EXEGESIS OF THE QURÁN AND THE TRADITIONS.
The following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically called
'Ilm-i-Usúl, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of
inspiration according to Islám, though that is not strictly speaking a
portion of this study.
There are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, Wahí
and Ilhám. Wahí is the term applied to the inspiration of the Qurán, and
implies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into Wahí
Záhir (external inspiration), and Wahí Bátin (internal inspiration). The
whole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, is
simply the medium through which the revelation of Wahí Záhir reaches man.
The Wahí Qurán, _i.e._, the highest form of inspiration, always came to the
ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In Muhammadan
theology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it is
related that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noah
fifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to Jesus ten times, to
Muhammad twenty-four thousand times.
Ilhám means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he,
though rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, and
is not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is a
lower form of Wahí Záhir, which is called Ishárat-ul-Malak (literally,
"sign of the Angel.") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: "The
Holy Ghost has entered into my heart." In other words, he received the
inspiration through {38} Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form of
inspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually applied
to the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who say that
except when delivering the Qurán Muhammad spoke by Ilhám and not by Wahí.
The practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahí
inspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Qurán.
Sharastani speaks of "the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have the
marks of Wahí."[41] This opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to be
supported by the first verse of the fifty-third Súra, entitled the Star.
"By the Star when it setteth; your companion Muhammad _erreth not_, nor is
he _led astray_, neither doth he _speak of his own will_. It is none other
than a revelation which hath been revealed to him." In any case the
inspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christian
idea of inspiration, which is to Musalmáns a very imperfect mode of
transmitting a revelation of God's will.
That there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is an
idea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The Qurán
is not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Qurán
describes the revelation given to Moses thus:--"We wrote for him upon the
tables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive them thyself
with steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them for the
observance of its most goodly precepts.'" (Súra vii. 142). It is such an
inspiration as this the Qurán claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was that
it should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter for
all mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by God. It
proceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes, or
is understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the highest
form of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as {39} divine. It is
acknowledged that the Injíl--the Gospel--was given by Jesus; but as that,
too, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from heaven by the angel
Gabriel during the month of Ramazán, it is now asserted that it has been
lost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament are simply Traditions
collected by the writers whose names they bear. Their value is, therefore,
that of the second foundation of the Islámic system.
The question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made known
his message to Muhammad. The Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theological
work, gives some details on this point.[42] Though the Qurán is all of God,
both as to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet in
one and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:--
1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Áyesha, one of Muhammad's wives,
that a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the Prophet.
According to some commentators this brightness remained six months. In some
mysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or vision, made known the
will of God.
2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of the
Prophet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute has
arisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the
bodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel overcame
Muhammad, who was then translated to the world of angels. This always
happened when the revelation was one of bad news, such as denunciations or
predictions of woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel was
one of consolation and comfort, the human nature of the Prophet overcame
the angelic nature of the angel, who, in such case, having assumed a human
form, proceeded to deliver the message. {40}
3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To him
alone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish in,
and through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The
effect of this mode of Wahí was more marvellous than that of any of the
other ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated.
On the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll down
his face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a
ghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed the
intensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If riding, the camel
on which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, when
reclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known sound:
Zeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so heavy became
the head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he could
support the weight.
4. At the time of the Mi'ráj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke to the
Prophet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed point
whether the face of the Lord was veiled or not.
5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on the
Prophet's shoulders made known his will.
6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought the
message from God.
7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart of
the Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words of
God. This is technically called Ilká, and is by some supposed to be the
degree of inspiration to which the Traditions belong.
Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by any
chance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, another
was always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of
abrogation, according to which some verses of the Qurán abrogate others.
Muhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once,
and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation.
Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At first
there seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest
after all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in
himself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness in
his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God and man; but more
often the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--"He roared like
a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some
strange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or
more the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to
the Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,[43] to the Warrior-Chief, as
the founder of political unity among the Arab tribes.
A Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction in
grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage
when he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usúl," or the
exegesis of the Qurán, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done,
he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the
Fathers of Islám have to say. This science in one way fits him to be a
commentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things
"new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the things
old. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islám which can reveal
to the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to
deeper and more profound knowledge.
The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Qurán by
heart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators
have said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the
{42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by the
Companions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can point
out a flaw in the Isnád (_i.e._ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted
by an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, the
authority of the Isnád of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory,
not critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The
chief qualification of a Háfiz, a man who can repeat the whole Qurán by
heart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be
able to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth,
this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. The
Sunnís say that no Shía'h can ever become a Háfiz, from which fact they
draw the conclusion that the Shía'hs are heretics. In the early days of
Islám, the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation
of the Qurán were the Khalífs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, and 'Alí, and ten of
the Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which
Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islám. The
effort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Qurán
failed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca,
and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became
current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu Ibn
Káb, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that the
Prophet himself said: "read the Qurán under Abu Ibn Káb." These men
remembered that Abu Ibn Káb had stated, that one day when scandalized at
man after man who entered the mosque repeating the Qurán in different ways,
he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O Abu Ibn Káb!
intelligence was sent to me to read the Qurán in one dialect, and I was
attentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy the reading of the
Qurán to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me a second time
saying: 'read the {43} Qurán in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the
Court of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Qurán to my sects.' Then
a voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Qurán in seven
dialects.'"
This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet in
thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked
upon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the "haft qirá,at," or seven
readings of the Qurán, now recognised.
In the Qurán compiled by the order of the Khalíf Osmán there were no
vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islám they found
great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian,
then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven
famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes of
reading, are Imám Nafi of Madína, Imám Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imám Abu 'Umr
of Basra, Imám Hamza of Kufa, Imám Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imám 'Ásim of Kufa,
Imám Kisáe of Kufa.[44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points in
many places in the Qurán, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In
India the "qirá,at--reading,--of Imám 'Ásim is followed by both Sunnís and
Shía'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the
Qurán privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service.
During the month of Ramazán the Qurán is repeated every night in the
mosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each
night. The Imám of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qárí) who commences
according to one of the seven recognised readings (qirá,at), must keep to
the same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a
great exercise of the memory. A good Háfiz will know the whole seven
varieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant in
their nature,[45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following are
a few illustrations. In the second Súra Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye be
questioned concerning that which _they_ have done;" but 'Ásim reads: "That
which _ye_ have done." This is caused by putting two dots above the line
instead of below it. Again 'Ásim reads: "_Enter ye_ the gates of hell"
(Súra xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: "_Ye will be made to enter_ hell,"--that
is, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice.
These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is
touched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation
of the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islám. At times, too,
fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous
Readers whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud,
a resident of Baghdád, ventured to introduce some different readings in his
recital of the Qurán. The people of Baghdád, not knowing these, were
furious, and the Khalíf was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A
Council of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn
Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his
"readings," but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce my
manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the
manuscript drawn up by the Khalíf Osmán, and that which is generally
received."[46]
Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the
science of grammar. As Islám spread, it became necessary to expound the
Qurán to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then
became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a
necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to the
lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was
no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any
directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that is,
neither a command based on the Qurán nor one based on any saying or act of
the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty.
Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalíf of Baghdád, was a
patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his,
Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that
the Quránists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly
reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in
connection with the Qurán, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to
whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is
recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw
the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbás
Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" The Prophet
had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islám.
Muslims now quote the Qurán as a perfect model of style; it may be well to
remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is
but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of
Arabic grammar.[47]
The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very
important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usúl." It is said that the Qurán was
brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The
Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46}
answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The
infidels say, 'unless the Qurán be sent down to him all at once'--but in
this way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it out
to thee_" (Súra xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective;
it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet it
is a glorious Qurán, _written on the preserved Table_." (Súra lxxxv. 22).
Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have _recited_ it then follow
thou the _recital_." (Súra lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is
referred to in the verse: "We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Qurán."
(Súra xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Qurán was given[48] was
not without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some were
difficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The
knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as
they are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions,
that _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them."
(Súra xvi. 46).
Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between
abrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge to
his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the
verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being
made."[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with
the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to
their followers, the Tába'ín, who in their turn passed it on to their
followers the Taba-i-Tába'ín. The art of writing then became common, and
the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the
sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the
Qurán was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion
was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second
must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were
perfect. Thus early in the history of Islám were the principles of exegesis
fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class.
The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,[50]
though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition
hitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It
will thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator,
with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islám. The
perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature--
"While as the world rolls on from age to age,
And realms of thought expand,
The letter stands without expanse or range,
Stiff as a dead man's hand."
The technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitions
of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the
words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Qurán, and the deduction
of arguments from passages in the book.
I. The words of the Qurán are divided into four classes.
1. _Kháss_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes.
First, words which relate to genus, _e.g._ mankind. Secondly, words which
relate to species, _e.g._ a man, which refers to men as distinguished from
women. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e.g._ Zeid,
which is the name of a special individual.
2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as "people."
3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic
word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word
"Sulát," if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulát Ulláh," the mercy
of God; if with man, it may mean either "namáz," a stated liturgical
service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, _e.g._ Sulát-ul-Istisqá
(prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namáz.
4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which are
possible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Súra
cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lord
and _slay_ (the victims)." The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr,"
which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanífa
render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the "victims"). The followers of
Ibn Sháfa'í say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer."
This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the
former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context
settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right.
These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of
defining any word in the Qurán gained, the {49} student passes on to
consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great
classes,--the "Obvious," and the "Hidden."
This division is referred to in the following passage of the Qurán. "He it
is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves
_perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, and
others are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its
figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its
interpretation, but God.[51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe
in it, it is all from God.'" (Súra iii. 3).
This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and
allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator
must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the
particular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it
abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or
not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which
the context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon
it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines
the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the
Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply
reproduce their opinions.[52] But to return from this digression. Sentences
are Záhir--"Obvious," or Khafí--"Hidden." Obvious sentences are divided
into four classes.
I. (1). _Záhir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who
hears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for any
explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated,
action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of
God. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one
religious act for another, _e.g._ almsgiving instead of fasting, must be
based on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences.
(2). _Nass_, a word commonly used for a text of the Qurán, but in its
technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning
of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following
sentence illustrates both Záhir and Nass: "Take in marriage of such other
women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is Záhir, because
marriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words "one, two,
three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having
more than four wives.
(3). _Mufassir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in
it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostrated
themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the
words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of
sentence may be abrogated.
(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of
which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "God
knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on
such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest
degree of obedience to God's command.
The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or
apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must
give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or
changed by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c.
The other great division of sentences is that of
II. (1). _Khafí_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which other
persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or
expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female,
cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Súra v. 42). The
word for thief is "Sáriq," and in this passage it is understood to include
highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are
Khafí or hidden under it.
(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration:
"And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver
and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here
is that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say,
however, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilst
silver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that the
bottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and
like silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to
ascertain the meaning.
(3.) _Mujmal._ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of
interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several
meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the
Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the
sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be
doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Súra lxx. 19.) In this
verse the word "halú'"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it
not been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full of
complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly," its meaning
would not have been at all easy to understand.
The following is an illustration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences:
"Stand for prayer (salát) and give alms," (zakát.) Both salát and zakát are
'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so
they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that
"salát" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say the
words "God is great," or standing to repeat a few verses of the Qurán; or
it might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakát" is growing.
The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and
said, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part."
(4.) _Mutashábih._ These are sentences so difficult that men cannot
understand them, a fact referred to in Súra iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will
they do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their
meaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the
commencement of some of the Súras.[53] Such expressions also as "God's
hand," "The face of God," "God sitteth," &c., come under this category.
The next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Qurán, and
here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found,
_viz_:--
(1.) _Haqíqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as
"rukú'," a prostration, and "salát" in the sense of prayer.
(2.) _Majáz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salát" in
the sense of "námáz" a liturgical service.
(3.) _Saríh_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art
_divorced_," "Thou art _free_."
(4.) _Kinayáh_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require
the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou art
separated," which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced."
This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be
known from the context, _e.g._ one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked
at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I." Muhammad
answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou
art." The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayáh.'
The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlál," or
the science of deducing arguments from the Qurán. This too is divided into
four sections, as follows:--
(1.) _Ibárat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced,
shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be
obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is
reasonable." (Súra ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made.
First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it
must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of
supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the
relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother.
Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.
(2.) _Ishárat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order
in which the words are placed.
(3.) _Dalálat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some
special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic
"uff") (Súra xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that
children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on
"dalálat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God
loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Súra v. 69.) The word translated
"aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'úna, "they run." From this the argument
is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those
whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be
given to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of
"dalálat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal
laws.
(4.) _Iqtizá._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions:
"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a
believer from slavery." (Súra iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free
his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed,
is that the slave should be his own property.
The Qurán is divided into:--
(1). _Harf_ (plural _Hurúf_), letters. The numbers given by different
authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606
letters.
(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimát_), words, stated by some to amount to
79,087; by others to 77,934.
(3). _Áyat_ (plural _Áyát_), verses. Áyat really means a sign, and was the
name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Qurán. The end of
a verse is determined by the position of a small circle (.). The early
Qurán Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so
five different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a
variation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:--
(1). _Kúfa_ verses. The Readers in the city of Kúfa say that they followed
the custom of 'Alí. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India.
They reckon 6,239 verses.
(2). _Basra_ verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjáj, a
Companion. They reckon 6,204.
(3). _Shámi_ verses. The Readers in Syria (Shám) followed Abd-ulláh bin
'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses.
(4). _Mecca_ verses. According to this arrangement there are 6,219 verses.
(5). _Madína_ verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 verses.
{55}
In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismilláh" (in the name of God)
is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Qurán.
This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any
important passage. The third verse of the third Súra is an important
exception. The position of the circle (.), the symbol denoting a full stop,
in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of
scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalám) in Islám.
Most of the cases, however, are like the following:--
In Súra xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a
letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings,
when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most
powerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." Many
Readers put the full stop after the word "hereof," and say that God is the
speaker of the words "and so will they do."
(4). _Súra_, or chapter. The word Súra means a row or series, such as a
line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used for
chapters in the Qurán. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. The
Súras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some
approximate name, (as Baqr--the cow, Nisá--women, &c.,) generally taken
from some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged in
chronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, the
shorter Súras which contain the theology of Islám, belong to the Meccan
period of the Prophet's career,[54] and the longer ones relating chiefly to
social duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islám as a civil
polity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madína. The best
way, therefore, to {56} read the Qurán, is to begin at the end. The attempt
to arrange the Súras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all,
can only be approximately correct.[55] Carlyle referring to the confused
mass of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude,
incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European
through the Qurán." When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible.
The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. There
is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier
and later Súras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue.
Individual Súras are often very composite in their character, but, such as
they are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in
the reign of the Khalíf Osmán, has been handed down unaltered in its form.
The only variations (qirá'at) now to be found in the text have been already
noticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Súras.
5. _Sípára_ a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from _sí_,
thirty, and _pára_, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a
_Juz_. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Qurán in a
month, taking one Sípára each day. Musalmáns never quote the Qurán as we do
by Súra and Áyat, but by the Sípára and Rukú', a term I now proceed to
explain.
6. _Rukú'_ (plural _Rukúát_). This word literally means a prostration made
by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of verses
recited from the Qurán, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various
ritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a
"rak'at." After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshipper
makes a _Rukú'_, or prostration, the {57} portion then recited takes the
name of _Rukú'_. Tradition states that the Khalíf Osmán, when reciting the
Qurán during the month of Ramazán, used to make twenty rak'ats each
evening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Qurán,
beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he
recited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses in
each rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Qurán in this
way in Ramazán, and also to quote it by the rukú', _e.g._, "such a passage
is in such a Sípára and in such a rukú'."
The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the
Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imám, or leader, being in front
facing the Qibla, the service commences thus:--Each worshipper stands and
says the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words declaring his
intention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great." After this,
looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be to
Thee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but
Thee." Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan." Then the
Tasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful."
Then follows the Fátiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement of
the Qurán. After this has been recited, the Imám proceeds, on the first
night of the month Ramazán, with the first verse of the second chapter.[56]
After saying a few verses, he makes a rukú'; that is, he bends his head and
body down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says:
"God is great." Then he repeats three times the words: "I extol the
holiness of my Lord, the Great." He then stands up and says: "God hears him
who praises Him." To this the people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised."
Again, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: "God is great." Then he
puts first his nose, and then his forehead on the {58} ground and says
three times: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High." Then sitting
on his heels, he says: "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "I
extol, etc." He then rises and says: "God is great." This is one rak'at. On
each night in the month of Ramazán this is gone through twenty times, the
only variation being that after the Fátiha and before the first
prostration, fresh verses of the Qurán are introduced. The whole is, of
course, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The
name of the prostration (rukú') has been transferred to the portion of the
Qurán recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukúát.
(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a _Sumn_, _Ruba'_,
_Nisf_, _Suls_, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of a
Sípára respectively.
In reciting the Qurán the worshipper must be careful to say the "Takbír,"
_i.e._ "God is great," after the several appointed places. Such a place is
after the recital of the 93rd Súra. The custom arose in this way. The
hypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the
"Seven Sleepers." He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but he forgot to
add the words "if God will." By way of warning, God allowed no inspiration
to descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh and
say: "God has left him." As it was not God's purpose to put his messenger
to ridicule, the Súra entitled "The brightness" (xciii) was immediately
brought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By the brightness of the
morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, _thy Lord hath not forsaken
thee_, neither doth He hate thee." In remembrance of this signal
interposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the
recital of this Súra with the words: "God is great." The practice thus
became a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it should be done because the
Prophet did it.
The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in {59} connection with
the study of the Qurán. It is referred to in the verses: "Whatever verses
we cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or
the like thereof." (Súra ii. 100). This is a Madína Súra. "What He pleaseth
will God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of revelation."
(Súra xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the Prophet's
life-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masúd states that the Prophet
one day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The next morning
he found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written.
Astonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informed
that the verse in question had been revoked. There are, however, many
verses still in the Qurán, which have been abrogated. It was an exceedingly
convenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the change of front which
Muhammad made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have been
laid down to regulate the practice. The verse which abrogates is called
_Núsikh_, and the abrogated verse _Mansúkh_. _Mansúkh_ verses are of three
kinds:--first, where the words and the sense have both been abrogated;
secondly, where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains;
thirdly, where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imám Málik
gives as an instance of the first kind the verse: "If a son of Adam had two
rivers of gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he would
covet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but
with dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent." The Imám states that
originally this verse was in the Súra (ix.) called Repentance. The verse,
called the "verse of stoning" is an illustration of the second kind. It
reads: "Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If a
man and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it
is a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise." The Khalíf
Omar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it {60} is
now lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into
'Ilm-i-usúl. Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Sale
states that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. The
principal ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon.
I give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occur
chiefly, if not almost entirely, in Súras delivered at Madína. There, where
Muhammad had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in
his aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found them
obstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seen
plainly in the following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not
stand facing any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the
following passage refers:--"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore,
whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God." (Súra
ii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madína, he entered into friendship with
the Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) towards
which the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was Jerusalem. This
went on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophet
for the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the Prophets, when he
asserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that his revelations were
the same as those contained in their own Scriptures, they utterly refused
allegiance to him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra the
breach between them was complete. It was now time to reconcile the leaders
of the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse quoted above was abrogated by:
"We have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have thee
turn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then thy face toward the
Holy Temple (of Mecca), and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward that
part." (Súra ii. 139.) The Faithful were consoled by the assurance that
though they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their {61}
faith be fruitless, "for unto man is God merciful, gracious." (v. 138.) The
doctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in the
following case: "It is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter,
nor to change thy present wives for other women, though their beauty charm
thee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall possess." (Súra xxxiii. 52.)
This is said by Beidawi, and other eminent Muslim divines, to have been
abrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of
verses, was really delivered after it. The verse is: "O Prophet, we allow
thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right hand
possesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughters
of thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side,
and on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madína), and any
other believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if the
Prophet desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the
rest of the Faithful." (Súra xxxiii. 49.)
The Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulamá, in one of the
meetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign,
propounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry.
The lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. "Of
other women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three and
three, and four and four." (Súra iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not
restricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had told
him that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question,
Ibn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned men
counted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting to
decide the point.
Again, the second verse of Súra lxxiii reads: "Stand up all night, except a
small portion of it, for prayer." According to a Tradition handed down by
'Áyesha the last verse {62} of this Súra was revealed a year later. It
makes the matter much easier. "God measureth the night and the day; he
knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and therefore turneth to you
mercifully. Recite _then so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you_." (v.
20.)
The following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is no
verse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijmá' it has been
abrogated. "But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to
those who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to Islám." (Súra
ix. 60.) The clause--"to those whose hearts are won to Islám"--is now
cancelled.[57] Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, who lately enemies,
had now become friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them large
presents from the spoils he took in war; but when Islám spread and became
strong, the 'Ulamá agreed that such a procedure was not required and said
that the order was "mansukh."
The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazán fast, to Jihád, the law of
retaliation, and other matters of social interest.
The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by Musalmán
controversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say are
abrogated by the Qurán. "His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of every
other law."[58] This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine.
According to the best and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refers
entirely to the Qurán and the Traditions, and even then is confined to
commands and prohibitions. "Those who imagine it to be part of the
Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another, are utterly
mistaken--we hold no such doctrine."[59] In the Tafsír-i-Itifáq it is
written: "Abrogation affects those {63} matters which God has confined to
the followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief advantages of it is that
the way is made easy." In the Tafsír-i-Mazhirí we find: "Abrogation refers
only to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or historical
statements."[60] Again, no verse of the Qurán, or a Tradition can be
abrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it in
meaning. If it is a verse of the Qurán, we must have the authority of
Muhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of a Companion.
Thus "the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not sufficient unless
there is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadís-i-Sahíh), to show the matter clearly.
The question of the abrogation of any previous command depends on
historical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion of
a commentator." It cannot be shown that either Muhammad or a Companion ever
said that the Bible was abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that the
assertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation,
also illustrates another point to which I have often called attention,
_viz._; that in Islám all interpretation must be regulated by
traditionalism.
Additions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those who
stay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdullah and
Ibn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind.' The Prophet asked for
the shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He then had a spasmodic
convulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the words, "free from
trouble." So now the whole verse reads thus: "Those believers who sit at
home _free from trouble_ (_i.e._, bodily infirmity), and those who do
valiantly in the cause of God, with their substance and their persons,
shall not be treated alike." (Súra iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: "I
fancy I see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack."
{64}
The question of the eternal nature of the Qurán does not properly come
under the head of 'Ilm-i-usúl, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many
Muslims. In the days of the Khalíf Al-Mamun this question was fiercely
debated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad,
asserted that the Qurán was created, by which statement they meant that the
revelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language was his
own. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In the year
212, A.H. the Khalíf issued a decree to the effect that all who held the
Qurán to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalíf
himself was a notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they
remained quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodox
side are, that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal, that the
attempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the Divine
Mind and as it appears in the Qurán is highly dangerous. In vain do their
opponents argue that, if the Qurán is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in
existence. To this it is answered: "This is the honourable Qurán, written
in the preserved Tablet." (Súra lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced which
states: "God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His own hand
He created Adam; and also in the Qurán it is written, 'and We wrote for him
upon the tables a monition concerning every matter,' in reference to the
tables of the Law given to Moses." If God did this for former prophets and
their works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have done it for
the last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble Qurán? It is not easy
to get a correct definition of the term "the uncreated Qurán," but it has
been put thus: "The Word as it exists in the mind of God is 'Kalám-i-Nafsí'
(spiritual word), something unwritten and eternal. It is acknowledged by
the Ijmá'-i-Ummat (consent of the Faithful), the Traditions, and by other
prophets that God {65} speaks. The Kalám-i-Nafsí then is eternal, but the
actual words, style, and eloquence are created by God; so also is the
arrangement and the miraculous nature of the book." This seems to be a
reasonable account of the doctrine, though there are theologians who hold
that the very words are eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes with
this idea, but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute
predestination. This accounts for the circumstances which necessitated the
abrogation, for the circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, were
determined on from all eternity.
This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Qurán, a book
difficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which has
engaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of the
human race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological schools
of Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding through this
very subject of which I have here been treating; soon will they go forth as
teachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that training
is to make them wise men in any true sense of the word, how calculated to
render them proud, conceited, and scornful of other creeds, its rigid and
exclusive character shows. Still, it is a marvellous book; for twelve
hundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate the
courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether dwellers in the wild
uplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on the shores of the
Mediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alike
learn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, and
pray in its words as their fathers prayed before them.
Next to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Qurán is the great
bond of Islám. No matter from what race the convert may have come, no
matter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat by
rote portions of the Qurán in every act of public worship.
The next subject for consideration is that of the {66} Traditions, or the
second branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usúl. The Traditions contain the
record of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim,
to whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also acted
under a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is different from
that of the Qurán. There the revelation was objective. In the Prophet's
sayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is subjective, but still
a true inspiration. This belief places the Traditions in a place second
only to the Qurán; it makes them a true supplement to that book, and thus
they not only throw light on its meaning, but themselves form the basis on
which doctrines may be established. Without going so far as to say that
every Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islám, it
may be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed of
that system if the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. So
important a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of the
Traditions is included in the 'Ilm-i-usúl, or science of exegesis. Some
account of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter.
The first four Khalífs were called the Khulafá-i-Ráshidín that is, those
who could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions of the
Prophet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt.
The Prophet had declared that Islám must be written in the hearts of men.
There was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing. They
were handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so effectual in a
dispute as "a saying" of the Prophet, the door was opened by which spurious
Traditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a number
of strict rules were framed, at the head of which stands the Prophet's
saying, itself a Tradition: "Convey to other persons none of my words
except those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely represents
my {67} words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire."
To enforce this rule, it was laid down that the relator of a Tradition must
also repeat its "Isnád," or chain of authorities, as: "I heard from such an
one, who heard from such an one," and so on, until the chain reaches the
Prophet himself. Each person, too, in this "Isnád," must have been well
known for his good character and retentive memory. This failed, however, to
prevent a vast number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current; so
men set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of
Tradition that in the second century of Islám had begun to work untold
evil. These men are called "Muhadisín," or "collectors of Tradition." The
Sunnís and the Wahhábís recognise six such men, and their collections are
known as the "Sihah-Sittah," or six correct books. They are the
following:--
(1). The _Sahíh-i-Bukhárí_, called after Abu Abdullah Muhammad
Ibn-i-Ismá'íl, a native of Bukhárá. He was born A.H. 194. He was a man of
middle height, spare in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his
father was on this account intense; but one day in a dream he saw the
Patriarch Abraham, who said to him: "God on account of thy grief and sorrow
has granted sight to thy son." The sight being thus restored, at the age of
ten he went to school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. After
his education was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dákhlí came to Bukhárá.
One day the youthful Bukhárí ventured to correct the famous man. It was an
astounding piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right.
This set him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At the
early age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course of
time he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result of his examination and
selection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and
seventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, the
Sahíh-i-Bukhárí. It {68} is said that he never sat down to examine a
Tradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two
rak'at prayers. He then said: "O Lord, let me not make a mistake." For
sixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of
sixty-four.
(2). _Sahíh-i-Muslim._ Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjáj was born at Nishápúr, a city of
Khorásán. He collected about 300,000 Traditions, from which he made his
collection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing to oblige
all who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige was the
indirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in the mosque
when some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he could not
discover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house to search
there. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating and
searching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died. (A.H. 261.)
(3). _Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd._ Abu Dáúd Sajistání, a native of Seistán, was born
A.H. 202. He was a great traveller, and went to all the chief places of
Musalmán learning. In knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety,
he was unrivalled. He collected about 500,000 Traditions, of which he
selected four thousand eight hundred for his book.
(4). _Jámí'-i-Tirmizí._ Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizí was born at Tirmiz in the
year A.H. 209. He was a disciple of Bukhárí. Ibn Khallikan says this work
is "the production of a well-informed man: its exactness is
proverbial."[61]
(5). _Sunan-i-Nasáí._ Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasáí was born at Nasá, in
Khorásán, in the year A.H. 214, and died A.H. 303. It is recorded of him,
with great approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wives
and many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with his
death in rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Alí,
and as the people of {69} Damascus were at that time inclined to the heresy
of the Khárigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place.
After he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him whether he knew
aught of the praises of Muavia, 'Alí's deadly enemy. He replied that he did
not. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that he died
soon after.
(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Májah._ Ibn Májah[62] was born at 'Irak A.H. 209. This
work contains 4,000 Traditions.
The Shía'hs reject these books and substitute five books[63] of their own
instead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been
compiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra.
The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditions
is that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved Table,' on which
all that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind
of man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium of Gabriel, the
Prophet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophet
are the words of God.
Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islám, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was the
greatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no less
than one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system
of jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanífa, who is
said to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded a
system which is to this day the most powerful in Islám. The Hanifites,
however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collections
of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} God. They range
over a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Qurán. The
Prophet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions,
his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of
religious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them
we must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islám. It is very
difficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse
with Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their
thought and actions, are based on the Traditions.
Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to enter
a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them.
The classification adopted by different authors may vary in some
subordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard
Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadís-i-Qualí, that is, an account of
something the Prophet said; or Hadís-i-Fa'lí, a record of something which
he did; or Hadís-i-Taqrírí, a statement of some act performed by other
persons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid.
The Traditions may be classed under two general heads:--
First.--_Hadís-i-Mutawátír_, that is, "an undoubted Tradition," the Isnád,
or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narrator
possessed all the necessary qualifications for his office.[64] Some
authorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most
allow that the following is one: "There are no good works except with
intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention
of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing.
Second.--_Hadís-i-Ahád._ The authority of this class is {71} theoretically
somewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same.
This class is again sub-divided into two:--
(1). _Hadís-i-Sahíh_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to go
into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahíh if the
narrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowed
with a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace with
their neighbours. The following also are Sahíh, though their importance as
authorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. Sahíh
Traditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhárí and
Muslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both;
or, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has been
retained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of
Traditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any
other approved collector. For each of these classes there is a distinct
name.
(2). _Hadís-i-Hasan._ The narrators of this class are not of such good
authority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; but
these Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any
practical use.[65] It is merely as a matter of classification that they
rank second.
In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical terms
which have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnád,
and other points. A few may be mentioned.
(1). _Hadís-i-Z'aíf_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have been
persons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad,
or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at," innovation, a habit now, as
then, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} "weak
Tradition" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to which
are, and which are not, "weak Traditions."
(2). _Hadís-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnád of which there is some
break. If it begins with a Tábi' (one in the generation after that of the
Companions), it is called "_Mursal_" the one link in the chain, the
Companion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators
begins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on.
(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator
concealed the name of his Imám, or where different narrators disagree, or
where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or
has been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an
account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this
class would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base
any important doctrine.[66]
It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can be
contrary to the Qurán. The importance attached to Tradition has been shown
in the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation of
an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and the
Sunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of the Prophet,
are the foundation and sum of Islám, a fact not always taken into account
by modern panegyrists of the system.
{73}
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