differently posited fixations of earth, determines the classes, orders,
and genera.
483. The _genus_ is the product of a genetic moment, and is therefore
always a definite, chemical mixture, which alone consequently expresses
the essential character. Hitherto there has been no definition of
mineral genera.
484. _Species_ of minerals are successive developments of the genetic
moment, thus stöchiometric subdivisions of the genetic mixture, e. g.
the different degrees of oxydation of nitrogen, in the oxyde, binoxyde
gases and nitric acid. Hitherto it was not known what a mineral species
might be; Physio-philosophy has been the first to introduce clearness
to these conceptions.
485. A stöchiometric mixture in the earth-element is an individual.
486. Individuals only are the object of natural history, and thus
neither water, air, nor fire. This also was not known previous to
Physio-philosophy; it is, however, gradually acknowledged also by
empirics.
487. The crystalline form is merely an external character for the
species, and therefore the same nuclei may occur in the different
orders.
488. Kinds or _varieties_ are different conditions of cohesion. They
are therefore not determined by the form of the secondary crystal,
since the aberration of forms results only from a stoppage upon their
part half way or from the quantitative energy of the polar radii or
polar axes.
489. While æther, air, and water, as being general matters, do not
belong to the mineral system, what have been called artificial salts
must on the contrary be admitted therein, because they are no works of
art. The chemist only brings bodies together which do not come together
accidentally in nature. It is a true misapprehension of nature's
products if those substances only, that adhere to the earth, are
recognized as such; surely this definition is perfectly ridiculous.
490. Two kinds or modes of division are possible, a _chemical_, and a
genetic or philosophical.
491. The chemical principle of division of the earth are the elemental
bodies. The philosophical or naturo-historical principles of division
are the elements.
492. In reference to the chemical bodies four combinations only are
possible. 1. Carbon, represented as perfectly pure, may be regarded
as _Metal_. 2. Carbon united with hydrogen, is manifested in the
_Inflammables_. 3. Carbon with oxygen makes its appearance in the
_Earths_. 4. Carbon with oxygen and hydrogen in the _Salts_. According
to this view, the classes would succeed each other thus:--
1. Ores.
2. Inflammables.
3. Earths.
4. Salts.
Now, as the earths here intervene between the Inflammables and salts,
it is at once seen that the series is incorrect; for the earths form by
far the largest mass, and must therefore constitute the groundwork or
basis of Mineralogy, and thus stand at the commencement. If all metals,
Inflammables and salts were to be deducted, the globe of the earth
would still lose but little of its magnitude.
493. This chemical division admits thus of no strict arrangement, since
what are called minerals follow each other unnaturally. Meantime the
chemical view admits also of a philosophical treatment and amelioration
of the serial order. It may be said that the earth consists of much
carbon, little oxygen and very little hydrogen, without any other
element. Salt, of little carbon, much oxygen and little hydrogen,
together with water. The Inflammables of little carbon and oxygen, much
hydrogen, besides air. Ore, of much carbon, little hydrogen, and still
less oxygen with fire. As the fire or the æther is imponderable, so do
the three elemental bodies appear blended together into one apparently
simple body, with which gravity, light as lustre, heat as spirit and
the conduction of heat, are only spiritually combined.
494. But this view leads directly to the _genetic_ division, as the
only true one, to that, namely, which has been based upon the mutual
influence of all the elements. It is itself the ultimate cause or
foundation of chemical division.
495. There can accordingly, as there are only four elements, be only
four kinds of minerals. The Earthy either continues unchanged, or it is
changed by water, air and fire.
496. When the _earth-element_ originates or separates itself from the
water, in order to free itself from all the properties of the latter
as well as from those of the air and fire, and to become stiff and
solid, the remaining elements exert an incessant influence upon it, and
draw a portion of it into their circle, i. e. they confer upon it their
properties.
a. The Earth-element can be changed by fire Fire-minerals.
b. Or changed by air Air-minerals.
c. Or changed by water Water-minerals.
d. Or lastly, it is severed wholly and substantially } Earth-minerals.
free }
497. Through the influx of _fire_ upon the formation of the Earthy
it becomes an identical, homogeneous mass, in which the possibility
resides, as in the æther itself, of undergoing all changes. This
developmental stage of the earth-element is represented by the _metal_.
The homogeneous mass of the metal can become earthy by oxydation,
aqueous or saline by acidification, aerial or combustible by being
hydrogenized.
498. The metal is unanalysable, as is the æther, although it consists
of three forms. The metal is easily restored or brought back from its
combinations.
499. Besides, however, the identical, homogeneous or simple character,
the metal has still also the three characters of fire or of the æther.
It is therefore a triplicity in identity.
a. In so far as _gravity_ is represented in it, it has the identical
or homogeneous mass already indicated, and is heavier than all other
bodies. It is central mass. It must be regarded as pure carbon. Metal
and the body of gravity are one.
b. In so far as light is represented in it, it has the peculiar lustre,
which stands again also in intimate connexion with the homogeneous
mass. The usual colour of metals is white, the colour of unsullied
light. The lustre is properly a self-illumination, and thereupon
depends their repulsion of light, or opacity. Metals are therefore
adiaphanous or opaque, because they are noncombustible by light. As
soon as they become decomposible, namely oxydes, they become also
transparent. The metals are the only opaque bodies, because they alone
are non-decomposible. All matters become only opaque by admixture with
metal, or in so far as the metallic body resides at the bottom of all.
The visibility of the world is based upon its metallic character.
Without metal we would see nothing.
c. In so far as _heat_ is represented in metal is it extensible,
fusible and fluidifiable. Metal is water that has become dense.
500. In so far as the _air_ has acted upon the Earthy during its
origin, it has imparted to it electrical and combustible properties;
the metal has combined with hydrogen, has become an Inflammable, as in
sulphur or pit-coal. Sulphur may be regarded as the intimate fusion
of hydrogen with metal; coal as a combination of the same probably
elicited by means of oxygen. Inflammables are idioelectric and
combustible, because they are rigidified air. That matter belongs only
to the Inflammables, which, being once kindled in exposure to the air,
continues to burn of _itself_. The Inflammables are volatile, since
they undergo combustion, i. e. they take on the condition of their
antetype, the air. They have from metal the opacity and the colours,
but they do not preserve the lustre or self-illumination. They become
transparent simply by crystallization or oxydation.
501. With the generation of the Earthy _water_ imparts also to a
portion of the same its properties, dissolubility and transparency.
To the metal and hydrogen oxygen is next added. An hydrated Earthy
originates. The Aqueo-earthy is fluid in water; it is _salt_. Salt
changes its form in the readiest manner, because it is the metatype or
likeness of water; and hence its susceptibility to crystallization. It
is not combustible by itself, because it is essentially an oxyde and
hydroid. Salt is a metal or Inflammable that has undergone combustion,
and can therefore never be simple.
502. Now that part of the earth-element, which remains after the
salt, the Inflammable and the metal have been separated, is plainly
the _Earthy_ or the _earth_. It has therefore no aqueous properties,
is not soluble; it has no aerial properties, is not electric and
combustible; has no metallic properties, is not heavy, nor opaque and
glittering, not fusible and malleable or extensible. The pure Earthy is
always fixed or firm, and therefore figurate. The Earthy is a metal,
with which the oxygen has been intimately melted down; for it is the
identification of all elements.
503. The Earthy is the principal mass, because it represents the
earth-element itself. Salt, Inflammable and metal are only subordinate
masses, because they are only displacements of the earth-element by the
other elements. Therefore a small part only of the Earthy has become
salt, a yet smaller Inflammable, and the smallest, metal.
504. Although the metal is simple, it can by no means correspond, as
might otherwise appear, to the earth-element; for every element is
a totality of elemental bodies, and therefore those minerals, which
represent the pure earth-element, must be compound, without, however,
exhibiting the characters of the other elements. This is found only in
the earths.
505. There are, accordingly, in a genetic point of view, four, and only
four, mineral classes. They originate in an ascending direction, from
the earth-element by water and air up to fire. The Classes are--
I. Earth-minerals Earths.
II. Water- " Salts.
III. Air- " Inflammables.
IV. Fire- " Ores.
a. _Earths_ are those minerals, which admit of being changed neither
by water, nor air, nor by fire; i. e. which are neither soluble,
combustible, fusible, neither yield colour, nor are particularly
heavy. Such minerals have been properly called earths, as silicious,
sacrilegious earth, &c.
b. _Salts_ are those which have aqueous properties, i. e. are soluble.
c. _Inflammables_ are those which have aerial properties, i. e. are
inflammable and volatile.
d. _Metallic ores_ are those which have the three properties of fire,
are superlatively heavy, yielding light or colour, and fusible.
506. The _Earths_ are to be regarded as the proper total earth-element,
namely as carbon neutralized by oxygen. The _Salts_ are to be regarded
as combinations of the earth-and water-elements; therefore as
combinations of carbon with oxygen and hydrogen. The _Inflammables_
are to be regarded as combinations of the earth-element with the
air-element, thus of carbon with hydrogen, which supplies the place
of nitrogen. The _Metals_ are to be regarded as combinations of the
earth-element with the fire-element; therefore as carbon without any
other body, only combined with spiritual actions, namely gravity, light
and heat. Hence the apparent simplicity of metals, and the great number
of special properties, which are absent in the other classes.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CLASSES.
507. As there is not simply a single earth, salt, Inflammable
and metal, but in each class many of them; we have to inquire
what is the groundwork of their further distinctions or of their
systematic division. Here also may we go to work again chemically and
philosophically.
a. _Chemical Division._
The _Metals_, _chemically_ regarded, do not admit of being separated
into constituent parts. They exhibit only physical differences in
gravity, colour, hardness, malleability, conducting power, tension or
their mutual polarity. If it be endeavoured to arrange them according
to these respects, nothing but disorder results. The same is the
case in reference to their affinity for oxygen, sulphur, the acids
and other metals. Rather more order is at once displayed if their
philosophical composition, namely as carbon and fire, be submitted to
our consideration.
508. In consequence of this view, the _Metals_ must divide into
Earth-metals and Fire-metals; and the latter again into three
subdivisions, nearly as follows:--
A. Earth-metals--difficultly fusible and invariably
oxydized--Sidereometalla, e. g. Iron--Manganese, Wolfram, Uranium,
Titanium, Chromium, &c.
B. Fire-metals.
a. Heavy metals; difficultly fusible, unoxydized or noble metals, e. g.
Platinum, Nickel, Cobalt.
b. Light metals; the easily fused noble metals--e. g. Gold, Silver, &c.
c. Heat-metals; the easily fused, ignoble and frequently volatile
metals, e. g. Lead, Tin, Antimony, Zinc, Arsenic, &c.
509. The _Inflammables_ divide under a chemical point of view into two
groups--into the varieties of Coal and Sulphur, whereof the Earthy lies
at the basis of the former which is non-fusible; the Aerial at that of
the latter. They do not admit of being divided, unless a mean betwixt
the two be taken, the combinations of carbon and hydrogen in the resins.
510. The _Salts_ admit of a better dismemberment. Their constituent
parts are alkalies and acids, the former the Earthy, the latter the
Aqueous. The mean condition is exhibited by the neutral salts, so that
three orders are the result.
511. Now by the philosophical view we have first attained to the very
remarkable import of the acids. They are forsooth nothing else than
oxydized elements and mineral classes. In the nitric acid it is evident
that, as the acid of nitrogen, it is the _aerial acid_; as sulphuric
acid is the _inflammable acid_; arsenic acid the _metallic acid_. Upon
this ground we may expect that the other acids also have a similar
origin. Without much hesitation hydrochloric acid may be viewed as the
_aqueous acid_, which is associated with the sea; the carbonic acid
as _æther-_ or _igneous-acid_, as well on account of its constituent
parts and gaseous character, as chiefly on account of its general
diffusion. There remain then only two that have been called mineral
acids, the fluoric and boracic acids, the first of which, as conqueress
of the earths is the _earth acid_, the last being thus the acid of the
_salts_. We have accordingly--
a. _Elemental acids._
1. The oxydized æther is Carbonic acid.
2. The oxydized air Nitric acid.
3. The oxydized water Hydrochloric acid.
b. _Mineral acids._
4. The oxydized earth is Fluoric acid.
5. The oxydized salt Boracic acid.
6. The oxydized inflammable Sulphuric acid.
7. The oxydized metal Arsenic acid.
512. The vegetable and animal acids are none other than repetitions of
the elemental and mineral acids. They may perhaps be parallelized in
the following manner.
Fire-acid (Carbonic acid) Acetic acid Hæmatosine.
Air-acid (Nitric acid) Malic acid Lactic acid.
Water-acid (Hydrochloric acid) Saccharine acid Mucic acid.
Earth-acid (Fluoric acid) Tartaric acid Phosphoric ac.
Salt-acid (Boracic acid) Tannic acid Uric acid.
Inflammable-acid (Sulphuric acid) Succinic acid Sebacic acid.
Ore-acid (Arsenic acid) Indic acid Formic acid.
All the remaining acids must be viewed as subordinate to, or as kinds
of these.
513. The _alkalies_ appear to follow the same course, though it does
not admit of being so completely demonstrated.
Fire-alkali Ammonia Vegetable, and Animal alkalies.
Air-alkali Potash Alcaloids Alcaloids.
Water Soda Urea.
Earth Lithium Bile, &c.
Salt
Inflammable
Ore-alkali
514. The earths proper do not consist of two principles, and do not,
therefore admit of being chemically divided.
515. This division is only incorrect in a naturo-historical sense,
because it has no reference to the totality. Inasmuch as every mineral
class is viewed as having originated out of only one or two elements,
it divides by the chemical method only into constituent parts or
fractions, as the acids and alkalies, which are obviously only
moieties, and taken in a strict sense are not true minerals.
b. _Genetic Division of the Classes._
516. The total division only is genetic and consequently correct.
517. As the classes have originated through that which directly
preceded them, namely, the elements; so must the divisions of the
classes be determined by the other classes. Such divisions are called
orders. Every class necessarily divides into four orders.
Order 1. Earths.
2. Salts.
3. Inflammables.
4. Ores.
_CLASS I._
EARTHS.
518. There must be therefore pure earths, haloid or salt-earths,
inflammable earths and metallic earths or ores.
1. The Earth-earths must have neither saline, nor inflammable nor
metallic properties, and thus also be insoluble in acids. Such is the
case with the _Silicious earths_.
2. The Haloid-earths must have saline properties, dissolve in acids,
but not fall to pieces when exposed to air and fire. Such is the
behaviour of _Argillaceous earth_; it admits besides of combining with
water, that antetype of the salts.
3. The Inflammable earths must be soluble in acids and exhibit electric
or aerial properties. Such is the behaviour of the _Talcose earths_;
its minerals are unctuous, fall when exposed to the air into electric
lamellæ, and burn brittle.
4. The Metallic earths must undergo change in acids, air and fire. The
_calcareous earth_ dissolves in all acids, burns corrosive and becomes
almost a metallic calx. The Orders of earth are consequently:
1. Earth-earths _Silica_; Quartz, &c.
2. Haloid-earths _Clays_; Felspar, &c.
3. Inflammable-earths _Talcs_; Mica, &c.
4. Metallic-earths or Ores _Calx_.
519. Nature does not produce any so-called pure calcareous earth,
but only this earth in an _oxydated_ condition. Carbonic acid is the
oxygen of the earth that has become free, and the corroding calx is the
Metallic, the other constituent part of the Earthy, which has obtained
some oxygen, but lost the Aqueous by the carbonic acid and thereby has
become corrosive.
520. The carbonate calcareous earth is the whole earth, not the
corrosive. This is only the half of the earth-element, only its basic
or phlogistic principle. What has been called pure calcareous earth is
a half earth; the perfect or naturo-historical earth is just that which
is chemically impure.
521. The calcareous earth is not, however, perfected with one position.
It still exhibits several stages of development which appear to be
approximations to the salt, e. g. Strontian and Baryta.
522. The silicious earth, which principally represents the Earthy,
holds its principles more firmly together. No separation occurs there
in the carbonic acid and the basic or corroding body of earth; no
association with water, no great activity, no direct participation in
the highest evolutions of the planet; but it continues to lie in an
extreme state of contraction, and in a state of indifference in the
non-differencing darkness.
523. This pure earth is the basis, the pedestal of all the other
earths, and the foundation of the planet; for it alone is the earth
proper, the earth-abiding earth-element, while the other masses of
earth, divided in their principles, have pitched themselves in outward
opposition to the sun and other elements. The silicious earth is
in every respect the centre of all earthy productions, these being
only digressions from it. The Zircon earth is only a removal or
displacement of the silicious toward the argillaceous earth.
524. The argillaceous earth also is not dissevered into its principles;
it is not found as a carbonate. On the contrary, it is at once shown to
be far more pliable by its capacity for being kneaded and moulded in
water, and by its hardening when exposed to air and fire. It is also
seized upon and dissolved, i. e. reduced to the aqueous condition,
by all acids. Its kindred earths are the Glucine and Yttria, verging
towards the talcose earths.
525. The first dismemberment of principles is shown by the talcose
earth. Where it appears uncombined with the former earths it is
carbonate, yet still feebly corrosive.
526. These three principal earths together make up the body of the
earth, while the calcareous earth is only spread over them like a
mantle or crust.
527. As no earth is in its totality corrosive, and none such occurs
in nature or has at least not been originally produced from it, so
may the insolubility of the earths in water be set up as an essential
and thoroughly valid characteristic of the earths. Their distinctive
characters have been sedulously rendered fluctuating, by having been
drawn not from nature, but the products of art. That the corrosive
chalk is soluble in water, and may therefore be a salt is true; but
it has not issued thus out of the womb of nature. Mineralogy knows
nothing of a corrosive calcareous earth. The earths are sufficiently
separated from the salts by their insolubility in water. They are
separated from the ores by their incombustibleness, or, if they have
been already burnt, by their incapacity for reduction. As both of these
qualities are imparted by fire, so the earths are distinguished by
their immutability in fire, whereby is naturally understood not the
scoriation, but change of the earthy character. They differ also in
the same manner from the Inflammables. Nature does not undertake the
artificial reductions of earths to Metalloids, at least not so, that
they may become again of themselves earths. The metals are permanent
reductions.
528. Earth is thus the body, which is mutable neither in water, air,
nor fire. _Earth is a water-, air-, and fire-proof body._ This is
the brief, rigid, wholly exclusive, and significantly expressive
definition, which a so-called empirical science could never, but
philosophy alone, bestow.
529. The Ore is not soluble in water, nor mutable in air; on the
contrary, it is fusible, oxydizable, or reducible in fire. _Ore is a
water-and air-, but not fire-proof body._
530. The Inflammable is immutable in water, but mutable in air and
fire. _The Inflammable is a water-proof, but not air-and fire-proof
body._
531. The Salt is soluble in water, and decomposible in fire, but
immutable in air. _Salt is an air-, but not water-and fire-proof
body._ The legitimate series of gradations comprised in the above four
definitions cannot escape the attentive reader, nor moreover that the
properties of the earths are all affirmative. Nature has not employed
such insignificant means of distinction as our mineralogy has done;
has nowhere used an acid in order to distinguish the metals from the
earths, nor savour to separate the salts from the earths; but she
selects universal reagents which are the elements themselves. So simple
is Nature, if we do not violate her by art.
DIVISION OF THE EARTHS.
532. There is not merely a single silicious mineral, but many such,
just as in clay, talc, and calx. How, then, do differences occur in
these earths? When we survey the science of Mineralogy we remark that
most minerals are composed of several earths; with them also metals,
coal, sulphur, alkalies and acids are frequently associated. It follows
thereupon that the further distinctions are no longer of an _internal_
kind, namely, alterations of substance; but proceed from combinations
and thus indicate stöchiometric bodies. The next division of the orders
I call _Families_.
Order 1. _Silicious_ minerals. *
533. With how many bodies now can the silicious earth combine? It will
first of all appear in a pure condition, as in quartz; then, in the
next place, combine with the other earths, thus with clay, talc and
calx. We have thus four families of _Earth-silices_.
Fam. 1. Pure-Silex Quartz.
2. Argillaceo-Silex Zircon.
3. Talco-Silex Emerald.
4. Calcareo-Silex Leucite.
534. Thus the hardest minerals or the silicious precious stones are
here placed. But these are obviously not exhausted with the above
four combinations, but more of the latter must still be sought for.
Those bodies which rank next to the earths, and can therefore enter
into the following combinations are the other mineral classes, such
as the salts, Inflammables, and metals; and we accordingly obtain the
following _silicious_ minerals, as constituting _classes_.
Fam. 5. Salt-Silex Topaz.
6. Inflammable-Silex Diamond.
7. Ore-Silex Garnet.
535. Still all the silicious minerals are not exhausted with these
combinations. But now the silicious earth can combine with nothing more
than the _elements_, whence three families originate.
Fam. 8. Water-Silex Hornstone, Silicious schist, Jasper, Flint, Opal.
9. Air-Silex Silicious sinter, as Tripoli and Polierschiefer.
10. Fire-Silex Obsidian with Pitchstone, Pearlstone and Pumice.
536. Upon casting a glance at this series, it is shown, that the first
seven families occur in a crystalline, but the last three only in a
compact or structureless condition. The latter occur at the same time
in large masses, the former, on the contrary, but scantily dispersed.
The first family or the quartz, occurs as well in a compact and massive
state as crystallized; the others, on the contrary, taken collectively,
are only crystallized, and scarcely form small rocks here and there,
but never mountain-chains. They are the precious stones proper, both
on account of their hardness, as also their rarity. Precious stones
are thus only combinations of silex with other earths, and with the
classes; on the contrary, the elemental silices only, viz. the earth-,
water-, air-and fire-silices, are massive.
537. It is here shown, that freedom finds a place also in dead nature.
Quartz only is necessary as the earth in general. Its marriages with
the other earths, &c., to form precious stones are not necessary, but
free or accidental, and may therefore happen for the first time in the
laboratory.
538. If we now proceed to the arrangement of the Clay, we find
exactly the same law to prevail in the genesis of its minerals i. e.
stöchiometric combinations with other orders, classes, and elements. We
have likewise--
A.--_Earth-Clays._
Fam. 1. Silicious clays Felspar.
2. Argillaceous clays Sapphire.
3. Talcose clays Ruby.
4. Calcareous clays Epidote.
B.--_Class-Clays._
5. Salt-clays Schorl.
6. Inflammable clays Azurite.
7. Ore-clays Harmotome.
C.--_Elemental-Clays._
8. Water-clays Clay-slate.
9. Air-clays Potter's-clay, Clay-stone.
10. Fire-clays Lavas, Phonolite, Toad-stone.
The water-clays are hydrates; the air-clays volatilized hydrates; the
fire-clays are clay fused or transmuted by heat. Here also the first 7
families only are crystallized; the 3 last, on the contrary, as well as
the first in part, occur only in a compact state and in large masses.
539. The Talcs follow the same laws, and we have--
A.--_Earth-Talcs._
Fam. 1. Silicious talcs Mica.
2. Argillaceous talcs Sapphirine.
3. Talcose talcs Talc, Chlorite.
4. Calcareous talcs Augite.
B.--_Class-Talcs._
5. Salt-talcs Hornblende.
6. Inflammable-talcs Asbestus.
7. Ore-talcs Olivine.
C.--_Elemental-Talcs._
Fam. 8. Water-talcs Serpentin, Steatite.
9. Air-talcs Lithomarge, Fuller's-earth, Bole.
10. Fire-talcs Basalt.
Here also the first 7 families only are crystallized and occur for the
most part in a scattered manner; but the aqueous, aerial, and igneous
families, as well as the first family in part, are merely compact and
mountainous masses.
540. The fourth order or that of the Calcareous earths is developed
likewise according to the same laws. As, however, it approximates the
salts, and therefore combines with acids, it presents many anomalous
varieties, of which account cannot be taken in every instance. These
minerals are soft throughout, change by fire and admit of being
wholly or partially dissolved in acids. Here belong the zeolites, or
combinations of the calcareous earths with the other earths.
A.--_Calcareous earths, Zeolites._
1. Silicio-calcareous earths Lapis lasuli, Scapolite.
2. Argillaceo- " Mesotype, Analcime, Stilbite.
3. Talco- " Stellite.
4. Calcareo- " Tabular spar.
B.--_Classes of Calcareous earths._
5. Halo-calcareous earths Boracite.
6. Inflammable- " Phosphate of lime, Fluorspar?
7. Ore- " Titanite, Tungsten.
C.--_Elemental-Calcareous earths._
8. Water calcareous earth Hydrophyllite? Wavellite.
9. Air- " Gypsum, Heavy-spar, Celestine.
10. Fire- " Limestone.
Here also the first 7 tribes only occur crystallized, the 3 last, in a
great measure, compact, and as mountainous masses.
_CLASS II._
WATER-EARTHS. SALTS.
541. The chief distinctions of the salts consist also in their
combination with the other classes, and we have therefore 4 orders--
1. Earth-Salts Double-salts.
2. Saline-Salts Neutral-salts.
3. Inflammable-Salts Saponaceous-compounds.
4. Metallic-Salts Vitriols.
The same will hold good without doubt of the orders, as in the case
of the earths. They form as many families as there are principal
masses of them present, with which they may combine. As the acids,
from being the children or offspring of water, play the chief part in
the water minerals, and are themselves nothing else than oxydized and
outwardly lying masses, they carry consequently within themselves the
number and import of the families; thus it is they which determine
indeed the division. If the bases were to be taken as the groundwork
of arrangement, there would be only earths and alkalies, and on the
other hand numerous metals, by which step the mineralogist would fall
into the unprincipled method of classification adopted by empirics.
Here also the philosophy of nature shows, and that indeed upon sound
reasoning, that the acids and not the bases afford the principle of a
natural classification. A somewhat different opinion is held by the
chemist, who must characterize the salts according to both series; but
this is by no means the course taken by the historian of nature.
ORDER I.
_Earth-Salts--Double Salts._
(Combinations of acids with earths.)
Fam. 1-4. Earthy-acids or Fluoric-acid earths; here also belong Bromic,
Iodic, and Cyanic acids.
5. Salt or Boracic-acid.
6. Inflammable or Sulphuric-acid--Alum, Sulphate of magnesia.
7. Metallic or Arsenic-acid.
8. Water or Hydrochloric-acid--the earths Barytes, Strontian, and Lime;
Murias ammoniæ, Chloride of Calcium.
9. Air or Nitric-acid--Strontium, Nitrate of lime.
10. Fire or Carbonic-acid--Vegetable-acid earths.
Order II.
_Salt-Salts--Neutral Salts._
(Combinations of acids with alkalies.)
1-4. Fluoric-acid
5. Boracic-acid Borax.
6. Sulphuric-acid Sulphate of soda, Sulphate of potash.
7. Arsenic-acid.
8. Hydrochloric-acid Rock-salt, Muriate of soda, Sal-ammoniacum or
salmiac.
9. Nitric-acid Nitrate of potash or saltpetre, Cream of tartar.
10. Carbonic-acid Soda, Subcarbonate of potash, Binoxalate of
potash, Acetate of potash.
ORDER III.
_Inflammable-Salts--Saponaceous-compounds._
(Soluble, and at the same time combustible bodies.)
1-4. Earth-Soaps Calcareo-sulphuret of potash.
5. Salt-Soaps Common sulphuret of potash.
6. Inflammable-Soaps Fatty or soft soaps.
7. Metallic-Soaps Metallic Soaps.
8. Water-Soaps Animal mucilages.
9. Air-Soaps Saccharum or sugar.
10. Fire-Soaps Vegetable extracts.
ORDER IV.
_Ore-Salts--Vitriols._
(Combinations of acids with metals.)
1-4. Fluoric-acid
5. Boracic-acid
6. Sulphuric-acid Iron, Copper, Zinc, Vitriol.
7. Arsenic-acid White arsenic.
8. Hydrochloric-acid Calomel, Corrosive sublimate.
9. Nitric-acid Nitrate of silver.
10. Carbonic-acid Sugar of lead.
_CLASS III._
AIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.
542. It is very difficult to arrange this class, because it has
been wholly neglected by mineralogists, and is, properly speaking,
quite unknown to them, because they have had recourse only to those
combustible bodies which occur accidentally in the earth, while
according to philosophical principles everything belongs to the
province of natural history, that has originated or may originate in
nature, so that its situation is a matter of complete indifference.
If we follow the same laws according to which the earths and salts
have been so excellently arranged, we must here also adopt four
orders, namely, combustible things which bear a resemblance to earths,
others to salts, others to metals; finally, others which represent
combustibility in a pure state, and thus we obtain--
1. Earth-Inflammables Coals.
2. Salt-Inflammables Fats.
3. Inflammable-Inflammables Resins.
4. Ore-Inflammables Colouring matters.
The Earth-inflammables will be such as are solid and burn, without
becoming fluid, e. g. Common Coal. The Salt-inflammables will either
be or become fluid before they undergo combustion, and are readily
converted of themselves into acids, e. g. Animal and Vegetable Fats.
The Inflammable-inflammables will be of a sulphurous character, solid
or fluid, fragile, electric, fetid and fluid before they burn. These
properties are found in the Resins. The Ore-inflammables are those
which, independently of their combustibility, possess pre-eminently one
property of metals, namely their non-transparency, or coloration, e. g.
the Pigments or colouring matters from the organic kingdoms.
ORDER I.
_Earth-Inflammables--Coals._
1-4. Earth-Coals Common-coal, a mixture of coal and earths.
5. Salt-Coals Gunpowder, viz. a combination of charcoal with
a salt.
6. Inflammable-Coals Glance-coal, viz. carbon without earths.
7. Ore-Coals Black-lead, or carburet of iron.
8. Water-Coals Peat-bog and brown or Common coal?
9. Air-Coals Lignite or wood-coal?
10. Fire-Coals Animal carbon, fibrine.
ORDER II.
_Salt-Inflammables--Adipaceous or Unctuous bodies._
1-4. Earth-fats Spermaceti? Tallow.
5. Salt-fats Lard and Train-oil?
6. Inflammable-fats Butter?
7. Ore-fats Wax?
8. Water-fats Vegetable oils?
9. Air-fats Desiccative or drying oils.
10. Fire-fats Greasy oils.
ORDER III.
_Inflammable-Inflammables--Resins._
1-4. Earth-resins Sulphur, Phosphorus.
5. Saline-resins Chloride of sulphur, Chlorate of Sulphur.
6. Inflammable-resins Mineral-pitch, Amber, Turpentine.
7. Ore-resins Balsams.
8. Water-resins Gum-resins.
9. Air-resins Ætherial oils.
10. Fire-resins Alcohol, Æther.
ORDER IV.
_Ore-Inflammables--Pigments._
1-4. Earth-pigments Ochre-pigments.
5. Salt-pigments Soluble-pigments from roots and wood, such
as Krapp and Dier's-weed.
6. Inflammable-pigments Retinoid-pigments from roots and wood, such
as Dragon's-blood, Turmeric.
7. Ore-pigments Indigo or devil's-dye.
8. Water-pigments Sap-colours, such as Sap-green, Oak-gall.
9. Air-pigments Flower colours, such as Saffranon and
Saffron.
10. Fire-pigments Animal colours, as Scarlet and Blood-red.
_CLASS IV._
FIRE-EARTHS--ORES.
543. The metals are again easier of arrangement, because they have a
resemblance to earths and have been better worked out both in chemistry
and mineralogy. They divide very naturally into--
1. Earth-Ores Ochres, combinations of metals with oxygen.
2. Salt-Ores Haloids, insoluble combinations of metals with
acids.
3. Inflammable-Ores Blendes, combinations of metals with Sulphur,
Phosphorus, and Selenium.
4. Metallic-Ores Pure metals.
The principles of this arrangement which has been at present pretty
generally followed, were first published in my essay 'Das naturliche
System der Erze,' 1809. In order to gain a proper insight into the
serial gradation of all the families we must first regard the 4th order.
ORDER I.
_Earth-Ores--Ochres._
1. Silicious-Ochres Metallic calces with silicious earth, as
Lierite, Dioptase, Electric calamine.
2. Argillaceous-Ochres Clay-iron-stone.
3. Talcose-Ochres Blue-iron-stone.
4. Calcareous-Ochres Black oxyde of manganese.
5. Salt-Ochres Calces not peroxydized. Bog-iron.
6. Inflammable-Ochres Pure calces without metallic lustre, as
Wolfram, Protoxide of Uranium, Rutile,
Tin-stone.
7. Ore-Ochres Oxydulated, as Iron-glance, Red oxyd of Copper.
8. Water-Ochres Hydrates, as Brown-iron-stone-ore, Gray ore of
manganese.
9. Air-Ochres Malm-rocks; volatilized Ochres of the
difficultly fusible metals, as Umbra, Yellow
earth, Earthy manganese, Black cobalt.
10. Fire-Ochres Slags, volatilized calces of the difficultly
fusible metals, as oxyde of or White antimony,
Protoxide of Arsenic.
ORDER II.
_Salt-Ores--Haloids._
Fam. 4. Earth-Haloids Fluoric-acid.
5. Salt-Haloids Boracic-acid.
6. Inflammable-Haloids Sulphuric-acid, as Sulphate of lead,
Phosphoric-acid as Green and Blue
phosphates of iron, Diarsenate of iron,
Uran-glance, Green phosphate of Lead.
7. Ore-Haloids Chromic-acid, as Chromate of lead,
Arsenic-acid, as Cube-ore, Arseniate of
iron, Olivenite, Cobalt-bloom.
8. Water-Haloids Hydrochloric-acid, as Muriate of copper,
Horn-silver.
9. Air-Haloids Nitric-acid.
10. Fire-Haloids Carbonic-acid, as Iron-spar, Red
manganese-ore, Earthy blue-copper,
Malachite, Carbonate of lead.
ORDER III.
_Inflammable-Ores--Blendes._
1. Silicious-Blendes Zinc-blendes, Cinnabar, Red antimony and
Ruby-silver-ore.
2. Argillaceous-Blendes Iron and Copper pyrites.
3. Talcose-Blendes Sulphuret of Titanium, Chrome, Uranium.
4. Calcareous-Blendes Sulphuret of Molybdena.
5. Salt-Blendes Copper-glance, Gray copper.
6. Inflammable-Blendes Nickel-glance, Cobalt-glance.
7. Ore-Blendes Sulphuret of Platinum.
8. Water-Blendes Gray antimony, Galena.
9. Air-Blendes Bismuth-glance, Arsenical pyrites.
10. Fire-Blendes Silver-glance-ore.
ORDER IV.
_Metallic-Ores.--Metals._
(Pure or reduced metals.)
544. The classification of metals is one of the most difficult, because
no natural arrangement of them has been as yet attempted, and their
signification is also so mysterious that we can only get at it, by
clinging fast to the laws of development. Thus assuming, that they
likewise arrange themselves according to the elements, classes and
orders of the earths, we have at once the _Elemental metals_. The
earth-metals are without doubt the difficultly fusible, ignoble or
oxydized, such as iron with its congeners. Then the air-metals present
themselves with their peculiar character of volatility, as Arsenic with
its congeners. These being once rendered solid, the easily fusible but
non-volatile will correspond to water, such as Lead with its congeners.
The noble metals consequently as Gold, Silver, &c., must doubtless be
regarded as fire-metals. Having once separated these 4 groups, the
_Class-metals_ admit of being more readily brought into their place.
There is one metal, which subjected to moisture is readily converted
into a salt, namely copper. This is consequently the representative
of the salts among the metals. Ore-metals are, without doubt, those
resembling iron, which do not, however, occur in an oxydized condition
and are therefore noble Irons. Of this kind are Platinum with its
retinue. Between Copper and Platinum nothing else can be introduced
but Nickel and Cobalt, as they are likewise difficultly fusible and
tolerably noble. They are thus the Inflammable metals. After all
these separations a great group is still left of the earth-metals
or the difficultly fusible and ignoble. They divide therefore
without doubt according to the 4 earths. If now iron approximates
the argillaceous-earths, so will those metals whose oxydes are
distinguished by a striking colour be regarded as talc-metals. Of this
kind are Titanium, Chromium, Uranium, which crystallize moreover into
spiculæ like hornblende, or into lamellæ like mica. These again being
separated the silicious and calcareous-metals remain for investigation.
The former are those which scarcely admit of being reduced; the latter,
on the contrary, those which approximate to the noble, difficultly
fusible metals, namely to platinum. It can hardly be doubted that
Tantalum is the silicious-metal. For the calcareous-metals Sulphuret
of Molybdenum is left, to which Osmium seems to approximate. We have
accordingly the following genetic arrangement:
A.--_Earth-Metals._
(Difficultly fusible and ignoble.)
1. Silicious-Metals Tantalium.
2. Argillaceous-Metals Wolfram, Cerium, Manganese, Iron.
3. Talcose-Metals Titanium, Chromium, Uranium, Vanadium.
4. Calcareous-Metals Molybdenum, Osmium.
B.--_Class-Metals._
(Difficultly fusible and noble.)
5. Salt-Metals Copper.
6. Inflammable-Metals Nickel, Cobalt.
7. Ore-Metals Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium.
C.--_Element-Metals._
(Easily fusible or noble.)
8. Water-Metals Antimony, Lead, Tin
9. Air-Metals Zinc, Cadmium, Bismuth, Arsenic.
10. Fire-Metals Tellurium, Mercury, Silver, Gold.
Every one will easily see that these groups of metals agree with their
antetypes in properties, as also that this arrangement is more natural
than any that has hitherto been advanced. Glancing at it, it must
strike the reader that in several of the families 4 metals are present,
and that none exceed this number. There are 4 sideroid, 4 titanoid, 4
platinoid, 4 arsenicoid and 4 argyroid metals. Now, as they are to be
viewed as deoxydized earths, it must be assumed that in each family
they are mindful of their origin, and everywhere represent the 4 earths
along with the character of their family. They are earths divided unto
the last members, or reduced in a primo-chemical manner. In order to
recognize the parallelism of the classes, orders and families, we have
only to compare the adjoining table. We cannot expect to find all the
minerals ranging there in their proper place. For we are treating the
subject at present only as regards its principles.
Table A
FIRST CLASS.
EARTH-EARTHS--EARTHS.
+--------------------------+---------------------------+
| ORDER I. | ORDER II. |
| Earth-Earths. | Salt-Earths. |
| _Silex._ | _Clays._ |
| | |
| _Fam. 1. Pure Silex._ |_Fam. 1. Silicious Clays._ |
| 1. Quartz. | 1. Feldspar. |
| 2. Iron Flint. | 2. Anorthite. |
| | 3. Petalite. |
| | 4. Oligoclase. |
| | 5. Triphane. |
| | 6. Andalusite. |
| | 7. Crucite. |
|_F. 2. Argillaceo-Silex._ | _F. 2. Argillaceous |
| | Clays._ |
| 1. Zircon. | 1. Sapphire. |
| 2. OErstedite. | 2. Chrysoberyl. |
| | 3. Cyanite. |
| | 4. Sillimanite. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Talco-Silex._ | _F. 3. Talcose Clays._ |
| 1. Emerald. | 1. Spinel. |
| 2. Davidsonite. | 2. Automolite. |
| 3. Euclase. | 3. Dichroite. |
| 4. Phenacite. | |
| _F. 4. Calcareo-silex._ | _F. 4. Calcareous-Clays._ |
| 1. Leucite. | 1. Epidote. |
| 2. Glaucolite. | 2. Mangan-epidote. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Silex._ | _F. 5. Salt-Clays._ |
| 1. Topaz. | 1. Yttro-cerite. |
| 2. Physalite. | 2. Schorl. |
| 3. Pycnite. | 3. Axinite. |
| | |
|_F. 6. Inflammable Silex._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Clays._ |
| 1. Diamond. | 1. Lazulite. |
| | 2. Turquois. |
| | 3. Amblygonite. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Ore-Silex._ | _F. 7. Ore-Clays._ |
| 1. Garnet. | 1. Harmotome. |
| 2. Vesuvian. | 2. Gadolinite. |
| 3. Acmite. | 3. Orthite. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Silex._ | _F. 8. Water-Clays._ |
| 1. Flint-stone. | 1. Wærthite. |
| 2. Jasper. | 2. Allophane. |
| 3. Hornstone. | 3. Pyrophyllite. |
| 4. Opal. | 4. Clay-slate. |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Silex._ | _F. 9. Air-Clays._ |
| 1. Tripoli. | 1. Potter's-clay. |
| 2. Polierschiefer. | 2. Clay-stone. |
| 3. Silicious-sinter. | 3. Porcelain-clay. |
| | 4. Cimolite. |
| _F. 10. Fire-Silex._ | _F. 10. Fire-Clays._ |
| 1. Pitchstone. | 1. Clay Iron-stone. |
| 2. Pearlstone. | 2. Toad-stone. |
| 3. Obsidian. | 3. Phonolite. |
| 4. Pumice. | 4. Lavas. |
| | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+
| ORDER III. | ORDER IV. |
| Inflammable Earths. | Ore-earths. |
| _Talcs._ | _Calcareous-earths._ |
| | |
|_Fam. 1. Silicious Talcs._| _Fam. 1. Silicious Kalke._|
| 1. Mica. | 1. Lapis-lazuli. |
| 2. Pinite. | 2. Hauyne. |
| 3. Holmesite. | 3. Sodalite. |
| 4. Margarite. | 4. Scapolite. |
| | 5. Nepheline. |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 2. Argillaceous Talcs._| _F. 2. Argillaceo-Kalke._|
| 1. Sapphirine. | 1. Fugenstein. |
| 2. Seybertite. | 2. Frehnite. |
| | 3. Chabazite. |
| | 4. Laumontite. |
| | 5. Stilbite. 6. Desmin. |
| | 7. Analcime. |
| | 8. Mesotype. |
| _F. 3. Talcose Talcs._ | _F. 3. Talco-Kalke._ |
| 1. Talc. | 1. Adelforsite. |
| 2. Pyrophillite. | 2. Stellite. |
| 3. Chlorite. | 3. Mellilite. |
| | 4. Humboldtite. |
|_F. 4. Calcareous Talcs._ | _F. 4. Calcareo-Kalke._ |
| 1. Augite. | 1. Tubular spar. |
| 2. Diopside. | 2. Apophyllite. |
| 3. Sahlite. 4. Pyroxene.| |
| 5. Coccolite. | |
| 6. Hedenbergite. | |
| 7. Diallage. 8. Bronzite.| |
| 9. Hypersthene. | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Talcs._ | _Fam. 5. Salt-Kalke._ |
| 1. Grammatite. | 1. Boracite. |
| 2. Strahlstein. | 2. Datholite. |
| 3. Hornblende. | |
| 4. Anthophyllite. | |
|_F. 6. Inflammable-Talcs._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Kalke._ |
| 1. Asbestus. | 1. Cryolite. |
| | 2. Fluorspar. |
| | 3. Wagnerite. |
| | 4. Apatite. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Ore-Talcs._ | _F. 7. Ore-Kalke._ |
| 1. Chrysolite. | 1. Titanite. |
| 2. Hyalosiderite. | 2. Tungsten. |
| | 3. Pharmacolite. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Talcs._ | _F. 8. Water-Kalke._ |
| 1. Schiller-spar. | 1. Diaspore. |
| 2. Serpentine. | 2. Wavellite. |
| 3. Steatite. | 3. Hydrophyllite. |
| 4. Meerschaum. | |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Talcs._ | _F. 9. Air-Kalke._ |
| 1. Agalmatolite. | 1. Aluminite. |
| 2. Lithomarge. | 2. Heavy-spar. |
| 3. Fuller's-earth. | 3. Celestine. |
| 4. Bole. | 4. Gypsum. |
| _F. 10. Fire-Talcs._ | _F. 10. Fire-Kalke._ |
| 1. Basalt. | 1. Mellilite. |
| | 2. Magnesite. |
| | 3. Strontianite. |
| | 4. Limestone. |
| | |
SECOND CLASS.
WATER-EARTHS--SALTS.
+---------------------------+-------------------------------+
| ORDER I. | ORDER II. |
| Earth-Salts. | Salt-Salts. |
| _Double Salts._ | _Neutral Salts._ |
| | |
| _Fam. 1. Silicic Acid._ | _Fam. 1. Fluoric Acid._ |
| Fluoric-acid earths. | Alkalis. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 2. Albuminic Acid._ | _F. 2. Bromic Acid._ |
| Bromic acid. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Oxide of Magnesia._| _F. 3. Iodic Acid._ |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 4. Oxide of Calcium._ | _F. 4. Cyanic Acid._ |
| Cyanic acid. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._| _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._ |
| Boracic acid. | 1. Sassoline. |
| | 2. Borax. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 6. Pyric Acid._ | _F. 6. Inflammable-Acid._ |
| 1. Alum. | 1. Sulphate of Soda. |
| 2. Magnesia. | 2. Sulphate of Potash. |
| | 3. Mascagnine. |
| | 4. Sub-nitrate of Bismuth. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Metallic Oxide._ | _F. 7. Ore-Acid._ |
| Arsenic acid. | 1. Antimonium diaphoreticum. |
| | Fowleri. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Acid._ | _F. 8. Water-Acid._ |
| 1. Sulphate of Magnesia. | 1. Rock-salt. |
| 2. Sulphate of Baryta. | 2. Muriate of Soda. |
| 3. Murias Ammoniæ. | 3. Salmiac. |
| 4. Chloride of Calcium. | |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Acid._ | _F. 9. Air-Acid._ |
| Nitric acid. | Nitrate of Potash. |
| 1. Nitrate of Strontian. | |
| 2. Nitrate of Lime. | |
| | |
| _F. 10. Fire-Acid._ | _F. 10. Fire-Acid._ |
| Carbonic acid. | 1. Soda. |
| Super-carbonate of | 2. Subcarbonate of Potash. |
| Lime. | 3. Binoxalate of Potash |
| Acetate of Potash. | 4. Acetate of Potash. |
| | |
+---------------------------+-------------------------------+
| ORDER III. | ORDER IV. |
| Inflammable Salts. | Ore-Salts. |
| _Soaps._ | _Vitriols._ |
| | |
|_Fam. 1. Silicio-sulphuret_| _Fam. 1. Fluoric Acid._ |
| _of Potash._ | Metals. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 2. Argillaceo-sulphuret_ | _F. 2. Bromic Acid._ |
| _of Potash._ | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 3. Magnesio-sulphuret_ | _F. 3. Iodic Acid._ |
| _of Potash._ | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 4. Calcareo-sulphuret_ | _F. 4. Cyanic Acid._ |
| _of Potash._ | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Soaps._ | _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._ |
| 1. Potassio-sulphuret of | |
| Potash. | |
| 2. Ammoniaco-sulphuret | |
| of Potash. | |
| _F. 6. Inflammable-Soaps._| _F. 6. Inflammable-Acid._ |
| 1. Hard or Soda-soap | 1. Green or Iron-vitriol. |
| 2. Soft or Potash-soap | 2. Blue or Copper-vitriol. |
| 3. Linimentum volatile | 3. White or Zinc-vitriol. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Metallic Soaps._ | _F. 7. Metallic Acid._ |
| 1. Carbonate of Lead. | 1. White Arsenic. |
| | 2. Liquor arsenicalis |
| | Fowleri. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Soaps._ | _F. 8. Water-Acid._ |
| 1. Mucus. | 1. Butter of Antimony. |
| 2. Gelatine. | 2. Calomel. |
| 3. Albumen. | |
| 4. Coagulable lymph. | |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Soaps._ | _F. 9. Air-Acid._ |
| 1. Sugar. | 1. Nitrate of Silver. |
| 2. Manna. | |
| 3. Honey. | |
| | |
| _F. 10. Fire-Soaps._ | _F. 10. Fire-Acid._ |
| 1. Extracts. | 1. Tartar emetic. |
| | 2. Sugar of Lead. |
| | 3. Fulminating Silver. |
| | |
| | |
THIRD CLASS.
AIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.
+---------------------------+-------------------------+
| ORDER I. | ORDER II. |
| Earth-Inflammables | Salt-Inflammables. |
| _Coals._ | _Fats._ |
| | |
| _Fam. 1. Silicious Coals._| _Fam. 1. Spermaceti._ |
| 1. Common Coal. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 2. Argillaceous Coals._| _F. 2. Adipocire._ |
| 1. Common Coal. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Talcose Coals._ | _F. 3. Oleine._ |
| 1. Common Coal. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 4. Calcareous Coals._ | _F. 4. Tallow._ |
| 1. Common Coal. | 1. Stearine. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Coals._ | _F. 5. Salt-Fats._ |
| 1. Gunpowder. | 1. Lard. |
| | 2. Train-oil. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 6. Inflammable-Coals._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Fats._|
| 1. Anthracite. | 1. Butter. |
| | 2. Cream. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Ore-Coals._ | _F. 7. Ore-Fats._ |
| 1. Black Lead. | 1. Wax. |
| 2. Pyrorthite. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Coals._ | _F. 8. Water-Fats._ |
| 1. Brown Coals. | 1. Cocoa-butter. |
| 2. Peat. | 2. Palm-oil. |
| | 3. Nutmeg. |
| | 4. Laurel-oil. |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Coals._ | _F. 9. Air-Fats._ |
| 1. Lignite. | 1. Linseed-oil. |
| | 2. Nut-oil. |
| | 3. Hemp-oil. |
| | 4. Poppy-oil. |
| _F. 10. Fire-Coals._ | _F. 10. Fire-Fats._ |
| 1. Fibrine. | 1. Rape-oil. |
| | 2. Olive-oil. |
| | 3. Oil of Almonds. |
| | |
| | |
+---------------------------+-------------------------+
| ORDER III. | ORDER IV. |
| Inflammable-Inflammables.| Ore-Inflammables. |
| _Resins._ | _Pigments._ |
| | |
| _Fam. 1. Sulphur._ |_Fm. 1. Silicious- |
| | Pigments._|
| 1. Alcohol of Sulphur. | 1. Litmus. |
| 2. Orpiment. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 2. Boron._ |_F. 2. Argillaceous |
| | Pigments._ |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Selenium._ | _F. 3. Talc Pigments._ |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 4. Phosphorus._ | _F. 4. Calcareous |
| Pigments._ |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Resins._ | _F. 5. Salt-Pigments._ |
| 1. Chloride of Sulphur. | 1. Krapp. |
| 2. Chloride of Phosphorus.| 2. Dier's-weed. |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 6. Inflammable-Resins._|_F. 6. Inflammable- |
| | Pigments._|
| 1. Mineral-pitch. | 1. Sandal-wood. |
| 2. Amber. | 2. Log-wood. |
| 3. Turpentine. | 3. Curcuma. |
| 4. Caoutchouc. | 4. Chlorophyle. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Ore-Resins._ | _F. 7. Ore-Pigments._ |
| 1. Turpentine. | 1. Succory. |
| 2. Balsam of Peru. | 2. Quercitron. |
| 3. Mecca-balsam | 3. Woad. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Resins._ | _F. 8. Water-Pigments._ |
| 1. Assafoetida. | 1. Sap-green. |
| 2. Gumboge. | 2. Oak-gall. |
| 3. Myrrh. | |
| 4. Opium. | |
| | |
|_F. 9. Air-Resins._ | _F. 9. Air-Pigments._ |
| 1. Petroleum. | 1. Saffranon. |
| 2. Dippel's Oil. | 2. Saffron. |
| 3. Camphor. | 3. Anotto. |
| 4. Oil of Turpentine. | |
| _F. 10. Fire-Resins._ | _F. 10. Fire-Pigments._ |
| 1. Spirits of Wine. | 1. Scarlet. |
| 2. Sulphuric Ether. | 2. Blood-red. |
| 3. Acetic Ether. | |
| 4. Formic Spirit. | |
| | |
FOURTH CLASS.
FIRE-EARTHS--ORES.
+----------------------------+---------------------------+
| ORDER I. | ORDER II. |
| Earth-Ores. | Salt-Ores. |
| _Ochres._ | _Halde._ |
| | |
|_Fam. 1. Silicious Ochres._ |_Fam. 1. Silicious Halde._ |
| 1. Lierite. | 1. Fluor-Cererium. |
| 2. Dioptase. | |
| 3. Antimonial Silver. | |
| 4. Electric Calamine. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|_F. 2. Argillaceous Ochres._|_F. 2. Argillaceous Halde._|
| 1. Clay Iron-stone. | Bromic acid. |
| 2. Polymignite. | |
| 3. Yttro-tantalite. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Talc Ochres._ | _F. 3. Talc-Halde._ |
| 1. Blue Iron-stone. | Iodic acid. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 4. Calcareous Ochres._ | _F. 4. Calcareous Halde._ |
| 1. Black oxide of | Cyanic acid. |
| Manganese. | |
| 2. Pyrochlore. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Ochres._ | _F. 5. Salt-Halde._ |
| 1. Bog-iron. | Boracic acid. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 6. Inflammable-Ochres._| _F. 6. Inflammable-Halde._|
| 1. Wolfram. | 1. Sulphate of Lead. |
| 2. Protoxide of | 2. Blue phosphate |
| Uranium. | of Iron. |
| 3. Rutile. | 3. Uran-glance. |
| 4. Tin-stone. | 4. Green phosphate |
| | of Lead. |
| _F. 7. Ore-Ochres._ | _F. 7. Ore-Halde._ |
| 1. Iron-glance. | 1. Chromate of |
| 2. Titanate of Iron. | Lead. |
| 3. Chromate of Iron. | 2. Cube-ore. |
| 4. Red Copper ore. | 3. Olivenite. |
| | 4. Cobalt-bloom. |
| _F. 8. Water-Ochres._ | _F. 8. Water-Halde._ |
| 1. Thraulite. | 1. Muriate of Copper. |
| 2. Brown Iron-stone | 2. Horn-lead. |
| ore. | |
| 3. Gray ore of | 3. Horn-silver. |
| Manganese. | |
| _F. 9. Air-Ochres._ | _F. 9. Air-Halde._ |
| 1. Umbra. | Nitric acid. |
| 2. Yellow-earth. | |
| 3. Black Copper. | |
| 4. Black Cobalt. | |
| _F. 10. Fire-Ochres._ | _F. 10. Fire-Halde._ |
| 1. White Antimony | 1. Iron-spar. |
| 2. Mennige. | 2. Earthy blue copper. |
| 3. Bismuth Ochre. | 3. Carbon of Lead. |
| 4. Protoxide of | 4. Calamine. |
| Arsenic. | |
+----------------------------+---------------------------+
| ORDER III. | ORDER IV. |
| Inflammable-Ores. | Ore-Ores. |
| _Inflammables._ | _Metals._ |
| | |
|_F. 1. Silic. Inflammables._| _F. 1. Silicious Metals._ |
| 1. Zinc-blende. | 1. Tantalium. |
| 2. Cinnabar. | |
| 3. Red Antimony. | |
| 4. Ruby Silver-ore. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 2. Argillaceous | _F. 2. Argillaceous |
| Inflammables._ | Metals._ |
| 1. Iron Pyrites. | 1. Wolfram. |
| 2. Copper Pyrites. | 2. Iron. |
| 3. Tin Pyrites. | 3. Cerium. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 3. Talc Inflammables._ | _F. 3. Talc-Metals._ |
| | 1. Vanadium. |
| | 2. Uranium. |
| | 3. Titanium. |
| | 4. Chromium. |
| _F. 4. Calcareous | _F. 4. Calcareous Metals._|
| Inflammables._ | |
| 1. Sulphuret of | 1. Molybdenum. |
| Molybdena. | 2. Osmium. |
| 2. Pyrochlore. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 5. Salt-Inflammables._ | _F. 5. Salt-Metals._ |
| 1. Copper-glance. | 1. Copper. |
| | 2. Gray-copper. |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 6. Inflammable |_F. 6. Inflammable-Metals._|
| -Inflammables._ | |
| 1. Nickel-glance. | 1. Nickel. |
| 2. Cobalt-glance. | 2. Cobalt. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| _F. 7. Ore-Inflammables._ | _F. 7. Ore-Metals._ |
| 1. Sulphur-Platinum. | 1. Rhodium. |
| | 2. Iridium |
| | 3. Palladium. |
| | 4. Platinum. |
| | |
| _F. 8. Water-Inflammables._| _F. 8. Water-Metals._ |
| 1. Antimonial | 1. Antimony. |
| Nickel | 2. Tin. |
| 2. Gray Antimony | 3. Lead. |
| 3. Galena. | |
| | |
| _F. 9. Air-Inflammables._ | _F. 9. Air-Metals._ |
| 1. Acicular Bismuth. | 1. Zinc. |
| 2. Bismuth-glance. | 2. Cadmium. |
| 3. Arsenical Pyrites. | 3. Bismuth. |
| | 4. Arsenic. |
| _F. 10. Fire-Inflammables._| _F. 10. Fire-Metals._ |
| 1. Foliated Tellurium. | 1. Tellurium. |
| 2. Silver-glance. | 2. Mercury. |
| | 3. Silver. |
| | 4. Gold. |
| | |
II.--_GEOLOGY_.
545. Geology is the history of the formation of the planet. It is the
doctrine which comprises the structure and thus the form, with the
organs or members of the planet, if we would compare the latter with an
organic body.
1. _Form of the Planet._
546. Crystallization belongs to the essence of the earth as the
globular form does to that of water. The life of the earth consists in
the formation of crystals. The being of the earth and of the crystal
are identical. The solid planet earth, has originated also according to
the laws of crystallization.
547. It is not, however, a single large crystal, the structure of which
appears to be homogeneous; but it is crystallized in its smallest
parts; it is an accumulation of crystals, which its atoms, integral
parts, or _constituent forms_ present for our examination. If a schorl
or feldspar were extended to the size of the whole earth, its integral
parts, though undiscoverable before by the microscope, would then
become visible. Crystals would be exhibited therein of silicious,
argillaceous, talcose, and calcareous earths, of iron, boracic acid,
&c. In short it would prove a complex _kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_.
The fundamental or principal mass of the planet is thus a granular
_kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_, probably like granite. Each of these
constituent forms is crystallized for itself out of the fluid-mass
according to the laws developed in the theory of crystallization,
in every point of the fluid a globe of crystallizing forces being
constituted, that generated the constituent forms.
548. The earth (regarded as planet, not as element) has during its
coagulation into a solid nucleus, generated an infinity of polar
spheres, as every polar line consists of an infinite vicissitude of
poles.
549. These integral crystals have originated only in drops of water;
for then only was an infinite multitude of polar axes and polar radii
separated from each other. Water in infinitely numerous drops is rain.
In the primary rain each drop crystallized, and each fell towards
the centre, because the primary water ranged over a vast extent. The
granular rock has originated in and out of rain. It is crystallized
_rain_.
550. It does not follow from this, that the earth should be an
accidental accumulation of small crystals, which, by the rotation of
the planet, formed themselves mechanically into a spheroid. As in small
crystals the infinity of poles reunites to constitute some principal
polarities, so also is this the case with the globe of the earth; this
results from its genesis whereby it is present in a definite space, and
hence coheres or hangs together as _one_ piece. The earth is only _one_
small punctule of contraction wrought in æther-space by the agency of
light. Again, it was without doubt a single central tension, which,
occurring upon a large scale, attracted together all the particles of
æther, and from that circumstance arranged them also. It was probably
magnetism, which is so intimately connected with the rotation of the
earth's axis, or the conflict of magnetism in its interior with the
electricity upon its surface, which was active in the condensation and
arrangement of the masses.
551. This arrangement of the parts of the earth, upon a large scale,
is a regulation of its constituent forms. The adjusting forces are,
however, those that operate through the whole sphere, and are thus
linear and spherical at one and the same time. By these the laminæ of
the nucleus were determined. The constituent forms of the earth are
consequently arranged in laminæ. What in the crystal is called the
cleavage of the laminæ, is in the earth _stratification_. The strike of
the strata combined with their dip determines the crystal nucleus of
the earth.
552. The strike and dip of the strata happened without doubt according
to definite laws of crystallization, and has by no means been resigned
to elevating force, mechanical dislocation, or even to chance.
553. On this very account the two directions of the earth's laminæ
cannot have a similar bearing over the whole earth. They can only
have a long tract extending in the same direction in individual
mountain-chains. This does not, however, exclude a parallel strike and
dip occurring in some wholly different quarter of the world; it must
indeed occur, and in such instances we meet with the opposing sides or
edges of the earth's nucleus.
554. The earth has without doubt originated according to the laws of
the polyhedron, which represents in the nearest manner the globe. The
polyhedron of the globe is the rhomboidal dodecahedron.
555. The land cannot therefore have an equal elevation everywhere above
the water, because the crystal consists of edges, angles, and surfaces
or sides. The mountain tops are probably the angles, the mountain
ridges or chains the edges, the plains the lateral surfaces of the
crystal.
556. Several mountain-chains run parallel, but interrupted, with the
equator. This parallelism extends to the most temperate zones. Then
follow oblique mountain-chains, as the Carpathian, Alps, Pyrenees.
Lastly, mountain-chains pass from the poles to the equator, as the
Sewo, Ural and Altai mountains. Subordinate mountain-chains unite the
latter transversely and the former in the direction of the meridian.
The earth is probably a _regular_ net of crystal edges and angles, and
thus of crystal surfaces also.
PRIMARY VALLEYS.
557. Although the earth may be regarded as originally a crystal, that
consists of level surfaces, edges and angles, wide fissures may still
have originated between its laminæ, such as we see in large crystals of
felspar. These fissures or gaps are the primary valleys.
558. There must be therefore valleys or parallel valleys, which
probably extend for hundreds of miles, and are many miles
deep--Longitudinal valleys.
559. The laminæ of the earth had without doubt transverse fissures,
which have been called hidden passages. These transverse fissures are
the transverse valleys, which are consequently less long and deep.
560. The mountains originate of themselves. They do not properly
originate, but valleys only originate, and the ridges of the crystal
laminæ afford the mountains. The mountains have not been originally
upheaved above the surface of the earth, nor the valleys depressed. A
valley, which is several miles broad, must originally have been several
miles deep, and the mountain wall consequently several miles high. The
earth at its origin was a cloven and jagged polyhedron, a polyhedric
star, such as the moon is still.
561. The mountains are not therefore large crystals, which crystallized
above the surface of the earth. They are only crystal laminæ, and may
be as irregular as possible in form; for they are ruptured crystals.
562. The water, which from the beginning had covered the polyhedron,
now sunk into the primary valleys. From the water resulted new
and final crystallizations, and these deposited themselves in the
valleys, upon the level ground and the flanks of the mountains; and
thus the fathomless primary valleys have been in part filled up. There
are no longer any primary valleys upon the earth.
563. After the water was once confined in narrow canals, it must begin
to flow, and by the force of its current many a steep primary wall must
have fallen in, been crumbled into ruins, and either been left upon the
spot or washed away--Diluvial drift rocks (Trümmersteine), Nagelfluhe,
Stratified rocks.
564. The principal direction of the water was formerly, as it is even
now, determined by the rotation of the earth; it flowed therefore
from east to west under the equator, from north-east to south-west in
our temperate zones, and pretty well from the north or from the poles
toward the equator in the frigid zones.
565. The primary valleys, which had originated in these directions,
were more excavated by aqueous agency than those which ran in other
directions, new valleys being also produced; the mountain chains
therefore upon the earth agree in the main with the water courses, and,
though not generated from, have been certainly changed in character
by, the latter. Such must be our conclusion, if in the formation of
the earth nothing but crystallization be taken into consideration.
Condensation alone brings yet other phenomena along with it.
566. The first and most important of these is the elevation of
temperature. We cannot think otherwise than at the first precipitation
of the earthy a number of huge cavities remained in the interior of the
earth, which were filled with water. This being heated, was converted
into steam, which thrust up the superincumbent rock, and converted it
into new mountains or mountain-chains. These agencies of heat may be
called primary volcanoes, although they are not to be confounded with
volcanoes proper.
567. The igneous cavities were probably placed in a certain order,
according with the original edges and angles of the earth's body. They
may have therefore thrown up mountain tops and chains.
568. But the cavities, besides raising mountain chains, could just as
well depress or allow them to sink in, and thus produce valleys. By
these means the seas have probably been formed. Like the seas so also
have the inland seas or lakes originated.
569. Lastly, a similar origin must be ascribed to the world-sea or
ocean. Many earthquakes arose, with all their concomitant phenomena,
by partial and sudden falling in of the deep descending cavities of
the earth. Frequently that which fell in was again driven out by the
expansive force of the suddenly compressed air.
2. _Organs of the Planet._
570. The principal mass or body of the planet is formed by the earths
proper, as being the typical or genuine representatives of the
earth-element. The other classes, as the metallic minerals or ores,
the Inflammables, and salts, are to be regarded only as viscera of
this body. If we take a circumspective glance at the planet, we cannot
fail to recognize this remarkable relation, that it is properly the
elemental families only of the earths that form the mountain masses,
while the other families are only scattered within them, like the
glands in an animal body. Let us again place the Families in tabular
contrast with each other.
SILICIOUS, ARGILLACEOUS, TALCOSE and CALCAREOUS-EARTHS.
A. Earth-silices. Earth-clays. Earth-talcs. Earth-calces.
Fam. 1. Quartz. 1. Felspar. 1. Mica. 1. Lapis-lazuli.
2. Zircon. 2. Sapphire. 2. Sappharine. 2. Mesotype.
3. Emerald. 3. Ruby. 3. Talc. 3. Stellite.
4. Leucite. 4. Epidote. 4. Angite. 4. Tabular-spar.
5. Topaz. 5. Schorl. 5. Hornblende. 5. Boracite.
6. Diamond. 6. Azurite. 6. Asbestus. 6. Phosphorite.
7. Garnet. 7. Harmotone. 7. Olivine. 7. Titanite.
B. Water-silices. Water-clays. Water-talcs. Water-calces.
8. Hornstone. 8. Clay-slate. 8. Serpentine. 8. Hydrophyllite.
C. Air-silices. Air-clays. Air-talcs. Air-calces.
9. Tripoli. 9. Clay-stone. 9. Lithomarge. 9. Gypsum.
D. Fire-silices. Fire-clays. Fire-talcs. Fire-calces.
10. Obsidian. 10. Lava. 10. Basalt. 10. Limestone.
571. Now we here observe that only Quartz, Hornstone, Tripoli and
Obsidian, occur as mineral aggregates in large masses, while all
the others are only rare precious stones. Among the Clays, only
Felspar, Clay-Slate, Hornstone and Lava. Among the Talcs, only Mica,
Serpentine, Lithomarge, and Basalt. Among the Calcareous-earths, which
incline towards the nature of salts, all the first families are of
rare occurrence, and the latter only appear as mineral masses. This
regularity speaks moreover retrospectively in favour of the correctness
of the classification. The families have thus the same import or value
in Geology as in Oryctognosy.
A.--_EARTHS_.
572. The proper organs of the planet are the mineral aggregates or
rocks. These are either presented to us as they have originally
been precipitated from water by chemical process, or as they have
been changed by the co-operation of the other elements. There are
thus _genetic_ and _metamorphosed_ kinds of rock. The former were
crystallized previous to the current of the water--_Primary rocks_.
These rocks are changed either--
1. By water--Transition-rocks, or
2. By air--Trappean-rocks.
3. By fire--Volcanic-rocks.
There are properly four kinds of rock formations--
1. Earth-formation, masses that have originated through the crystallizing
force of the earth-element itself--Primary-rocks.
2. Aqueous-formation--Transition-rocks.
3. Aerial-formation--Trappean-rocks.
4. Igneous-formation--Volcanic-rocks.
The stratified rocks, having originated for the most part mechanically,
are only the object of Physio-philosophy, in so far as chemical
precipitations partly occur amongst them.
573. The earth-formation is represented by the crystallized primary
rocks.
a. _Earth-Formation._
574. The earths can only be precipitations from the element that
immediately precedes them, and thus from water. They have been
enveloped in the water, as this has been in the air, and the latter
again in the æther, but not mechanically, as we at present dissolve
clay in water, nor chemically either, as lime dissolves by corrosion in
water, but dynamically. The water did not exist from the beginning as
water in the air, but only its principles, which became for the first
time water, when they had combined by electricity.
575. Even so was it the case with the earths. The primary water,
which was present prior to the solid nucleus of the earth, is not
the water, with which we are at present acquainted; it had still the
earthy principles, the basic in itself, which being separated by a
differencing act from the oxygenous of the water, was deposited as
carbon specially produced. No calcareous, argillaceous, and silicious
earth was imbedded in the primary water. How then could they have
been dissolved in it? Some say, by a great quantity of acids which
prevailed at that time; but from whence then did these acids come? The
largest quantity of them resides in lime, gypsum, and common salt; but
how could this quantity, which has not so much as acidified all the
calcareous earth, have held the rest of the earths in solution? And
then again are all the earths soluble by the process of acidification?
We cannot reason in geogeny, as we would of a common chemical
precipitation, where we precipitate earths that have been dissolved by
elective affinities.
576. The earths _originated_ for the first time, when they were
separated from the primary water. The instant of their precipitation
was also the instant of their generation, even as rain is, or rather
was, a production of the water. It is easy to say that the earths had
been dissolved in the water, and were then precipitated by elective
affinities. But it is absurd to rest content with such an assertion.
The chief question still remains; how did the earthy originate, before
the earth was? Every one can say how that which had already originated,
and was only suspended in water, was precipitated. But we are in the
habit of distinguishing the several earths, before having taken a
survey of matters and inquired if earths then existed.