... the mean interval being 60 m.; the summits are, as a rule, rounded, and
the slopes gentle. The culminating points are in the centre of the range:
Yumrukchál (7835 ft.), Maragudúk (7808 ft.), and Kadimlía (7464 ft.). The
Balkans are known to the people of the country as the _Stara Planina_ or
"Old Mountain," the adjective denoting their greater size as compared with
that of the adjacent ranges: "Balkán" is not a distinctive term, being
applied by the Bulgarians, as well as the Turks, to all mountains. Closely
parallel, on the south, are the minor ranges of the Sredna Gora or "Middle
Mountains" (highest summit 5167 ft.) and the Karaja Dagh, enclosing
respectively the sheltered valleys of Karlovo and Kazanlyk. At its eastern
extremity the Balkan chain divides into three ridges, the central
terminating in the Black Sea at Cape Eminé ("Haemus"), the northern forming
the watershed between the tributaries of the Danube and the rivers falling
directly into the Black Sea. The Rhodope, or southern group, is altogether
distinct from the Balkans, with which, however, it is connected by the
Malka Planina and the Ikhtiman hills, respectively west and east of Sofia;
it may be regarded as a continuation of the great Alpine system which
traverses the Peninsula from the Dinaric Alps and the Shar Planina on the
west to the Shabkhana Dagh near the Aegean coast; its sharper outlines and
pine-clad steeps reproduce the scenery of the Alps rather than that of the
Balkans. The imposing summit of Musallá (9631 ft.), next to Olympus, the
highest in the Peninsula, forms the centre-point of the group; it stands
within the Bulgarian frontier at the head of the Mesta valley, on either
side of which the Perin Dagh and the Despoto Dagh descend south and
south-east respectively towards the Aegean. The chain of Rhodope proper
radiates to the east; owing to the retrocession of territory already
mentioned, its central ridge no longer completely coincides with the
Bulgarian boundary, but two of its principal summits, Sytké (7179 ft.) and
Karlyk (6828 ft.), are within the frontier. From Musallá in a westerly
direction extends the majestic range of the Rilska Planina, enclosing in a
picturesque valley the celebrated monastery of Rila; many summits of this
chain attain 7000 ft. Farther west, beyond the Struma valley, is the
Osogovska Planina, culminating in Ruyen (7392 ft.). To the north of the
Rilska Planina the almost isolated mass of Vitosha (7517 ft.) overhangs
Sofia. Snow and ice remain in the sheltered crevices of Rhodope and the
Balkans throughout the summer. The fertile slope trending northwards from
the Balkans to the Danube is for the most part gradual and broken by hills;
the eastern portion known as the _Delí Orman_, or "Wild Wood," is covered
by forest, and thinly inhabited. The abrupt and sometimes precipitous
character of the Bulgarian bank of the Danube contrasts with the swampy
lowlands and lagoons of the Rumanian side. Northern Bulgaria is watered by
the Lom, Ogust, Iskr, Vid, Osem, Yantra and Eastern Lom, all, except the
Iskr, rising in the Balkans, and all flowing into the Danube. The channels
of these rivers are deeply furrowed and the fall is rapid; irrigation is
consequently difficult and navigation impossible. The course of the Iskr is
remarkable: rising in the Rilska Planina, the river descends into the basin
of Samakov, passing thence through a serpentine defile into the plateau of
Sofia, where in ancient times it formed a lake; it now forces its way
through the Balkans by the picturesque gorge of Iskretz. Somewhat similarly
the Deli, or "Wild," Kamchik breaks the central chain of the Balkans near
their eastern extremity and, uniting with the Great Kamchik, falls into the
Black Sea. The Maritza, the ancient _Hebrus_, springs from the slopes of
Musallá, and, with its tributaries, the Tunja and Arda, waters the wide
plain of Eastern Rumelia. The Struma (ancient and modern Greek _Strymon_)
drains the valley of Kiustendil, and, like the Maritza, flows into the
Aegean. The elevated basins of Samakov (lowest altitude 3050 ft.), Trn
(2525 ft.), Breznik (2460 ft.), Radomir (2065 ft.), Sofia (1640 ft.), and
Kiustendil (1540 ft.), are a peculiar feature of the western highlands.
[Illustration]
_Geology._--The stratified formation presents a remarkable variety, almost
all the systems being exemplified. The Archean, composed of gneiss and
crystalline schists, and traversed by eruptive veins, extends over the
greater part of the Eastern Rumelian plain, the Rilska Planina, Rhodope,
and the adjacent ranges. North of the Balkans it appears only in the
neighbourhood of Berkovitza. The other earlier Palaeozoic systems are
wanting, but the Carboniferous appears in the western Balkans with a
continental _facies_ (Kulm). Here anthracitiferous coal is found in beds of
argillite and sandstone. Red sandstone and conglomerate, representing the
Permian system, appear especially around the basin of Sofia. Above these,
in the western Balkans, are Mesozoic deposits, from the Trias to the upper
Jurassic, also occurring in the central part of the range. The Cretaceous
system, from the infra-Cretaceous Hauterivien to the Senonian, appears
throughout the whole extent of Northern Bulgaria, from the summits of the
Balkans to the Danube. Gosau beds are found on the southern declivity of
the chain. Flysch, representing both the Cretaceous and Eocene systems, is
widely distributed. The Eocene, or older Tertiary, further appears with
nummulitic formations on both sides of the eastern Balkans; the Oligocene
only near the Black Sea coast at Burgas. Of the Neogene, or younger
Tertiary, the Mediterranean, or earlier, stage appears near Pleven (Plevna)
in the Leithakalk and Tegel forms, and between Varna and Burgas with beds
of spaniodons, as in the Crimea; the Sarmatian stage in the plain of the
Danube and in the districts of Silistria and Varna. A rich mammaliferous
deposit (_Hipparion_, _Rhinoceros_, _Dinotherium_, _Mastodon_, &c.) of this
period has been found near Mesemvria. Other Neogene strata occupy a more
limited space. The Quaternary era is represented by the typical loess,
which covers most of the Danubian plain; to its later epochs belong the
alluvial deposits of the riparian districts with remains of the _Ursus_,
_Equus_, &c., found in bone-caverns. Eruptive masses intrude in the Balkans
and Sredna Gora, as well as in the Archean formation of the southern [v.04
p.0774] ranges, presenting granite, syenite, diorite, diabase,
quartz-porphyry, melaphyre, liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt, &c.
_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Bulgaria is considerable, although, with
the exception of coal, it remains largely unexploited. The minerals which
are commercially valuable include gold (found in small quantities), silver,
graphite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, chalcosine, sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
bornite, cuprite, hematite, limonite, ochre, chromite, magnetite, azurite,
manganese, malachite, gypsum, &c. The combustibles are anthracitiferous
coal, coal, "brown coal" and lignite. The lignite mines opened by the
government at Pernik in 1891 yielded in 1904 142,000 tons. Coal beds have
been discovered at Trevna and elsewhere. Thermal springs, mostly
sulphureous, exist in forty-three localities along the southern slope of
the Balkans, in Rhodope, and in the districts of Sofia and Kiustendil;
maximum temperature at Zaparevo, near Dupnitza, 180.5° (Fahrenheit), at
Sofia 118.4°. Many of these are frequented now, as in Roman times, owing to
their valuable therapeutic qualities. The mineral springs on the north of
the Balkans are, with one exception (Vrshetz, near Berkovitza), cold.
_Climate._--The severity of the climate of Bulgaria in comparison with that
of other European regions of the same latitude is attributable in part to
the number and extent of its mountain ranges, in part to the general
configuration of the Balkan Peninsula. Extreme heat in summer and cold in
winter, great local contrasts, and rapid transitions of temperature occur
here as in the adjoining countries. The local contrasts are remarkable. In
the districts extending from the Balkans to the Danube, which are exposed
to the bitter north wind, the winter cold is intense, and the river,
notwithstanding the volume and rapidity of its current, is frequently
frozen over; the temperature has been known to fall to 24° below zero.
Owing to the shelter afforded by the Balkans against hot southerly winds,
the summer heat in this region is not unbearable; its maximum is 99°. The
high tableland of Sofia is generally covered with snow in the winter
months; it enjoys, however, a somewhat more equable climate than the
northern district, the maximum temperature being 86°, the minimum 2°; the
air is bracing, and the summer nights are cool and fresh. In the eastern
districts the proximity of the sea moderates the extremes of heat and cold;
the sea is occasionally frozen at Varna. The coast-line is exposed to
violent north-east winds, and the Black Sea, the [Greek: pontos axeinos] or
"inhospitable sea" of the Greeks, maintains its evil reputation for storms.
The sheltered plain of Eastern Rumelia possesses a comparatively warm
climate; spring begins six weeks earlier than elsewhere in Bulgaria, and
the vegetation is that of southern Europe. In general the Bulgarian winter
is short and severe; the spring short, changeable and rainy; the summer
hot, but tempered by thunderstorms; the autumn (_yasen_, "the clear time")
magnificently fine and sometimes prolonged into the month of December. The
mean temperature is 52°. The climate is healthy, especially in the
mountainous districts. Malarial fever prevails in the valley of the
Maritza, in the low-lying regions of the Black Sea coast, and even in the
upland plain of Sofia, owing to neglect of drainage. The mean annual
rainfall is 25-59 in. (Gabrovo, 41-73; Sofia, 27-68; Varna, 18-50).
_Fauna._--Few special features are noticeable in the Bulgarian fauna. Bears
are still abundant in the higher mountain districts, especially in the
Rilska Planina and Rhodope; the Bulgarian bear is small and of brown
colour, like that of the Carpathians. Wolves are very numerous, and in
winter commit great depredations even in the larger country towns and
villages; in hard weather they have been known to approach the outskirts of
Sofia. The government offers a reward for the destruction of both these
animals. The roe deer is found in all the forests, the red deer is less
common; the chamois haunts the higher regions of the Rilska Planina,
Rhodope and the Balkans. The jackal (_Canis aureus_) appears in the
district of Burgas; the lynx is said to exist in the Sredna Gora; the wild
boar, otter, fox, badger, hare, wild cat, marten, polecat (_Foetorius
putorius_; the rare tiger polecat, _Foetorius sarmaticus_, is also found),
weasel and shrewmouse (_Spermophilus citillus_) are common. The beaver
(Bulg. _bebr_) appears to have been abundant in certain localities, _e.g._
Bebrovo, Bebresh, &c., but it is now apparently extinct. Snakes (_Coluber
natrix_ and other species), vipers (_Vipera berus_ and _V. ammodytes_), and
land and water tortoises are numerous. The domestic animals are the same as
in the other countries of southeastern Europe; the fierce shaggy grey
sheep-dog leaves a lasting impression on most travellers in the interior.
Fowls, especially turkeys, are everywhere abundant, and great numbers of
geese may be seen in the Moslem villages. The ornithology of Bulgaria is
especially interesting. Eagles (_Aquila imperialis_ and the rarer _Aquila
fulva_), vultures (_Vultur monachus_, _Gyps fulvus_, _Neophron
percnopterus_), owls, kites, and the smaller birds of prey are
extraordinarily abundant; singing birds are consequently rare. The
lammergeier (_Gypaëtus barbatus_) is not uncommon. Immense flocks of wild
swans, geese, pelicans, herons and other waterfowl haunt the Danube and the
lagoons of the Black Sea coast. The cock of the woods (_Tetrao urogallus_)
is found in the Balkan and Rhodope forests, the wild pheasant in the Tunja
valley, the bustard (_Otis tarda_) in the Eastern Rumelian plain. Among the
migratory birds are the crane, which hibernates in the Maritza valley,
woodcock, snipe and quail; the great spotted cuckoo (_Coccystes
glandarius_) is an occasional visitant. The red starling (_Pastor roseus_)
sometimes appears in large flights. The stork, which is never molested,
adds a picturesque feature to the Bulgarian village. Of fresh-water fish,
the sturgeon (_Acipenser sturio_ and _A. huso_), sterlet, salmon (_Salmo
hucho_), and carp are found in the Danube; the mountain streams abound in
trout. The Black Sea supplies turbot, mackerel, &c.; dolphins and flying
fish may sometimes be seen.
_Flora._--In regard to its flora the country may be divided into (1) the
northern plain sloping from the Balkans to the Danube, (2) the southern
plain between the Balkans and Rhodope, (3) the districts adjoining the
Black Sea, (4) the elevated basins of Sofia, Samakov and Kiustendil, (5)
the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of the Balkans and the southern mountain
group. In the first-mentioned region the vegetation resembles that of the
Russian and Rumanian steppes; in the spring the country is adorned with the
flowers of the crocus, orchis, iris, tulip and other bulbous plants, which
in summer give way to tall grasses, umbelliferous growths, _dianthi_,
_astragali_, &c. In the more sheltered district south of the Balkans the
richer vegetation recalls that of the neighbourhood of Constantinople and
the adjacent parts of Asia Minor. On the Black Sea coast many types of the
Crimean, Transcaucasian and even the Mediterranean flora present
themselves. The plateaus of Sofia and Samakov furnish specimens of
sub-alpine plants, while the vine disappears; the hollow of Kiustendil,
owing to its southerly aspect, affords the vegetation of the Macedonian
valleys. The flora of the Balkans corresponds with that of the Carpathians;
the Rila and Rhodope group is rich in purely indigenous types combined with
those of the central European Alps and the mountains of Asia Minor. The
Alpine types are often represented by variants: _e.g._ the _Campanula
alpina_ by the _Campanula orbelica_, the _Primula farinosa_ by the _Primula
frondosa_ and _P. exigua_, the _Gentiana germanica_ by the _Gentiana
bulgarica_, &c. The southern mountain group, in common, perhaps, with the
unexplored highlands of Macedonia, presents many isolated types, unknown
elsewhere in Europe, and in some cases corresponding with those of the
Caucasus. Among the more characteristic genera of the Bulgarian flora are
the following:--_Centaurea_, _Cirsium_, _Linaria_, _Scrophularia_,
_Verbascum_, _Dianthus_, _Silene_, _Trifolium_, _Euphorbia_, _Cytisus_,
_Astragalus_, _Ornithogalum_, _Allium_, _Crocus_, _Iris_, _Thymus_,
_Umbellifera_, _Sedum_, _Hypericum_, _Scabiosa_, _Ranunculus_, _Orchis_,
_Ophrys_.
_Forests._--The principal forest trees are the oak, beech, ash, elm,
walnut, cornel, poplar, pine and juniper. The oak is universal in the
thickets, but large specimens are now rarely found. Magnificent forests of
beech clothe the valleys of the higher Balkans and the Rilska Planina; the
northern declivity of the Balkans is, in general, well wooded, but the
southern slope is bare. The walnut and chestnut are mainly confined to
eastern Rumelia. Conifers (_Pinus silvestris_, _Picea excelsa_, _Pinus
laricis_, _Pinus mughus_) are rare in the Balkans, but abundant in the
higher regions of the southern mountain group, where the _Pinus peuce_,
otherwise peculiar to the Himalayas, also flourishes. The wild lilac forms
a beautiful feature in the spring landscape. Wild fruit trees, such as the
apple, pear and plum, are common. The vast forests of the middle ages
disappeared under the supine Turkish administration, which took no measures
for their protection, and even destroyed the woods in the neighbourhood of
towns and highways in order to deprive brigands of shelter. A law passed in
1889 prohibits disforesting, limits the right of cutting timber, and places
the state forests under the control of inspectors. According to official
statistics, 11,640 sq. m. or about 30% of the whole superficies of the
kingdom, are under forest, but the greater portion of this area is covered
only by brushwood and scrub. The beautiful forests of the Rila district are
rapidly disappearing under exploitation.
_Agriculture._--Agriculture, the main source of wealth to the country, is
still in an extremely primitive condition. The ignorance and conservatism
of the peasantry, the habits engendered by widespread insecurity and the
fear of official rapacity under Turkish rule, insufficiency of
communications, want of capital, and in some districts sparsity of
population, have all tended to retard the development of this most
important industry. The peasants cling to traditional usage, and look with
suspicion on modern implements and new-fangled modes of production. The
plough is of a primeval type, rotation of crops is only partially
practised, and the use of manure is almost unknown. The government has
sedulously endeavoured to introduce more enlightened methods and ideas by
the establishment of agricultural schools, the appointment of itinerant
professors and inspectors, the distribution of better kinds of seeds,
improved implements, &c. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds of
native cattle and horses, and stallions have been introduced from Hungary
and distributed throughout the country. Oxen and buffaloes are the
principal animals of draught; the buffalo, which was apparently introduced
from Asia in remote times, is much prized by the peasants for its patience
and strength; it is, however, somewhat delicate and requires much care. In
[v.04 p.0775] the eastern districts camels are also employed. The Bulgarian
horses are small, but remarkably hardy, wiry and intelligent; they are as a
rule unfitted for draught and cavalry purposes. The best sheep are found in
the district of Karnobat in Eastern Rumelia. The number of goats in the
country tends to decline, a relatively high tax being imposed on these
animals owing to the injury they inflict on young trees. The average price
of oxen is £5 each, draught oxen £12 the pair, buffaloes £14 the pair, cows
£2, horses £6, sheep, 7s., goats 5s., each. The principal cereals are
wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats and millet. The cultivation of maize is
increasing in the Danubian and eastern districts. Rice-fields are found in
the neighbourhood of Philippopolis. Cereals represent about 80% of the
total exports. Besides grain, Bulgaria produces wine, tobacco, attar of
roses, silk and cotton. The quality of the grape is excellent, and could
the peasants be induced to abandon their highly primitive mode of
wine-making the Bulgarian vintages would rank among the best European
growths. The tobacco, which is not of the highest quality, is grown in
considerable quantities for home consumption and only an insignificant
amount is exported. The best tobacco-fields in Bulgaria are on the northern
slopes of Rhodope, but the southern declivity, which produces the famous
Kavala growth, is more adapted to the cultivation of the plant. The
rose-fields of Kazanlyk and Karlovo lie in the sheltered valleys between
the Balkans and the parallel chains of the Sredna Gora and Karaja Dagh.
About 6000 lb of the rose-essence is annually exported, being valued from
£12 to £14 per lb. Beetroot is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Sofia.
Sericulture, formerly an important industry, has declined owing to disease
among the silkworms, but efforts are being made to revive it with promise
of success. Cotton is grown in the southern districts of Eastern Rumelia.
Peasant proprietorship is universal, the small freeholds averaging about 18
acres each. There are scarcely any large estates owned by individuals, but
some of the monasteries possess considerable domains. The large
_tchifliks_, or farms, formerly belonging to Turkish landowners, have been
divided among the peasants. The rural proprietors enjoy the right of
pasturing their cattle on the common lands belonging to each village, and
of cutting wood in the state forests. They live in a condition of rude
comfort, and poverty is practically unknown, except in the towns. A
peculiarly interesting feature in Bulgarian agricultural life is the
_zadruga_, or house-community, a patriarchal institution apparently dating
from prehistoric times. Family groups, sometimes numbering several dozen
persons, dwell together on a farm in the observance of strictly communistic
principles. The association is ruled by a house-father (_domakin_,
_stareïshina_), and a house-mother (_domakinia_), who assign to the members
their respective tasks. In addition to the farm work the members often
practise various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the general
treasury. The community sometimes includes a priest, whose fees for
baptisms, &c., augment the common fund. The national aptitude for
combination is also displayed in the associations of market gardeners
(_gradinarski druzhini_, _taifi_), who in the spring leave their native
districts for the purpose of cultivating gardens in the neighbourhood of
some town, either in Bulgaria or abroad, returning in the autumn, when they
divide the profits of the enterprise; the number of persons annually thus
engaged probably exceeds 10,000. Associations for various agricultural,
mining and industrial undertakings and provident societies are numerous:
the handicraftsmen in the towns are organized in _esnafs_ or gilds.
_Manufactures._--The development of manufacturing enterprise on a large
scale has been retarded by want of capital. The principal establishments
for the native manufactures of _aba_ and _shayak_ (rough and fine
homespuns), and of _gaitan_ (braided embroidery) are at Sliven and Gabrovo
respectively. The Bulgarian homespuns, which are made of pure wool, are of
admirable quality. The exportation of textiles is almost exclusively to
Turkey: value in 1806, £104,046; in 1898, £144,726; in 1904, £108,685.
Unfortunately the home demand for native fabrics is diminishing owing to
foreign competition; the smaller textile industries are declining, and the
picturesque, durable, and comfortable costume of the country is giving way
to cheap ready-made clothing imported from Austria. The government has
endeavoured to stimulate the home industry by ordering all persons in its
employment to wear the native cloth, and the army is supplied almost
exclusively by the factories at Sliven. A great number of small
distilleries exist throughout the country; there are breweries in all the
principal towns, tanneries at Sevlievo, Varna, &c., numerous corn-mills
worked by water and steam, and sawmills, turned by the mountain torrents,
in the Balkans and Rhodope. A certain amount of foreign capital has been
invested in industrial enterprises; the most notable are sugar-refineries
in the neighbourhood of Sofia and Philippopolis, and a cotton-spinning mill
at Varna, on which an English company has expended about £60,000.
_Commerce._--The usages of internal commerce have been considerably
modified by the development of communications. The primitive system of
barter in kind still exists in the rural districts, but is gradually
disappearing. The great fairs (_panaïri_, [Greek: panêgureis]) held at
Eski-Jumaia, Dobritch and other towns, which formerly attracted multitudes
of foreigners as well as natives, have lost much of their importance; a
considerable amount of business, however, is still transacted at these
gatherings, of which ninety-seven were held in 1898. The principal seats of
the export trade are Varna, Burgas and Baltchik on the Black Sea, and
Svishtov, Rustchuk, Nikopolis, Silistria, Rakhovo, and Vidin on the Danube.
The chief centres of distribution for imports are Varna, Sofia, Rustchuk,
Philippopolis and Burgas. About 10% of the exports passes over the Turkish
frontier, but the government is making great efforts to divert the trade to
Varna and Burgas, and important harbour works have been carried out at both
these ports. The new port of Burgas was formally opened in 1904, that of
Varna in 1906.
In 1887 the total value of Bulgarian foreign commerce was £4,419,589. The
following table gives the values for the six years ending 1904. The great
fluctuations in the exports are due to the variations of the harvest, on
which the prosperity of the country practically depends:--
Year. Exports. Imports. Total.
£ £ £
1899 2,138,684 2,407,123 4,545,807
1900 2,159,305 1,853,684 4,012,989
1901 3,310,790 2,801,762 6,112,552
1902 4,147,381 2,849,059 7,996,440
1903 4,322,945 3,272,103 7,595,048
1904 6,304,756 5,187,583 11,492,339
The principal exports are cereals, live stock, homespuns, hides, cheese,
eggs, attar of roses. Exports to the United Kingdom in 1900 were valued at
£239,665; in 1904 at £989,127. The principal imports are textiles, metal
goods, colonial goods, implements, furniture, leather, petroleum. Imports
from the United Kingdom in 1900, £301,150; in 1904, £793,972.
The National Bank, a state institution with a capital of £400,000, has its
central establishment at Sofia, and branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk,
Varna, Trnovo and Burgas. Besides conducting the ordinary banking
operations, it issues loans on mortgage. Four other banks have been founded
at Sofia by groups of foreign and native capitalists. There are several
private banks in the country. The Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Industrial
Bank of Kiev have branches at Philippopolis and Sofia respectively. The
agricultural chests, founded by Midhat Pasha in 1863, and reorganized in
1894, have done much to rescue the peasantry from the hands of usurers.
They serve as treasuries for the local administration, accept deposits at
interest, and make loans to the peasants on mortgage or the security of two
solvent landowners at 8%. Their capital in 1887 was £569,260; in 1904,
£1,440,000. Since 1893 they have been constituted as the "Bulgarian
Agricultural Bank"; the central direction is at Sofia. The post-office
savings bank, established 1896, had in 1905 a capital of £1,360,560.
There are over 200 registered provident societies in the country. The legal
rate of interest is 10%, but much higher rates are not uncommon.
Bulgaria, like the neighbouring states of the Peninsula, has adopted the
metric system. Turkish weights and measures, however, are still largely
employed in local commerce. The monetary unit is the _lev_, or "lion" (pl.
_leva_), nominally equal to the franc, with its submultiple the _stotinka_
(pl. _-ki_), or centime. The coinage consists of nickel and bronze coins
(2½, 5, 10 and 20 _stotinki_) and silver coins [v.04 p.0776] (50
_stotinki_; 1, 2 and 5 _leva_). A gold coinage was struck in 1893 with
pieces corresponding to those of the Latin Union. The Turkish pound and
foreign gold coins are also in general circulation. The National Bank
issues notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 _leva_, payable in gold. Notes
payable in silver are also issued.
_Finance._--It is only possible here to deal with Bulgarian finance prior
to the declaration of independence in 1908. At the outset of its career the
principality was practically unencumbered with any debt, external or
internal. The stipulations of the Berlin Treaty (Art. ix.) with regard to
the payment of a tribute to the sultan and the assumption of an "equitable
proportion" of the Ottoman Debt were never carried into effect. In 1883 the
claim of Russia for the expenses of the occupation (under Art. xx. of the
treaty) was fixed at 26,545,625 fr. (£1,061,820) payable in annual
instalments of 2,100,000 fr. (£84,000). The union with Eastern Rumelia in
1885 entailed liability for the obligations of that province consisting of
an annual tribute to Turkey of 2,951,000 fr. (£118,040) and a loan of
3,375,000 fr. (£135,000) contracted with the Imperial Ottoman Bank. In 1888
the purchase of the Varna-Rustchuk railway was effected by the issue of
treasury bonds at 6% to the vendors. In 1889 a loan of 30,000,000 fr.
(£1,200,000) bearing 6% interest was contracted with the Vienna Länderbank
and Bankverein at 85½. In 1892 a further 6% loan of 142,780,000 fr.
(£5,711,200) was contracted with the Länderbank at 83, 86 and 89. In 1902 a
5% loan of 106,000,000 fr. (£4,240,000), secured on the tobacco dues and
the stamp-tax, was contracted with the Banque de l'État de Russie and the
Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas at 81½, for the purpose of consolidating
the floating debt, and in 1904 a 5% loan of 99,980,000 fr. (£3,999,200) at
82, with the same guarantees, was contracted with the last-named bank
mainly for the purchase of war material in France and the construction of
railways. In January 1906 the national debt stood as follows:--Outstanding
amount of the consolidated loans, 363,070,500 fr. (£14,522,820); internal
debt, 15,603,774 fr. (£624,151); Eastern Rumelian debt, 1,910,208
(£76,408). In February 1907 a 4½% loan of 145,000,000 fr. at 85, secured on
the surplus proceeds of the revenues already pledged to the loans of 1902
and 1904, was contracted with the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas
associated with some German and Austrian banks for the conversion of the
loans of 1888 and 1889 (requiring about 53,000,000 fr.) and for railway
construction and other purposes. The total external debt was thus raised to
upwards of 450,000,000 fr. The Eastern Rumelian tribute and the rent of the
Sarambey-Belovo railway, if capitalized at 6%, would represent a further
sum of 50,919,100 fr. (£2,036,765). The national debt was not
disproportionately great in comparison with annual revenue. After the union
with Eastern Rumelia the budget receipts increased from 40,803,262 leva
(£1,635,730) in 1886 to 119,655,507 leva (£4,786,220) in 1904; the
estimated revenue for 1905 was 111,920,000 leva (£4,476,800), of which
41,179,000 (£1,647,160) were derived from direct and 38,610,000
(£1,544,400) from indirect taxation; the estimated expenditure was
111,903,281 leva (£4,476,131), the principal items being: public debt,
31,317,346 (£1,252,693); army, 26,540,720 (£1,061,628); education,
10,402,470 (£416,098); public works, 14,461,171 (£578,446); interior,
7,559,517 (£302,380). The actual receipts in 1905 were 127,011,393 leva. In
1895 direct taxation, which pressed heavily on the agricultural class, was
diminished and indirect taxation (import duties and excise) considerably
increased. In 1906 direct taxation amounted to 9 fr. 92 c., indirect to 8
fr. 58 c., per head of the population. The financial difficulties in which
the country was involved at the close of the 19th century were attributable
not to excessive indebtedness but to heavy outlay on public works, the
army, and education, and to the maintenance of an unnecessary number of
officials, the economic situation being aggravated by a succession of bad
harvests. The war budget during ten years (1888-1897) absorbed the large
sum of 275,822,017 leva (£11,033,300) or 35.77% of the whole national
income within that period. In subsequent years military expenditure
continued to increase; the total during the period since the union with
Eastern Rumelia amounting to 599,520,698 leva (£23,980,800).
_Communications._--In 1878 the only railway in Bulgaria was the
Rustchuk-Varna line (137 m.), constructed by an English company in 1867. In
Eastern Rumelia the line from Sarambey to Philippopolis and the Turkish
frontier (122 m.), with a branch to Yamboli (66 m.), had been built by
Baron Hirsch in 1873, and leased by the Turkish government to the Oriental
Railways Company until 1958. It was taken over by the Bulgarian government
in 1908 (see _History_, below). The construction of a railway from the
Servian frontier at Tzaribrod to the Eastern Rumelian frontier at Vakarel
was imposed on the principality by the Berlin Treaty, but political
difficulties intervened, and the line, which touches Sofia, was not
completed till 1888. In that year the Bulgarian government seized the short
connecting line Belovo-Sarambey belonging to Turkey, and railway
communication between Constantinople and the western capitals was
established. Since that time great progress has been made in railway
construction. In 1888, 240 m. of state railways were open to traffic; in
1899, 777 m.; in 1902, 880 m. Up to October 1908 all these lines were
worked by the state, and, with the exception of the Belovo-Sarambey line
(29 m.), which was worked under a convention with Turkey, were its
property. The completion of the important line Radomir-Sofia-Shumen
(November 1899) opened up the rich agricultural district between the
Balkans and the Danube and connected Varna with the capital. Branches to
Samovit and Rustchuk establish connexion with the Rumanian railway system
on the opposite side of the river. It was hoped, with the consent of the
Turkish government, to extend the line Sofia-Radomir-Kiustendil to Uskub,
and thus to secure a direct route to Salonica and the Aegean. Road
communication is still in an unsatisfactory condition. Roads are divided
into three classes: "state roads," or main highways, maintained by the
government; "district roads" maintained by the district councils; and
"inter-village roads" (_mezhduselski shosseta_), maintained by the
communes. Repairs are effected by the _corvée_ system with requisitions of
material. There are no canals, and inland navigation is confined to the
Danube. The Austrian _Donaudampschiffahrtsgesellschaft_ and the Russian
_Gagarine_ steamship company compete for the river traffic; the grain trade
is largely served by steamers belonging to Greek merchants. The coasting
trade on the Black Sea is carried on by a Bulgarian steamship company; the
steamers of the Austrian Lloyd, and other foreign companies call at Varna,
and occasionally at Burgas.
The development of postal and telegraphic communication has been rapid. In
1886, 1,468,494 letters were posted, in 1903, 29,063,043. Receipts of posts
and telegraphs in 1886 were £40,975, in 1903 £134,942. In 1903 there were
3261 m. of telegraph lines and 531 m. of telephones.
_Towns._--The principal towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, the capital (Bulgarian
_Sredetz_, a name now little used), pop. in January 1906, 82,187;
Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Rumelia (Bulg. _Plovdiv_), pop.
45,572; Varna, 37,155; Rustchuk (Bulg. _Russé_), 33,552; Sliven, 25,049;
Shumla (Bulg. _Shumen_), 22,290; Plevna (Bulg. _Pleven_), 21,208;
Stara-Zagora, 20,647; Tatar-Pazarjik, 17,549; Vidin, 16,168; Yamboli (Greek
_Hyampolis_), 15,708; Dobritch (Turkish _Hajiolu-Pazarjik_), 15,369;
Haskovo, 15,061; Vratza, 14,832; Stanimaka (Greek _Stenimachos_), 14,120;
Razgrad, 13,783; Sistova (Bulg. _Svishtov_), 13,408; Burgas, 12,846;
Kiustendil, 12,353; Trnovo, the ancient capital, 12,171. All these are
described in separate articles.
_Population._--The area of northern Bulgaria is 24,535 sq. m.; of Eastern
Rumelia 12,705 sq. m.; of united Bulgaria, 37,240 sq. m. According to the
census of the 12th of January 1906, the population of northern Bulgaria was
2,853,704; of Eastern Rumelia, 1,174,535; of united Bulgaria, 4,028,239 or
88 per sq. m. Bulgaria thus ranks between Rumania and Portugal in regard to
area; between the Netherlands and Switzerland in regard to population: in
density of population it may be compared with Spain and Greece.
The first census of united Bulgaria was taken in 1888: it gave the total
population as 3,154,375. In January 1893 the population was 3,310,713; in
January 1901, 3,744,283.
The movement of the population at intervals of five years has been as
follows:--
---------------------------------------------------------------------
| Year. | Marriages. | Births | Still- | Deaths. | Natural |
| | |(living). | born. | |Increase.[1]|
---------------------------------------------------------------------
| 1882 | 19,795 | 74,642 | 300 | 38,884 | 35,758 |
| 1887 | 20,089 | 83,179 | 144 | 39,396 | 43,783 |
| 1892 | 27,553 | 117,883 | 321 | 103,550 | 14,333 |
| 1897 | 29,227 | 149,631 | 858 | 90,134 | 59,497 |
| 1902 | 36,041 | 149,542 | 823 | 91,093 | 58,449 |
---------------------------------------------------------------------
[1] Excess of births over deaths.
The death-rate shows a tendency to rise. In the five years 1882-1886 the
mean death-rate was 18.0 per 1000; in 1887-1891, 20.4; in 1892-1896, 27.0;
in 1897-1902, 23.92. Infant mortality is high, especially among the
peasants. As the less healthy infants rarely survive, the adult population
is in general robust, hardy and long-lived. The census of January 1901
gives 2719 persons of 100 years and upwards. Young men, as a rule, marry
betore the age of twenty-five, girls before eighteen. The number of
illegitimate births is inconsiderable, averaging only 0.12 of the total.
The population according to sex in 1901 is given as 1,909,567 males and
1,834,716 females, or 51 males to 49 females. A somewhat similar disparity
may be observed in the other countries of the Peninsula. Classified
according to occupation, 2,802,603 persons, or 74.85% of the population,
are engaged in agriculture; 360,834 in various productive industries;
118,824 in the service of the government or the exercise of liberal
professions, and 148,899 in commerce. The population according to race
cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, but it is approximately shown by
the census of 1901, which gives the various nationalities according to
language as follows:--Bulgars, 2,888,219; Turks, 531,240; Rumans, 71,063;
Greeks, 66,635; Gipsies (Tziganes), 89,549; Jews (Spanish speaking),
33,661; Tatars, [v.04 p.0777] 18,884; Armenians, 14,581; other
nationalities, 30,451. The Bulgarian inhabitants of the Peninsula beyond
the limits of the principality may, perhaps, be estimated at 1,500,000 or
1,600,000, and the grand total of the race possibly reaches 5,500,000.
_Ethnology._--The Bulgarians, who constitute 77.14% of the inhabitants of
the kingdom, are found in their purest type in the mountain districts, the
Ottoman conquest and subsequent colonization having introduced a mixed
population into the plains.
The devastation of the country which followed the Turkish invasion resulted
in the extirpation or flight of a large proportion of the Bulgarian
inhabitants of the lowlands, who were replaced by Turkish colonists. The
mountainous districts, however, retained their original population and
sheltered large numbers of the fugitives. The passage of the Turkish armies
during the wars with Austria, Poland and Russia led to further Bulgarian
emigrations. The flight to the Banat, where 22,000 Bulgarians still remain,
took place in 1730. At the beginning of the 19th century the majority of
the population of the Eastern Rumelian plain was Turkish. The Turkish
colony, however, declined, partly in consequence of the drain caused by
military service, while the Bulgarian remnant increased, notwithstanding a
considerable emigration to Bessarabia before and after the Russo-Turkish
campaign of 1828. Efforts were made by the Porte to strengthen the Moslem
element by planting colonies of Tatars in 1861 and Circassians in 1864. The
advance of the Russian army in 1877-1878 caused an enormous exodus of the
Turkish population, of which only a small proportion returned to settle
permanently. The emigration continued after the conclusion of peace, and is
still in progress, notwithstanding the efforts of the Bulgarian government
to arrest it. In twenty years (1879-1899), at least 150,000 Turkish
peasants left Bulgaria. Much of the land thus abandoned still remains
unoccupied. On the other hand, a considerable influx of Bulgarians from
Macedonia, the vilayet of Adrianople, Bessarabia, and the Dobrudja took
place within the same period, and the inhabitants of the mountain villages
show a tendency to migrate into the richer districts of the plains.
The northern slopes of the Balkans from Belogradchik to Elena are inhabited
almost exclusively by Bulgarians; in Eastern Rumelia the national element
is strongest in the Sredna Gora and Rhodope. Possibly the most genuine
representatives of the race are the Pomaks or Mahommedan Bulgarians, whose
conversion to Islam preserved their women from the licence of the Turkish
conqueror; they inhabit the highlands of Rhodope and certain districts in
the neighbourhood of Lovtcha (Lovetch) and Plevna. Retaining their
Bulgarian speech and many ancient national usages, they may be compared
with the indigenous Cretan, Bosnian and Albanian Moslems. The Pomaks in the
principality are estimated at 26,000, but their numbers are declining. In
the north-eastern district between the Yantra and the Black Sea the
Bulgarian race is as yet thinly represented; most of the inhabitants are
Turks, a quiet, submissive, agricultural population, which unfortunately
shows a tendency to emigrate. The Black Sea coast is inhabited by a variety
of races. The Greek element is strong in the maritime towns, and displays
its natural aptitude for navigation and commerce. The Gagäuzi, a peculiar
race of Turkish-speaking Christians, inhabit the littoral from Cape Eminé
to Cape Kaliakra: they are of Turanian origin and descend from the ancient
Kumani. The valleys of the Maritza and Arda are occupied by a mixed
population consisting of Bulgarians, Greeks and Turks; the principal Greek
colonies are in Stanimaka, Kavakly and Philippopolis. The origin of the
peculiar Shôp tribe which inhabits the mountain tracts of Sofia, Breznik
and Radomir is a mystery. The Shôps are conceivably a remnant of the
aboriginal race which remained undisturbed in its mountain home during the
Slavonic and Bulgarian incursions: they cling with much tenacity to their
distinctive customs, apparel and dialect. The considerable Vlach or Ruman
colony in the Danubian districts dates from the 18th century, when large
numbers of Walachian peasants sought a refuge on Turkish soil from the
tyranny of the boyars or nobles: the department of Vidin alone contains 36
Ruman villages with a population of 30,550. Especially interesting is the
race of nomad shepherds from the Macedonian and the Aegean coast who come
in thousands every summer to pasture their flocks on the Bulgarian
mountains; they are divided into two tribes--the Kutzovlachs, or "lame
Vlachs," who speak Rumanian, and the Hellenized Karakatchans or "black
shepherds" (compare the Morlachs, or Mavro-vlachs, [Greek: mauroi blaches],
of Dalmatia), who speak Greek. The Tatars, a peaceable, industrious race,
are chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Varna and Silistria; they were
introduced as colonists by the Turkish government in 1861. They may be
reckoned at 12,000. The gipsies, who are scattered in considerable numbers
throughout the country, came into Bulgaria in the 14th century. They are
for the most part Moslems, and retain their ancient Indian speech. They
live in the utmost poverty, occupy separate cantonments in the villages,
and are treated as outcasts by the rest of the population. The Bulgarians,
being of mixed origin, possess few salient physical characteristics. The
Slavonic type is far less pronounced than among the kindred races; the
Ugrian or Finnish cast of features occasionally asserts itself in the
central Balkans. The face is generally oval, the nose straight, the jaw
somewhat heavy. The men, as a rule, are rather below middle height,
compactly built, and, among the peasantry, very muscular; the women are
generally deficient in beauty and rapidly grow old. The upper class, the
so-called _intelligenzia_, is physically very inferior to the rural
population.
_National Character._--The character of the Bulgarians presents a singular
contrast to that of the neighbouring nations. Less quick-witted than the
Greeks, less prone to idealism than the Servians, less apt to assimilate
the externals of civilization than the Rumanians, they possess in a
remarkable degree the qualities of patience, perseverance and endurance,
with the capacity for laborious effort peculiar to an agricultural race.
The tenacity and determination with which they pursue their national aims
may eventually enable them to vanquish their more brilliant competitors in
the struggle for hegemony in the Peninsula. Unlike most southern races, the
Bulgarians are reserved, taciturn, phlegmatic, unresponsive, and extremely
suspicious of foreigners. The peasants are industrious, peaceable and
orderly; the vendetta, as it exists in Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia,
and the use of the knife in quarrels, so common in southern Europe, are
alike unknown. The tranquillity of rural life has, unfortunately, been
invaded by the intrigues of political agitators, and bloodshed is not
uncommon at elections. All classes practise thrift bordering on parsimony,
and any display of wealth is generally resented. The standard of sexual
morality is high, especially in the rural districts; the unfaithful wife is
an object of public contempt, and in former times was punished with death.
Marriage ceremonies are elaborate and protracted, as is the case in most
primitive communities; elopements are frequent, but usually take place with
the consent of the parents on both sides, in order to avoid the expense of
a regular wedding. The principal amusement on Sundays and holidays is the
_choró_ ([Greek: choros]), which is danced on the village green to the
strains of the _gaida_ or bagpipe, and the _gûsla_, a rudimentary fiddle.
The Bulgarians are religious in a simple way, but not fanatical, and the
influence of the priesthood is limited. Many ancient superstitions linger
among the peasantry, such as the belief in the vampire and the evil eye;
witches and necromancers are numerous and are much consulted.
_Government._--Bulgaria is a constitutional monarchy; by Art. iii. of the
Berlin Treaty it was declared hereditary in the family of a prince "freely
elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the
assent of the powers." According to the constitution of Trnovo, voted by
the Assembly of Notables on the 29th of April 1879, revised by the Grand
Sobranye on the 27th of May 1893, and modified by the proclamation of a
Bulgarian kingdom on the 5th of October 1908, the royal dignity descends in
the direct male line. The king must profess the Orthodox faith, only the
first elected sovereign and his immediate heir being released from this
obligation. The legislative power is vested in the king in conjunction with
the [v.04 p.0778] national assembly; he is supreme head of the army,
supervises the executive power, and represents the country in its foreign
relations. In case of a minority or an interregnum, a regency of three
persons is appointed. The national representation is embodied in the
Sobranye, or ordinary assembly (Bulgarian, _S[)u]branïe_, the Russian form
_Sobranye_ being usually employed by foreign writers), and the Grand
Sobranye, which is convoked in extraordinary circumstances. The Sobranye is
elected by manhood suffrage, in the proportion of 1 to 20,000 of the
population, for a term of five years. Every Bulgarian citizen who can read
and write and has completed his thirtieth year is eligible as a deputy.
Annual sessions are held from the 27th of October to the 27th of December.
All legislative and financial measures must first be discussed and voted by
the Sobranye and then sanctioned and promulgated by the king. The
government is responsible to the Sobranye, and the ministers, whether
deputies or not, attend its sittings. The Grand Sobranye, which is elected
in the proportion of 2 to every 20,000 inhabitants, is convoked to elect a
new king, to appoint a regency, to sanction a change in the constitution,
or to ratify an alteration in the boundaries of the kingdom. The executive
is entrusted to a cabinet of eight members--the ministers of foreign
affairs and religion, finance, justice, public works, the interior,
commerce and agriculture, education and war. Local administration, which is
organized on the Belgian model, is under the control of the minister of the
interior. The country is divided into twenty-two departments (_okr[)u]g_,
pl. _okr[)u]zi_), each administered by a prefect (_uprávitel_), assisted by
a departmental council, and eighty-four sub-prefectures (_okolía_), each
under a sub-prefect (_okoliiski natchálnik_). The number of these
functionaries is excessive. The four principal towns have each in addition
a prefect of police (_gradonatchalnik_) and one or more commissaries
(_pristav_). The gendarmery numbers about 4000 men, or 1 to 825 of the
inhabitants. The prefects and sub-prefects have replaced the Turkish
_mutessarifs_ and _kaimakams_; but the system of municipal government, left
untouched by the Turks, descends from primitive times. Every commune
(_obshtina_), urban or rural, has its _kmet_, or mayor, and council; the
commune is bound to maintain its primary schools, a public library or
reading-room, &c.; the kmet possesses certain magisterial powers, and in
the rural districts he collects the taxes. Each village, as a rule, forms a
separate commune, but occasionally two or more villages are grouped
together.
_Justice._--The civil and penal codes are, for the most part, based on the
Ottoman law. While the principality formed a portion of the Turkish empire,
the privileges of the capitulations were guaranteed to foreign subjects
(Berlin Treaty, Art. viii.). The lowest civil and criminal court is that of
the village kmet, whose jurisdiction is confined to the limits of the
commune; no corresponding tribunal exists in the towns. Each sub-prefecture
and town has a justice of the peace--in some cases two or more; the number
of these officials is 130. Next follows the departmental tribunal or court
of first instance, which is competent to pronounce sentences of death,
penal servitude and deprivation of civil rights; in specified criminal
cases the judges are aided by three assessors chosen by lot from an
annually prepared panel of forty-eight persons. Three courts of appeal sit
respectively at Sofia, Rustchuk and Philippopolis. The highest tribunal is
the court of cassation, sitting at Sofia, and composed of a president, two
vice-presidents and nine judges. There is also a high court of audit
(_vrkhovna smetna palata_), similar to the French _cour des comptes._ The
judges are poorly paid and are removable by the government. In regard to
questions of marriage, divorce and inheritance the Greek, Mahommedan and
Jewish communities enjoy their own spiritual jurisdiction.
_Army and Navy._--The organization of the military forces of the
principality was undertaken by Russian officers, who for a period of six
years (1879-1885) occupied all the higher posts in the army. In Eastern
Rumelia during the same period the "militia" was instructed by foreign
officers; after the union it was merged in the Bulgarian army. The present
organization is based on the law of the 1st of January 1904. The army
consists of: (1) the active or field army (_deïstvuyushta armia_), divided
into (i.) the active army, (ii.) the active army reserve; (2) the reserve
army (_reservna armia_); (3) the _opltchenïe_ or militia; the two former
may operate outside the kingdom, the latter only within the frontier for
purposes of defence. In time of peace the active army (i.) alone is on a
permanent footing.
The peace strength in 1905 was 2500 officers, 48,200 men and 8000 horses,
the active army being composed of 9 divisions of infantry, each of 4
regiments, 5 regiments of cavalry together with 12 squadrons attached to
the infantry divisions, 9 regiments of artillery each of 3 groups of 3
batteries, together with 2 groups of mountain artillery, each of 3
batteries, and 3 battalions of siege artillery; 9 battalions of engineers
with 1 railway and balloon section and 1 bridging section. At the same date
the army was locally distributed in nine divisional areas with headquarters
at Sofia, Philippopolis, Sliven, Shumla, Rustchuk, Vratza, Plevna,
Stara-Zagora and Dupnitza, the divisional area being subdivided into four
districts, from each of which one regiment of four battalions was recruited
and completed with reservists. In case of mobilization each of the nine
areas would furnish 20,106 men (16,000 infantry, 1200 artillery, 1000
engineers, 300 divisional cavalry and 1606 transport and hospital services,
&c.). The war strength thus amounted to 180,954 of the active army and its
reserve, exclusive of the five regiments of cavalry. In addition the 36
districts each furnished 3 battalions of the reserve army and one battalion
of opltchenïe, or 144,000 infantry, which with the cavalry regiments (3000
men) and the reserves of artillery, engineers, divisional cavalry, &c.
(about 10,000), would bring the grand total in time of war to about 338,000
officers and men with 18,000 horses. The men of the reserve battalions are
drafted into the active army as occasion requires, but the militia serves
as a separate force. Military service is obligatory, but Moslems may claim
exemption on payment of £20; the age of recruitment in time of peace is
nineteen, in time of war eighteen. Each conscript serves two years in the
infantry and subsequently eight years in the active reserve, or three years
in the other corps and six years in the active reserve; he is then liable
to seven years' service in the reserve army and finally passes into the
opltchenïe. The Bulgarian peasant makes an admirable soldier--courageous,
obedient, persevering, and inured to hardship; the officers are painstaking
and devoted to their duties. The active army and reserve, with the
exception of the engineer regiments, are furnished with the .315"
Mannlicher magazine rifle, the engineer and militia with the Berdan; the
artillery in 1905 mainly consisted of 8.7- and 7.5-cm. Krupp guns (field)
and 6.5 cm. Krupp (mountain), 12 cm. Krupp and 15 cm. Creuzot (Schneider)
howitzers, 15 cm. Krupp and 12 cm. Creuzot siege guns, and 7.5 cm. Creuzot
quick-firing guns; total of all description, 1154. Defensive works were
constructed at various strategical points near the frontier and elsewhere,
and at Varna and Burgas. The naval force consisted of a flotilla stationed
at Rustchuk and Varna, where a canal connects Lake Devno with the sea. It
was composed in 1905 of 1 prince's yacht, 1 armoured cruiser, 3 gunboats, 3
torpedo boats and 10 other small vessels, with a complement of 107 officers
and 1231 men.
_Religion._--The Orthodox Bulgarian National Church claims to be an
indivisible member of the Eastern Orthodox communion, and asserts historic
continuity with the autocephalous Bulgarian church of the middle ages. It
was, however, declared schismatic by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople
in 1872, although differing in no point of doctrine from the Greek Church.
The Exarch, or supreme head of the Bulgarian Church, resides at
Constantinople; he enjoys the title of "Beatitude" (_negovo Blazhenstvo_),
receives an annual subvention of about £6000 from the kingdom, and
exercises jurisdiction over the Bulgarian hierarchy in all parts of the
Ottoman empire. The exarch is elected by the Bulgarian episcopate, the Holy
Synod, and a general assembly (_obshti sbor_), in which the laity is
represented; their choice, before the declaration of Bulgarian
independence, was subject to the sultan's approval. The occupant of the
dignity is titular metropolitan of a Bulgarian diocese. The organization of
the church within the principality was regulated [v.04 p.0779] by statute
in 1883. There are eleven eparchies or dioceses in the country, each
administered by a metropolitan with a diocesan council; one diocese has
also a suffragan bishop. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod,
consisting of four metropolitans, which assembles once a year. The laity
take part in the election of metropolitans and parish priests, only the
"black clergy," or monks, being eligible for the episcopate. All
ecclesiastical appointments are subject to the approval of the government.
There are 2106 parishes (_eporii_) in the kingdom with 9 archimandrites,
1936 parish priests and 21 deacons, 78 monasteries with 184 monks, and 12
convents with 346 nuns. The celebrated monastery of Rila possesses a vast
estate in the Rilska Planina; its abbot or _hegumen_ owns no spiritual
superior but the exarch. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of
the minister of public worship; the clergy of all denominations are paid by
the state, being free, however, to accept fees for baptisms, marriages,
burials, the administering of oaths, &c. The census of January 1901 gives
3,019,999 persons of the Orthodox faith (including 66,635 Patriarchist
Greeks), 643,300 Mahommedans, 33,663 Jews, 28,569 Catholics, 13,809
Gregorian Armenians, 4524 Protestants and 419 whose religion is not stated.
The Greek Orthodox community has four metropolitans dependent on the
patriarchate. The Mahommedan community is rapidly diminishing; it is
organized under 16 muftis who with their assistants receive a subvention
from the government. The Catholics, who have two bishops, are for the most
part the descendants of the medieval Paulicians; they are especially
numerous in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis and Sistova. The Armenians
have one bishop. The Protestants are mostly Methodists; since 1857 Bulgaria
has been a special field of activity for American Methodist missionaries,
who have established an important school at Samakov. The Berlin Treaty
(Art. V.) forbade religious disabilities in regard to the enjoyment of
civil and political rights, and guaranteed the free exercise of all
religions.
_Education._--No educational system existed in many of the rural districts
before 1878; the peasantry was sunk in ignorance, and the older generation
remained totally illiterate. In the towns the schools were under the
superintendence of the Greek clergy, and Greek was the language of
instruction. The first Bulgarian school was opened at Gabrovo in 1835 by
the patriots Aprilov and Neophyt Rilski. After the Crimean War, Bulgarian
schools began to appear in the villages of the Balkans and the
south-eastern districts. The children of the wealthier class were generally
educated abroad. The American institution of Robert College on the Bosporus
rendered an invaluable service to the newly created state by providing it
with a number of well-educated young men fitted for positions of
responsibility. In 1878, after the liberation of the country, there were
1658 schools in the towns and villages. Primary education was declared
obligatory from the first, but the scarcity of properly qualified teachers
and the lack of all requisites proved serious impediments to educational
organization. The government has made great efforts and incurred heavy
expenditure for the spread of education; the satisfactory results obtained
are largely due to the keen desire for learning which exists among the
people. The present educational system dates from 1891. Almost all the
villages now possess "national" (_narodni_) primary schools, maintained by
the communes with the aid of a state subvention and supervised by
departmental and district inspectors. The state also assists a large number
of Turkish primary schools. The penalties for non-attendance are not very
rigidly enforced, and it has been found necessary to close the schools in
the rural districts during the summer, the children being required for
labour in the fields.
The age for primary instruction is six to ten years; in 1890, 47.01% of the
boys and 16.11% of the girls attended the primary schools; in 1898, 85% of
the boys and 40% of the girls. In 1904 there were 4344 primary schools, of
which 3060 were "national," or communal, and 1284 denominational (Turkish,
Greek, Jewish, &c.), attended by 340,668 pupils, representing a proportion
of 9.1 per hundred inhabitants. In addition to the primary schools, 40
infant schools for children of 3 to 6 years of age were attended by 2707
pupils. In 1888 only 327,766 persons, or 11% of the population, were
literate; in 1893 the proportion rose to 19.88%; in 1901 to 23.9%.
In the system of secondary education the distinction between the classical
and "real" or special course of study is maintained as in most European
countries; in 1904 there were 175 secondary schools and 18 gymnasia (10 for
boys and 8 for girls). In addition to these there are 6 technical and 3
agricultural schools; 5 of pedagogy, 1 theological, 1 commercial, 1 of
forestry, 1 of design, 1 for surgeons' assistants, and a large military
school at Sofia. Government aid is given to students of limited means, both
for secondary education and the completion of their studies abroad. The
university of Sofia, formerly known as the "high school," was reorganized
in 1904; it comprises 3 faculties (philology, mathematics and law), and
possesses a staff of 17 professors and 25 lecturers. The number of students
in 1905 was 943.