ROME.
“Within this grove, upon this wooded hill,”
He said, “some deity his dwelling made;
But who or what, none knows. The Arcadians
Think they have seen great Jove himself, when oft
With his right hand he shook his darkening shield,
And called his clouds around him.
VIRGIL.
When fierce gales bowed the high pines, when blazed
The lightning, and the savage in the storm
Some unknown godhead heard, and, awe-struck, gazed
On Jove’s imagined form.
SOTHEBY.
Long before Rome was founded Italy was peopled with an industrious
class of farmers. But we have scarce any records of those early
times. Some of their gigantic buildings, lakes and canals remain,
but these are almost all that is left. The religious ideas of these
early settlers entered into and, to a great extent, moulded the
religion of the Romans. The people of Italy did not have the same
vivid imaginations and lively fancies as the people of Greece. Their
early worship seems to have been of a more serious character than that
of the Greeks. Their gods were freer from moral taint, and virtue
rather than vice was required in followers of the Roman religions. The
poetic art was little cultivated among them, or for that matter, in
Rome of a later day. But Rome soon began to borrow from Greece, and
to appropriate her gods, heroes and myths. There are no Italian myths
corresponding to those of Greece. In Virgil and Ovid a few adventures
of the Italian gods are related, but these are plainly imitations or
slight modifications of the Greek stories.
THE ETRUSCAN RELIGION.
Before they became acquainted with Greece, the Romans looked to the
Etruscans as their instructors in religious things. The disposition
of the Etruscans was melancholy and serious; their form of government
a rigid aristocracy, administered by an hereditary race or caste of
priestly nobility. Their system was founded on some peculiar views
of the world and its periods, and on the art of learning the will of
the supernal powers by the thunder, the lightning, and other aerial
phenomena. The rules and principles of this science were contained in
books ascribed to a subterranean dæmon named Tages, who, the Tuscan
legend said, had risen up, a babe in form, an aged man in wisdom, from
under the soil before the plow of a peasant of Tarquinii as he was at
his work, and who instructed the people in divination.
According to the doctrine of the Etruscans there were two orders of
gods, the one superior, _veiled_ and nameless, with whom the supreme
god took counsel when about to announce by lightning any change in the
present order of things. The other consisted of twelve gods, six male
and as many females, his ordinary council. These were called by the
common name of _Consentes_ or _Complices_ (the Latin of the Etruscan
word), according to Varro, because they are born and die together. The
general Etruscan word for a god was Æsar.
The supreme god of the Tuscans, answering to the Zeus of the Greeks,
the Jupiter of the Romans, was named Tina. A goddess named Kupra was
called by the Romans Juno; and another, named Menerfa or Menrfa, was
the original of the Minerva of Rome. These three deities had always
contiguous temples on the citadel of every Etruscan city. Hence the
united temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which crowned the capitol
at Rome.
A goddess named Nortia, answering to the Roman Fortuna, was worshiped
at the Tuscan cities of Sutri and Volsinii. Vertumnus also was one of
the principal deities of Etruria. The Tuscan god of the under-world, or
rather the ruler of the dead, it is said, was named Mantus, and there
was a goddess called Mama of a similar nature. The Lares, or household
gods, which form so conspicuous a feature of the Roman religion, it is
probable, belonged originally to the Etruscan system of worship.
THE SABELLIAN RELIGION.
The rigid virtues of a portion of the Sabellian race, particularly
the Sabines, were always the theme of praise at Rome. Grazing and
agriculture were the chief employments of these hardy tribes, and their
religion was intimately connected with these arts; and consequently, we
may suppose, bore much resemblance to that of the Latins. It has always
been asserted that a great portion of the Roman religion was of Sabine
origin.
The Sabines adored Sancus and Sabus or Sabinus, as the founders of
their nation. Mamers or Mars was also one of their deities; an erect
lance was the symbol before which he was worshiped. The Marsian portion
of this race were as celebrated for their skill in detecting the will
of the gods by the flight and voice of the birds, as the Etruscans for
discerning it in the electric phenomena of the sky.
THE GODS OF THE ROMANS.
There are very many gods in the Roman mythology, of these some twenty
have been called the select gods. These are Janus, the two-faced
sun-god; Jupiter (Diovis-pater or Father-Jove); Saturnus, the god of
agriculture; Genius, or the god of production; Mercurius, the god who
presided over the business of the market and over trade in general.
Apollo was a god introduced from the Greek mythology. Mars was the god
of war. Vulcan was the god of fire. Neptune was the god of the sea.
Sol and Luna were the sun and moon god and goddess. Orcas was the god
of death, like the Hades of the Greeks, or Yama of the Hindus. Father
Liber was the god of the harvest. Tellus was the god of the earth.
Ceres was the goddess of grain. Juno was the wife of Jupiter. Diana
was the moon-goddess. Minerva was the goddess of arts. Vesta was the
goddess of the household. Venus was the goddess of birth.
FATHER JOVE.
The word Jove appears to have meant, originally, God. It corresponds
to Zeus of the Greeks and Dyaus of the Hindus. Jove or Jupiter was the
especial protector of the city of Rome. The chief Jupiter was called
the Capitoline Jupiter. In his temple adorning the Capitol in Rome were
also statues of Juno and Minerva. Jupiter Elicius was so named, we
are told, from the following circumstance. In the time of Numa there
occurred great thunderstorms and rains. The people and their king were
terrified, and the latter had recourse to the counsel of the nymph
Egeria. She informed him that Faunus and Picus could instruct him in
the mode of appeasing Jupiter, but that he must employ both art and
violence to extract the knowledge from them. Accordingly by her advice
he placed bowls of wine at a fountain on Mount Aventine, whither they
were wont to come to drink, and concealed himself in a neighboring
cavern. The rural gods came to the fount, and finding the wine drank
copiously of it, thus illustrating in a striking manner the sensuous,
character always supposed to dwell in these deities. They immediately
fell asleep, and Numa, quitting his retreat, came and bound them.
On awaking, they struggled, but in vain, to get free; and the pious
prince, apologizing for what necessity had obliged him to do, entreated
that they would inform him how Jupiter was to be appeased. They yielded
to his prayer, and on loosing them drew down the thundering Jupiter
by their charms. He descended on the Aventine hill, which trembled
beneath the weight of the deity. Numa was terrified, but recovering
he implored the god to give a remedy against the lightning. The ruler
of the thunder assented, and in ambiguous terms conveyed the relief:
“Cut a head,”--“of an onion from my garden” subjoined the king,--“of
a man,”--“the topmost hairs” quickly replied Numa.--“I demand a
life,”--“of a fish.” The deity smiled, and said that his weapons might
thus be averted, and promised a sign at sunrise the following morning.
[Illustration: JUPITER TONANS.]
At dawn the people assembled before the doors of the king. Numa came
forth, and, seated on his maple throne, looked for the rising of the
sun. The orb of day was just wholly emerged above the horizon, when a
loud crash was heard in the sky; thrice the god thundered without a
cloud; thrice he sent forth his lightnings. The heavens opened, and a
light buckler came gently wafted on the air, and fell to the ground.
Numa, having first slain a heifer, took it up and named it _Ancile_.
He regarded it as the pledge of empire; and having had eleven others
made exactly like it by the artist Mamurius, to deceive those who might
attempt to steal it, committed them to the care of the priests named
Salii.
Jupiter was named Feretrius or _Bearer_, as the spoils of the enemy’s
general, if slain by a Roman commander, were _borne_ to him. He was
also called Victor and Stator, as the giver of victory and stayer
of flight. We also meet with Jupiter Pistor, whose altar was on the
capitol, and Jupiter Tonans, the author of thunder. In the usual Roman
manner, an historical origin was given to all these names. Jupiter was
called Lucetius, as the author of light (_lucis_), and Diespiter,
_i.e._, Dies Pater, or Father of Day or of Light.
THE MATRON GODDESS.
Juno was the feminine of Jove--from Jovino we have the word Juno. Juno
was one of the great deities of Rome and had a share in the worship
of the magnificent temple on the capitol. One Juno was called Juno
Moneta, and her temple was finally made the mint, or coining place
for money. Female slaves swore by the Juno of their mistress. As the
patroness of married women, Juno was named Matrona. She presided over
marriage. Whenever a child was born a piece of money was deposited
in her temple’s treasury. In July of each year Juno was honored by a
sacrifice. Juno Sospita, the _Protectress_, was represented with
a goat-skin about her, a spear in her hand, and a small shield on her
arm. Juno was generally represented armed, and the Romans usually
divided the hair of a virgin-bride with a small spear-point, thus
invoking the protection of this goddess.
THE GODDESS OF SCHOOLS.
All mental work was done under the direction of Minerva. Her statues
were placed in the schools, and in March of each year the school-boys
had five days as holidays in her honor. At the end of this vacation and
festival the boys gave their school-master a present called a Minerval.
Minerva’s chapel was under the same roof as Jupiter’s and Juno’s on the
Capitoline hill at Rome.
THE GODDESS OF THE HEARTH.
Vesta presided over the public and private hearth. In Vesta’s temple at
Rome a sacred fire was kept burning by six virgin-priestesses called
Vestals. The Romans believed that if they let this fire go out, the
city’s safety would be destroyed. When, through the neglect of the
Vestals, it did go out, they were severely punished and the fire was
relighted by the rays of the sun. In Vesta’s temple there was no statue
of the goddess. At her festival in June, plates of meat were sent to
the Vestals to be offered up, the mill-stones were decked with flowers
and the animals working the mills went about crowned with violets and
with cakes strung about their necks.
CERES AND LIBER.
Ceres presided over seeds and harvests. She was the goddess of the
farmers. The country-folks before beginning harvest kept feasts to
Ceres, when they brought offerings of honey-combs covered with wine
and milk, and an animal to be slain in sacrifice. The offerings were
taken three times around the corn-field, the country people following,
crowned with oak leaves and dancing and singing. These festivals were
of the most joyous character.
Liber means Deliverer. The god who had this name was united with Ceres
in worship at Rome. The Romans worshiped their gods and goddesses
generally in groups of three; thus, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva in the
Capitoline temple; and Ceres, Liber and (the female) Libera in the
temple at the foot of the Aventine. In the Capitoline temple the
patricians or higher classes worshiped. In the Aventine temple the
plebians or common people worshipped. There was much gross vileness
connected with all the festivals of Liber.
THE GOD OF BEGINNINGS.
Janus gives his name to January, the first month of the year. He was
the sun-god, and was usually worshiped at the beginning of any action.
He was regarded as the “opener of the day.” Gates and doors were placed
under the care of Janus, and their keeper is even to-day called a
janitor. Janus was represented with a key and a staff, and was named
the Opener and the Shutter. Janus has two faces. An ancient statue of
Janus stood in the Forum at Rome of which the fingers were so formed
that one hand represented three hundred in Latin characters (CCC.), and
those of the other, fifty-five (LV.), making together the number of
days in the ancient lunar year.
[Illustration: JANUS]
Under the Capitol, near to the Forum, in Rome, stood a short arch-way
with a gate at each end. In times of peace these gates were kept shut,
in times of war they were left open. In this arch-way a statue of Janus
stood. There was a tradition at Rome that once, when the enemies of
Rome had attempted to enter the city by this gate, the god Janus had
caused a stream of boiling water to gush forth from the earth, and so
drove them away.
ROME’S LESSER GODS.
Besides the gods above referred to, there were gods and goddesses of
councils of war, of funerals, of thieves of the dawn, of fortune,
of fields and cattle, of fruits and flowers, and of a host of other
things. But of all minor gods, the Penates and Lares received most
honor. These were the domestic gods. The Penates were so named from
the place in which they were worshiped, the household pantry. They
were supposed to look after the welfare of the family. There were four
classes of beings from which men selected their Penates, those of
heaven, the sea, the under-world, and lastly, from the deified souls
of deceased ancestors. The deified spirits of departed ancestors were
called the Lares, and they were supposed to watch over the fortunes of
their descendants. The Chinese also, from the earliest times, have in a
similar manner worshiped their departed ancestors.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
As Rome conquered the world the gods of the conquered nations were
gradually incorporated with their own. Thus an immense and involved
system was brought together. Soon, however, the gigantic structure was
to topple over before the coming of Christianity, as Dagon had fallen
before the coming of the ark of Jehovah in ancient times. Just at this
time, the Roman Empire was in the most favorable condition for the
introduction of Christianity. Within its limits there was a general
peace, great military roads were built, piracy was suppressed, commerce
and traffic generally increased, and travel was made safe and easy.
Both the Latin and Greek languages were spread over east and west. But
one other point of preparation was of greater importance. The deep
and wide-spread corruption, brought about by the heathen religions,
seemed to be beyond human remedy. Corruption, cruelty, sensuality and
the most, unnatural wickedness prevailed. The description Paul gives
in his letter to the Romans of the general life of the people has been
confirmed again and again. He says:
“Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God,
neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and
their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise,
they became fools, and changed the glory of the uncorruptible God
into an image, made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and
four-footed beasts, and creeping things. Wherefore God also gave
them up to uncleanness, through the lusts of their own hearts, to
dishonor their own bodies between themselves: who changed the truth
of God into a lie, and worshiped and served the creature more than
the Creator, who is blessed for ever. Amen. For this cause God gave
them up unto vile affections: for even their women did change the
natural use into that which is against nature: and likewise also the
men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one
toward another: men with men working that which is unseemly, and
receiving in themselves that recompense of their error which was meet.
And even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God
gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are
not convenient; being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication,
wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate,
deceit, malignity; whisperers, backbiters, haters of God, despiteful,
proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents,
without understanding, covenant-breakers, without natural affection,
implacable, unmerciful: who, knowing the judgment of God, that they
which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but
have pleasure in them that do them.”
The investigations of the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, the long
buried cities, and the common accounts of historians of Paul’s day,
all show that this picture was not at all overdrawn. There was a most
terrible need of Christianity just then to save the empire from falling
to pieces by reason of its rottenness. Milman most graphically pictures
the change that Christianity gradually wrought in the religious
condition of Rome. He says: “Christianity was gradually withdrawing
some of all orders, even slaves, out of the vices, the ignorance, the
misery of that corrupted social system. It was even instilling feelings
of humanity, yet unknown or coldly commended by an impotent philosophy,
among men and women whose infant ears had been habituated to the
shrieks of dying gladiators; it was giving dignity to minds prostrated
by years, almost centuries, of degrading despotism; it was nurturing
purity and modesty of manner in an unspeakable state of depravation;
it was enshrining the marriage-bed in a sanctity long almost entirely
lost, and rekindling to a steady warmth the domestic affections; it
was substituting a simple, calm and rational faith for the worn-out
superstitions of heathenism; gently establishing in the soul of man
the sense of immortality, till it became a natural and inextinguishable
part of his moral being.”
With this striking description of the historian, compare the poetic
lines of Matthew Arnold:
“On that hard pagan world disgust
And sated loathing fell;
Deep weariness and sated lust
Make human life a hell.
In his cool hall with haggard eyes
The Roman noble lay,
He drove abroad in furious guise
Along the Appian way.
He made a feast, drank fierce and fast,
And crowned his hair with flowers;
No easier, nor no quicker passed
The impracticable hours.”