arrest of the odd leaflet.
1227. The number two originates most usually and in the simplest manner
from the arrest of the number three. If it originates from the quinary
quantity, two pinnate leaflets are then coarrested.
1228. The aberration is recognized either from the position of the
lobes or petals that have been left remaining, or from comparison of
the number in other parts, in the calyx and capsule.
1229. The quaternary corolla is a quinary without the uneven leaflet.
1230. The hexapetalous is a doubling of the tripetalous, corolla.
There are two whorls of petals, provided the calyx has not become
corolla-like in character. Both cases are demonstrable through the
alternating arrangement of the parts.
1231. The number eight is a doubled four.
1232. Nine is indeed in most instances a product of three multiplied by
three.
1233. The number ten is a doubled five.
1234. In every number of petals the law of unequal development
consequently prevails.
1235. The original arrangement of the parts of the corolla is
bilateral, and therefore symmetrical. In the papilionaceous corollæ
this originally symmetrical arrangement is most perfectly maintained.
They repeat the position of their pinnate leaves.
1236. This symmetrical arrangement is shown even in many tubular, as
in the labiate and personate, corollæ. The trifid lower lip is the
standard and wings; the bifid upper lip, on the contrary, the keel.
1237. The small liguliform petal of the lettuce's corolla is a tubular
corolla entirely slit up; it is therefore mostly quinque-dentate.
1238. Corollæ which have only a single petal (the tubular-shaped
corollæ should not be styled monopetalous, but those which actually
have a single petal to the corolla) are indeed to be regarded for
the most part as an odd leaflet; yet still much variety appears to
take place in these developmental arrests. Thus here no division of
the fibrous bundle was attained, or the lateral leaflets have wholly
disappeared.
1239. In many this one leaflet also is arrested, and the corolla is
wholly wanting. Such a corolla is to be viewed as a stem with radical,
but without ramular leaves.
1240. It is not a matter of indifference whether the single involucre
that is left remaining be called calyx or corolla; the distinction
between both is philosophically correct, though at the same time also
it may be frequently difficult to determine. Colour and relation to the
stamina and fruit determine much; but respect must be also paid to the
whole idea of the plant, whether it has radical leaves or not, whether
the leaf-ribs do or do not ramify. Alternating stamina afford evidence
of its being the corolla.
COLORATION.
1241. As the colour ranges parallel with the import or quality of the
matter, or since the matter and colour are of one and the same kind, so
also must this hold good of the colour of the light-flower.
1242. As the corolla only, and not the calyx, is the proper
light-organ, so also will it only obey the light in the coloration.
1243. The corolla can no longer be coloured green, for it is no longer
a leaf. Now that which obtains another signification, which passes
over into another element, must, with the function, lay aside also
the old colour. The corolla is besides the perishing, fading leaf; as
this begins to turn yellow or red in the autumn, so does the corolla
immediately at its origin. It is a born autumnal leaf.
1244. The whole plant must be regarded as a green synthetic colour; the
corolla as the analysis of the Green.
1245. The first division of the Green is Yellow and Blue. These two
colours are the first which make their appearance in the corolla.
1246. Yellow is the earth-colour, corresponds to the root, and
consequently indicates the lowest colour. Yellow corollæ are less
developed than those which are otherwise coloured. The corollæ of
spring flowers are therefore yellow; so likewise is the middle of the
corolla, as is specially exemplified in the disk of the Syngenesious
plants.
1247. Blue is the second colour of corollæ in the scale of dignity,
or rank. Blue is displayed on the better developed corolla, and is
frequently the colour in the rays of the Syngenesiæ. Blue belongs to
the temperate zones.
1248. If Yellow and Blue be the divided Green of the leaves, the
complementary colour to that of the corollæ must thus remain in the
trunk. The trunks of plants having blue corollæ should therefore
be yellow; those with yellow corollæ should furnish blue colouring
matters, like the Woad.
1249. Red is the third corolla-colour, the true light-colour, in the
which properly all corollæ have been immersed; and if they exhibit any
other colours, these should be viewed only as instances of aberration
from Red. The Reds are the splendid colours, which develop themselves
in the middle of summer; in flaming red mantles are the flowers of the
torrid zone veiled.
1250. Finally, the form triumphs over the colour. The light has in Red
done everything which it could do for colour, having allured as it were
all the colours out of the plant; it now, on the contrary, bestows its
attention upon the form and delicacy of the substance. The white colour
makes its appearance in antithesis to the red, and is mostly associated
with very delicate structure.
1251. The cells of the red corollæ are replete with starch-granules,
but those of the white are quite empty. The yellow and blue corollæ
range in the middle. Red is a superabundance, White a deficiency, of
nutriment. The most noble and beautiful corollæ, as well as the lowest
also, may therefore be white. White and red are the general colours
for all families of plants, but yellow and blue are special colours.
In general the trunk is green, the corolla white, the seed black. The
mediate stages are red, yellow, and blue.
STAMEN-FILAMENTS.
1252. At length we come to the last work achieved by the light in the
corolla, or to complete separation of the systems or tissues. If ever
bundles of fibres may entirely separate from the cellular substance,
this is possible only in the corolla, as being the final light-organ.
Separation must, however, be attained: for thus far do the claims of
light extend. But no development remains stationary before it has
corresponded with the operations of the developing agent.
1253. In the corolla, as being the highest kind of leaf, the ribs,
as the fibrous fascicles, must finally separate themselves from the
leaf-substance as cellular tissue. The corolla is a double organ.
1254. In conformity with the whole structure of the plant, the ribs are
placed internally, the membranes externally.
1255. The leaf-ribs, isolated and perfected as a particular organ, are
the _Stamen-filaments_.
1256. The leaf-membranes, or probably the phyllodia, isolated and
evolved into a particular organ, are the corolla-petals. These compose
in the strongest sense the corolla. The filaments consist for the
greatest part of spiral fibres, and the corolla-petals of the finest
cellular tissue, which may be almost designated as granular. This then
would be the rational import of the corolla and its stamen-filaments.
Both are of similar production; they exhibit like substance, colour,
and delicacy, with cotemporaneous development and cotemporaneous death.
1257. Not only are the ribs of the corolla, but those also of
the calyx, liberated to become filaments. There are calyx-and
corolla-filaments.
1258. As ribs, the filaments must stand in the middle of their petals,
i. e. opposite to them.
1259. Filaments, which alternate with the parts of the corolla,
are consequently calyx-filaments; such as alternate with the lobes
of the calyx, or stand opposite to the petals of the corolla, are
corolla-filaments.
1260. Most filaments, and consequently the calycine, are alternating
in their arrangement. Most corollæ therefore have no longer strength
sufficient to produce filaments.
1261. Flowers provided with opposite and alternating filaments have
consequently two circles of them, as is the case in many Pinks.
With the determination of the number of filaments the race has been
therefore specified.
1262. The number of filaments stands in relation to the parts of the
corolla; therefore three and five are the prevailing numbers.
1263. There is no absolute number in the filaments, but only one
of relation. Corollæ with three petals have invariably also three
filaments, and those with five of the former, the same number too of
the latter.
1264. The number of filaments is always the simple or multiple of the
parts of the corolla. Three calyx-or corolla-parts have 3 × 1 or 3 × n,
filaments. 6 is not 6, but 3 × 2; 9 is 3 × 3; 10 is 5 × 2; 20 is 5 × 4;
or 5 × 3 + 5 × 1, and so on.
1265. The filaments do not simply follow the number, but also the
conjunction, position and arrest, of the corolla. They are epigynous,
peri-or hypogynous.
1266. In irregular corollæ the filaments are usually abortive; as in
those of the orchideous, labiate and papilionaceous plants.
1267. The arrest of the filaments usually stands in inverse relation
with the corolla. In the case of a larger-sized petal the filament is
small, and, on the contrary, larger in opposite parts of the corolla.
ANTHERS.