THE TAOIST SACRED BOOKS AND GODS.
The Tao-te-king still remains the monument of Lao-tsze’s
extraordinary power and penetration; and it gives ample reason
for assigning him a place indefinitely higher than the mass of
his contemporaries.--ARCHDEACON CHARLES HARDWICK.
Lao-Tsze gave to Yin-He, when he left China on his last journey, the
results of his long life of meditation in a little book of 5,000
characters. On this little book the immense volumes of the Taoist
religion are built up. This is called the Tao-Te-King, or Book of the
Way and of Virtue. This is a metaphysical treatise, and its meaning is
very obscure. There is much of materialistic speculation, magic and
divination in this book. The first chapter tells us that “that which is
nameless is the beginning of Heaven and earth.” “_Taou_ produced
one, the first great cause; one produced two, the male and female
principles of nature; from the two came three, and the three produced
all things that are in Heaven and earth.”
All things endure for a set time, and then perish. Together they came
into being, and to each is allotted a certain period of growth and
maturity; but when the highest point of vigor has been reached, it
straightway becomes old and returns home to its root. “This is said to
be a reversion to destiny.” Emptiness is the only thing which endures,
and this is at the same time of the highest use. The space between
Heaven and earth, for example, may be likened to a pair of bellows,
which, though it is empty, never collapses, and which, the more it
is exercised, the more it brings forth. So also with the wheel of a
carriage, or an earthen vessel, or the windows and doors of a house.
In each case it is the non-existing or empty part which is useful. The
spokes and nave of the wheel, the walls of the earthen vessel, and the
frames of the doors and windows are advantageous, but the use of each
depends on the part which is empty. “So, then, existence may be said to
correspond to gain, but non-existence to use.” When a thing is to be
weakened, it must first be strengthened; when it is about to be brought
low, it must first be raised up; and that which is to be taken away
from it must first be given to it.
[Illustration: A CENSER, FROM A TAOIST TEMPLE.]
In the superiority of non-existence over existence lies the lesson
which, above all others, Lao-tsze desired to impress on man. The great
concern of all men in all ages has been to take care of the things of
the body, and to neglect the cultivation of the inner man; to seek
after the gratification of sense, and to forget the importance of the
soul. And what is the result? The five colors, which so delight the
eyes, not unfrequently produce blindness. The five sounds which so
enchant the ear are often the cause of deafness. A man’s palate, which
at first revels in the five tastes, soon loses all sense of flavor. The
pursuit of pleasure or of ambition is equally deceptive. Riding and
hunting will drive a man mad, and things hard to procure bring evil
upon their possessors. “Therefore, the sage makes provision for the
inner man, and not for his eyes. He puts aside the one, that he may
take the other in hand.” He remembers that rest is the lord of motion,
and never allows himself to depart from a state of quietude and gravity.
THE BOOK OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.
The Taoists have long been in the habit of printing by subscription,
and circulating as a matter of religious duty, the collection of
maxims known as the _Book of Rewards and Punishments_. Each
maxim is followed by a gloss or commentary, and in almost every case
elucidated by appropriate tales and anecdotes. The high repute in which
this volume stands is further indicated by the circumstance that the
authorship has in modern times been attributed to Lao-tsze himself,
in his capacity of deified and venerable Prince or incarnation of
Tao. “Every wise man,” writes a commentator, “ought to be full of
respect for this book: he ought to believe sincerely all the maxims
it delivers, and ought to practice them faithfully, regardless of
all obstacles, and without suffering the zeal he had evinced at the
commencement to diminish at the close of his career. He ought every
morning to read it aloud, and to meditate on every phrase with serious
attention. Let him redouble his efforts to perform good works, and
his anxiety and ardor to correct past failings. Then will happiness
spring up within himself to recompense his merits; and his end will be
advancement to the rank of the immortals.” While the general tone of
this production harmonizes with the older treatise, it bears frequent
witness also to the presence of a more eclectic and accommodating
spirit. So highly is this book esteemed as a guide and instructor that
its distribution is considered to be a religious duty. Edition after
edition appears from the local presses at the demand of the charitable
subscribers, who give them to the poor.
SOME SELECTIONS FROM THE BOOK OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.
“Advance along the right way, and retreat from the evil way.”
“Do not betray the secret of the household.”
“Be humane to animals.”
“Rectify yourself and convert men.”
“Have pity for orphans, and show compassion to widows.”
“Rejoice at the success of others, and sympathize with their reverses,
even as though you were in their place.”
“Do not expose the faults of others.”
“Bestow favors without expecting recompense.”
“Give willingly.”
“A man who does these things is called virtuous. All men respect him.
Providence protects him. Good fortune and office attend him. The demons
flee from him. The godlike spirits guard him. He succeeds in all that
he lays his hand to, and to him is given the hope of immortality.”
“He who wishes to become an immortal of Heaven must do a thousand and
three hundred good works. He who wishes to become an immortal of earth
must do three hundred good works.”
“He who inflicts an injury in broad daylight, will be punished by men;
but he who inflicts an injury in secret will be punished by demons.”
“Don’t take advantage of the ignorance of men to deceive them with
lying words.”
“Never divulge the faults of your parents.”
“Don’t rank faults as crimes.”
“Don’t shoot at birds, nor hunt animals.”
“Don’t drive insects from their holes, nor frighten roosting birds.”
“Don’t buy groundless praise.”
“Don’t kill and cook domestic animals except in accordance with the
rites.”
“Don’t destroy or throw away the five kinds of grain.”
“When you see others covered with glory and honor, don’t desire to see
them exiled from the country.”
“A handsome figure excites the admiration of the world, but it does not
deceive Heaven.”
“Don’t laugh at the deformities of others.”
“Don’t bury the effigy of a man to inflict an incubus upon him.”
[This refers to the practice of burying a wooden figure of a man to
charm away his life, much in the same way that lately, in Shanghai and
elsewhere, men were accused of making paper men which suffocated people
in their sleep.]
“Don’t deceive the innocent and set snares for them.”
“Live in harmony with your wife.”
“Wives, respect your husbands.”
“Wives, be not wanting in your duties toward your father and
mother-in-law.”
“Don’t treat with contempt the souls of your ancestors.”
“Wells and hearths are presided over by certain spirits, and if you
leap over them, not only do you insult the gods, but you show that you
have forgotten the two things which are the foundation of the life of
men.”
“A good man is virtuous in his words, looks and actions. If each day he
practices these three virtues, at the end of three years Heaven will
pour down blessings upon him. The wicked man is vicious in his words,
looks and actions. If each day he practices these three vices, at the
end of three years Heaven will send misfortune upon him.”
[Illustration: CEREMONIES IN A TAOIST TEMPLE.]
THE BOOK OF SECRET BLESSINGS.
This book contains a number of moral injunctions, and while it is
a Taoist book there is no reference to Taoist doctrines in it. It
consists of 540 words. Some of its leading maxims are given below.
“Redeem the lives of animals, and abstain from shedding blood. Be
careful not to tread upon insects on the road, and set not fire to the
forests, lest you should destroy life. Burn a candle in your window to
give light to the traveler, and keep a boat to help voyagers across
rivers. Do not spread your net on the mountains to catch birds, nor
poison the fish and reptiles in the waters. Never destroy paper which
is written upon, and enter into no league against your neighbor. Avoid
contentions, and beware not to stir up ill blood. Use not your power
to discredit the good, nor your riches to persecute the poor. Love the
good, and flee from the face of a wicked man, lest you fall into evil.
Hide your neighbor’s faults, and speak only of their good deeds, and
let your mouth utter the true sentiments of your heart. Remove stones
and débris from the roadway, repair the footpaths and build bridges.
Publish abroad lessons for the improvement of mankind, and devote your
wealth to the good of your fellow-men. In all your actions follow the
principles of Heaven, and in all your words follow the purified heart
of man. Have all the sages of antiquity before your eyes, and examine
carefully your conscience. What good thing will be withheld from him
who practices secret benefits?”
THE GODS OF THE TAOISTS.
Lao-tsze had nothing to say of gods and goddesses. When Buddhism came
to China it taught Lao-tsze’s disciples to have gods. As the Buddhists
had deified Lakya-muni, so the Taoists now deified Lao-tsze. As the
Buddhists worshiped under the form of the “Three Precious Ones,” so
the Taoists worshiped Lao-tsze as _San-Tsing_, or the “Three Pure
Ones.” They had an image for each one of the three, and seated them
side by side. The priests generally, and but rarely the common people,
worship the San-Tsing. For the common people a god was introduced,
called the “Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler.” He is the chief Taoist god.
He is called the producer of all things and governor of all. To him all
the gods make their reports. In times of drought, the governors, the
mandarins, go to his temple to burn incense and pray for rain. They
carry idols with them and make thanksgiving offerings after the rain
has come. The Taoist worships the mountains, valleys, streams, rivers
and stars. The Great Bear is supposed to be the palace of the goddess
Tow-Mu and the god Kwei-Sing. The God of Thunder is a common object
of worship, and is represented as passing through many metamorphoses
and filling all regions with his assumed forms. While he discourses on
doctrine his foot rests on nine beautiful birds. Thirty-six generals
wait on him for orders. A certain celebrated book of instruction is
said to have emanated from him. His commands are swift as winds and
fire. He overcomes demons by the power of his wisdom, and he is the
father and teacher of all living beings. Among other like deities are
“the Mother of Lightning,” “the Spirit of the Sea,” “the King of the
Sea,” and “the Lord of the Tide.” The temples of the Dragon King are
also favorite resorts of worshipers, who in all convulsions of nature
recognize the agency of this potent and amphibious monster. Serpents
are looked upon as manifestations of this deity, and in times of flood
often receive worship at the hands of the educated and the uneducated
alike. During the flood which overspread the country round Tient-sin,
in the year 1874, a serpent sought shelter in a temple near the city,
and ensconced himself beneath one of the altars. Far from desiring to
get rid of the intruder, the priests welcomed it as a sacred guest of
good omen, and Li-Hung-chang, the viceroy of the province, came in
person to pay reverence to it as the personification _of the Dragon
King_.
[Illustration: THE THREE PURE ONES.]
[Illustration: GOD OF THE KITCHEN.]
[Illustration: GOD OF THUNDER.]
[Illustration: CARRYING THE DRAGON.]
[Illustration: DRAGON BOAT-RACES, A CHINESE FESTIVAL.]
THE GOD OF LETTERS.
Apart from these more general deities are gods who preside over the
different pursuits and callings of men. As the number of deities is
unlimited, and as it is obviously to the interest of the priests
to encourage worship of whatever kind at their temples, there has
never been any difficulty in adding a god or two to the Pantheon.
Thus students have chosen to appropriate to themselves a god, who
is supposed to watch over the literary efforts of his votaries.
_Wan-chang te-keun_, or the god of literature, is, according to
legend, the disembodied spirit of Chang Chung, an official of the
Chow Dynasty. Under subsequent dynasties, he appeared on earth in the
persons of men renowned for their scholarship and virtue, and finally,
under the Yuen Dynasty, he was deified under the title of “Supporter
of the Yuen Dynasty, diffuser of renovating influences, Sze-luh of
Wan-chang, God and Lord.” Such is the Chinese conception.
[Illustration: CHARM TO WARD OFF EVIL SPIRITS FROM A BRIDE.]
[Illustration: GOD OF THIEVES.]
CHARMS.
Dr. Williams says, “the Chinese have an almost infinite variety of
superstitious practices, the most of which are of a deprecatory rather
than an intercessory character, growing out of their belief in demons
and genii who trouble or help the people. It may be said that most
of the religious acts of the Chinese, especially those performed in
temples, are intended to avert misfortune rather than supplicate
blessings. In order to ward off malignant influences, amulets are
worn and charms hung up by persons of all rank. Among the latter are
money-swords, made of coins of different monarchs strung together in
the form of a dagger; and leaves of the sweet flag and Artemisia tied
in a bundle, or a sprig of peach-blossoms; the first is placed near
beds, the latter over the lintel, to drive away demons. Brass mirrors
to cure mad people, are hung up by the rich in their halls, and figures
or representations of the unicorn, of gourds, of tiger claws, etc.,
abound.”
[Illustration: SWORD CHARM.]
KWAN-TE, GOD OF WAR.
Soldiers worship Kwan-te, the God of War, who when on earth bore the
name of Kwan-yu. In early life he carried on the trade of selling
bean-curd, but having a soul above so mean a calling, and the times in
which he lived being favorable to ambitious enterprise, he embarked on
the career of a soldier of fortune, and won for himself both honor and
renown. He lived to receive the title of Baron, but being entrapped
through a crafty enemy, he was taken and beheaded. For many centuries
his name remained embalmed only in history, but during the twelfth
century he was made a god under the title of Chung-hun Kung, “the
Patriotic and Clever Duke,” and a little later he was promoted to the
rank of Prince. Thus gods are manufactured by pagan nations.
[Illustration: KWAN-TE, GOD OF WAR.]
TSAI-SHIN, THE GOD OF RICHES.
But probably no god is worshiped with greater fervor than is Tsai-shin,
the God of Riches. Though the pursuit of riches and honor is
discountenanced by all the leading Taoist writers, the natural desire
for wealth has overcome all religious warnings and denunciations, and
is as strong among the Taoists of China as among the most money-loving
nation in the world. No god can boast more temples raised to his honor
than Tsai-shin. Every trader who at the end of the year finds the
balance of his accounts in his favor acknowledges the mercy shown him
by making a votive offering to the dispenser of wealth, and he who
fears a loss attempts to propitiate the god whom he believes able to
help by sacrifices and gifts.
TAOIST SUPERSTITIONS.
[Illustration: TAOISTS CONSULTING THE ORACLES AT THE
MAGICIANS.]
There is nothing distinctively Taoist in the worship of these gods
except the gross superstition which accompanies it, and it is evidence
of the present very degraded condition of Taoism that, whenever a
popular deity has to be enthroned, Taoist priests are the servitors
chosen to wait upon his shrine. Combined with the office of guardian,
these back-sliding charlatans ply the trades of fortune-tellers,
prophets and doctors. If a merchant wishes to know whether a venture
will turn out profitably or the reverse, or if a mother wants to be
assured whether her infant’s future is to lie among the blessings
of office, wealth and long life, or to be accompanied by poverty
and misfortune, they betake themselves to a Taoist priest, who,
well versed in the tricks which ape superhuman knowledge, returns
oracular responses, which satisfy, for the time being at least, the
superstitious wants of the applicants. Nor is their medical advice
based on any surer basis. Dr. Gray, in his recent work on China, gives
the following description of an incident he witnessed at a temple in
Canton: “Whilst I was visiting one of these temples, a father brought
his son to the priests ... saying that the child was possessed of a
devil. Having consulted the idol, the priests informed him that there
were no fewer than five devils in the body of his son, but that they
were prepared to expel them all on the payment of a certain sum. The
father agreed. The child was then placed in front of the altar, and
on the ground near his feet were placed five eggs, into which the
priests adjured the devils to go. As soon as they were supposed to
have entered the eggs, the chief of the priests covered them over with
an earthenware vase, and at the same time sounded a loud blast upon a
horn. When the vase was removed, the eggs, by a trick of legerdemain,
were found no longer on the ground but in the vase. The priest then
proceeded to uncover his arm, and made an incision with a lancet on
the fleshy part. The blood which flowed from the wound was allowed to
mingle with a small quantity of water in a cup. The seal of the temple,
the impression of which was the name of the idol, was then dipped into
the blood and stamped upon the wrists, neck, back and forehead of the
poor heathen child, who was suffering from an attack of fever and ague.”
[Illustration: STONE PILLARS ERECTED BY THE CHINESE TO KEEP
OFF EVIL SPIRITS.]
[Illustration: TALL WHITE DEVIL.]
[Illustration: SHORT BLACK DEVIL.]
The Chinese believe that when disease does not yield to medical
treatment, the vitals of the sick and suffering one are being preyed
upon by an evil spirit; the physician is cast aside, and the Taoist
priests are called in, to exercise their exorcising powers. One can
scarcely pass along the streets of a Chinese city, at night, without
finding these priests at work. Just as in Japan, one may hear, every
night, the beating of the tom-tom as some priest is _drumming_ the
devil out of some poor wretch’s body.