OFFICIAL AND LEGAL INK.
FIRST COMPLETE OFFICIAL INVESTIGATION OF INK IN
THIS COUNTRY--THE HONOR DUE TO ROBERT T. SWAN
OF BOSTON--RESUME OF HIS REPORTS TO THE
LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS--THE
SWAN LAW ADOPTED IN 1894 BY THE STATE OF
MASSACHUSETTS--UNITED STATES TREASURY DEPARTMENT
ADOPTS AN OFFICIAL INK IN 1901--UNSUCCESSFUL
ATTEMPT TO SECURE INK LEGISLATION IN THE STATE
OF NEW YORK--COMMENTS OF THE PUBLIC PRESS OF
THAT PERIOD--DIFFERENT WORKS WHICH MORE OR
LESS DWELL ON THE SUBJECT OF INK FROM 1890 TO
1900--CITATIONS FROM ALLEN'S COMMERCIAL ORGANIC
ANALYSIS--REFERENCE TO PAPER ABOUT INK
READ BEFORE THE NEW YORK STATE BAR ASSOCIATION.
IT was not, however, until 1891 that the subject of
the constitution of an enduring record ink received
the consideration its importance deserved and in this
the youngest of countries. To Robert T. Swan of
Boston is all honor due for the very unique and
comprehensive methods adopted in his investigations.
Appointed "commissioner of public records" of the
state of Massachusetts, he has set an example which
may well be followed by other states, as has been
done in a lesser degree by Connecticut and ten years
later by the United States Treasury Department,
which in this respect is so ably represented in part
by Dr. Charles A. Crampton of Washington, D. C.
Mr. Swan in his reports to the legislature of his
state for the last twelve years, deals with the subject
of the constitution of "permanent inks" so thoroughly,
and with it affords information of so practical
and useful a character, that the fullest references to
them prove both instructive and interesting. In his
report of 1891 he remarks:
"Upon commencing an examination of the records
in various places, I was impressed with the
great importance of the use of inks which should
be permanent, and the necessity of an investigation
which might prevent the further use of inks that
for one reason or another were unfit for use upon
records. I found that, as a rule, the inks upon
the most ancient records had preserved their color,
many undoubtedly being blacker than when used,
but that the later records lost the jet-black appearance
of the older. This, it is true, is not wholly
due to the change of inks, for the use of quills,
the soft surface of the old paper, the absence of
blotting paper and the greater time spent in writing,
were all conducive to a heavier deposit of ink;
but evidence is ample that in comparatively recent
years inks of poor quality came in use. Proof of
this is given by an examination of the records in
the state house. Up to about 1850 it was the custom
in the office of the Secretary of the Commonwealth
to use for engrossing the acts, inks made
of a powder which was mixed in the office; and
until that time the acts which are engrossed upon
parchment show, with but few exceptions, no signs
of fading. From 1850 for several years the writing
in many cases is becoming indistinct, that upon an
act in 1851, and upon two in 1855, having nearly
disappeared. Since 1860, acts showing different
intensity of color are found, but whether this is
their original color or not cannot be determined.
That the fading can be attributed to the parchment,
as some claim, is disproved by the fact that
of the signatures upon the same act a few have
faded while others have not. Upon an act approved
January 4, 1845, the signature of the President of
the Senate has nearly disappeared, that of the
Speaker of the House is more legible, while that of
the Governor, and the figure 4, which he evidently
inserted, are jet black.
"The indexes in the volumes of archives in the
office of the secretary, which were written about
1840, were evidently made with a different ink from
that used for engrossing, and faded so badly that
the important words had to be rewritten.
"In the office of the State Treasurer the records
to about 1867 are very black and distinct, but the
ink used during a few years following has faded.
"The records of births, marriages and deaths,
in the registration volumes in the secretary's office,
furnish an excellent illustration of the different
qualities of the inks now used. These records are
original returns made by the city and town clerks,
and from 1842 to 1889 show instances of the use
of inks which are now almost illegible. Here
again the fault cannot be attributed to the paper,
for endorsements made in the secretary's office
upon the most faded returns at the time of their
receipt are as black as when made.
"The volumes of copies of the old records of
Lexington, made in 1853, have faded until they
are quite indistinct.
"Some of the old inks, though retaining their
black color have, from the presence of acid in the
ink or paper, eaten through the paper as thoroughly
as if the writing had been done with a sharp
instrument. In part of one old volume of court
records, the ink, while not injuring the paper or
becoming illegible upon the face of the leaves, has
gradually become legible upon the reverse, while
the heavy paper has been impervious to the other
inks used.
* * * * * *
To ascertain what kind of inks were in use by
the town clerks, I examined the registration volumes
before referred to, and, as before stated,
found many poor inks in use. In a few cases blue
inks were used, and in two violet, which is, as a
rule, if not always, a fugitive color. A number of
the returns in these volumes of as recent date as
1875 were almost illegible, and three made in 1888
were nearly as indistinct.
"The more I looked into the subject, the more
I became convinced that the whole subject of ink
was one upon which the persons using it were
comparatively ignorant. Consultation with experts
satisfied me that good inks were being injured by
improper treatment; that the custom of mixing
inks and of adding water to them was unsafe; and
that among the inks reported as in use upon the
records there were many manufactured for commercial
uses which should not be used upon records,
and which the manufacturers would say were
not intended for record inks. I therefore sent to
the manufacturers of the inks reported as in use
by the recording officers, and to some others, the
following letter and inquiries:
" 'The fading of much of the ink used in records
of comparatively recent date, while as a rule the
records of two hundred years ago are as legible as
when written, establishes the fact that for permanent
qualities much of the modern ink is inferior to the
ancient, and that inks are used that are unfit for
making a record which should stand for all time.
" 'I am led to believe that most ink in manufacturers
make inks which are good for commercial and
other uses where there is no desire for a permanent
record, but which they would not recommend for
use where the important object was the permanency
of the record. One of the dangers to which our
records are exposed can be obviated by the use of
proper inks; and I desire to obtain the opinion of
the leading manufacturers on the subject, that I
may advise the recording officers of the State what
are, and what are not, safe inks to use for records.
" 'I shall esteem it a favor, therefore, if you will
answer the enclosed questions, and return them at
your convenience. Your reply will be treated as
confidential as far as names are concerned, except
in the answer to question No. 5, and that will not
be printed if you so request. Any general opinion
which will aid the recording officers in their selection
of ink or paper will be welcomed.
" '1. Do you consider it safe to use for a permanent
record aniline inks?
" '2. Do you consider it safe to use for a record logwood inks?
" '3. Do your consider nut-gall and iron inks
absolutely safe for a permanent record?
" '4. Do you consider carbon ink the only permanent ink?
" '5. What inks of your manufacture would you
advise against using for a permanent record?
" '6. Do you advise generally against the inks
known as writing fluids, when permanency is the
first requisition?
" '7. Do you manufacture a writing fluid?
" '8. Do you consider it safe to add water to ink
intended for permanent record, which has grown
thick by exposure to the air?
" '9. Do you believe that the obliteration of ink
is ever due to the chemicals left in the paper?
(This question has been asked of the paper manufacturers
also.)
" '10. Do you consider it safe to mix inks without
knowing to what chemical group the inks so mixed belong?'
"Replies were received from twenty-two
manufacturers. Several of the inks in the market,
though bearing the name of certain persons, were
found to be manufactured for them by manufacturers
who had already answered the questions.
Their replies were, therefore, not considered.
"To the first question, 'Do you consider it safe
to use for a permanent record aniline inks!' the
unanimous answer was decidedly no. Aniline
black is absolutely permanent, but as it is not yet
known how to render it soluble in water, it has not
been much used in ink.
"To the inquiry in regard to logwood inks,
nearly all answered no, and most of those who did
not qualified their answers to such an extent as to
imply distrust.
"Upon the question of the permanency of nut-gall and
iron inks, the answers were more varied; one answering
no, and four answering directly yes, the remaining
answers being in brief that such inks were permanent
if properly made.
"To the question, 'Do you consider carbon ink
the only permanent ink?' the answers were varied
and contradictory. Most of the manufacturers
said a carbon ink could not be permanent, because
carbon was insoluble; and some said that no chemical
union could exist between carbon and the
other ingredients in ink. Others claimed that carbon
was the one permanent color, and cited the old
Indian and Chinese inks which have stood for centuries
as illustrations of its permanency. These
statements were so widely different that I pursued
the inquiry further, and found it was conceded that,
if a process could be discovered by which carbon
could be dissolved and made to retain its color, no
known substance would make so permanent an ink;
but that there was no such process, and in the inks
now made the carbon was simply held in suspension
in the ink without any chemical union; but I
found also that improvement has been made, and
that it is possible to combine the carbon with chemicals
which will cause the carbon to embody itself.
More than ordinary care should, however, be
exercised in the purchase of carbon inks, for the
lack of chemical union would cause a tendency to
precipitate the carbon if the ink were improperly made.
"The replies to the inquiry, 'Do you advise
generally against the inks known as writing fluids,
when permanency is the first requisition?' were in
a way the most unsatisfactory, and savored somewhat
of advertising. One manufacturer made no
fluid, and had no opinion to express. Most of the
others made fluids. Nine advised generally against
their use; four recommended them in preference
to ink; and the others either advised generally
against them, but recommended their own, or
qualified the answer in such a way as to throw
doubt on them.
"The argument in their favor seems to be that
their fluidity makes them permeate the paper, and,
in the change of color which usually takes place
after using, a dyeing of the paper results. The
objections are, that to obtain the fluidity body
must be sacrificed, and there is not enough substance
deposited upon the paper. The objections made
by two manufacturers of fluids I give in their own
words.
" 'We advise generally against the inks known
simply as writing fluids--those not intended to
yield a letter-press copy--because they are universally
made, first, with as little solid matter as
possible,--i. e. weak; second, with an excess of
iron beyond that required to combine with the tannin,
so as to develop all the color possible and
flow with the greatest freedom. The combined
writing and copying fluids, and the copying fluids
on the other hand if properly made, may be justly
recommended where permanency is the first requisition,
particularly the older ones, which should be
the most durable of all nut-gall and iron inks, because
in them particularly concentration is aimed
at, and the iron need not necessarily, and should
not, be in excess of that required to combine with
the tannin present. A steel pen during use injures,
and often greatly, the durability of a writing ink
by giving up iron to it.
" 'For your purpose, where extreme permanency
is the first requisition, I should not advise the use of
an ordinary writing fluid. Many manufacturers
cannot obtain sufficient fluidity in their writing
fluids without making their inks very dilute, and
observing a particular method of manufacture
which, although providing more attained color for
a time, sacrifices the permanent quality of their
color in a great measure. I should advise the use
of an ink decidedly stronger.'
"The addition of water was almost universally
condemned, for reasons stated later. As proof
that this was not for the mercenary purpose of indirectly
advising the use of more ink, some of the
manufacturers said the ink should be kept in small-
mouthed ink-stands, and when not in use should
be as tightly sealed as possible, to prevent evaporation.
"In reply to the inquiry as to whether chemicals
left in the paper ever obliterated the ink, several
of the manufacturers said they knew of such cases,
and all were agreed that, if the chlorides used for
bleaching the paper were not washed out, they
would dangerously affect any ink. The practice
of mixing inks was universally condemned.
"Permanency against the action of time is the
quality sought for in this investigation, and it is
claimed that better evidence as to that quality is
furnished by the test of time than by any other;
and manufacturers have shown or referred to
specimens of writing made with their ink many
years ago, as proof of its merit in this particular.
If there was any surety that the standard of quality
was always kept up in all of the oldest inks on the
market, it would be safe to accept that test, but
this may not be a fact; and, as has been stated,
some of the recording officers believe that it is not.
Moreover, if only the old inks were to be accepted,
it would be against the spirit of the age,
which is to adopt the improvements which science
makes possible; and manufacturers who at great
cost of time and money have made improvements,
would be deprived of the compensation which they
deserve. The old inks were as a rule heavy, and
had a tendency to settle; and the endeavor on the
part of some manufacturers has been to preserve
the permanency, and at the same time produce
thinner inks which would be more agreeable to use.
"Improvements have been made in the direction
of free-flowing inks, and these are fast becoming
popular; and, while for correspondence and commercial
uses they are undoubtedly sufficiently permanent,
for records many of them are not, and it
was with a view of preventing the use of these
upon records that this investigation was made.
No attention has been given to the permanency
of the inks, as against their removal by acids.
"The use of proper ink is considered so important
by the British government that the inks
used in the public departments are obtained by
public tender, in accordance with the conditions
drawn up by the controller of H. M. stationery
office, with the assistance of the chief chemist of
the inland revenue department, to whom the inks
supplied by the contractor are from time to time
submitted for analysis. Suitable inks for the various
uses are thus obtained, and their standard
maintained. The last form of 'invitation to tender,'
or 'proposal,' as we term it, is appended,
as being instructive.
I cannot learn that the United States government
uses any such care as the British government
in the matter of ink, although the question has
been a troublesome one in the departments.
"The State department issues no special rules
for determining suitable inks, or requiring that particular
inks shall be used. Proposals are asked for
the lowest bids for the articles of stationery required,
the last form of proposal asking for bids
upon seven black inks, one crimson, and one writing
fluid, which are named.
"With the market full of inks worthless for records,
the only safety for our records seems to be in
the establishment of a system similar to the English,
which shall fix upon proper inks for various
uses, which all recording officers shall be required
to use.
"I believe that the recording officers will be
glad to have the question of permanent inks decided
for them, and to know whether inks which
were in use many years ago, and have stood the
test thus far, are maintained at their old standard.
In the face of sharp competition among manufacturers,
they fear they are not."
Mr. Swan, proceeding still further, secured the
services of two of the most distinguished professors
of chemistry in this country, Messrs. Markoe and
Baird, and submitted to them in camera sixty-seven
samples of different inks, known only by numbers, for
chemical analysis; in a long and exhaustive report on
the work they had set out to accomplish, and also with
a dissertation on the chemistry of inks in general, they
complete their report as follows:
"As a conclusion, since the great mass of inks
on the market are not suitable for records, because
of their lack of body and because of the quantity
of unstable color which they contain, and because
the few whose coloring matters are not objectionable
are deficient in galls and iron, or both, we
would strongly recommend that the State set its
own standard for the composition of inks to be
used in its offices and for its records, have the
inks manufactured according to specifications sent
out, and receive the manufactured products subject
to chemical assay. In this way only can there
be a uniformity in the inks used for the records
throughout the State, and in no other way can a
proper standard be maintained."
Mr. Swan comments on the report of his chemists,
and calls attention to other tests made by himself:
"The conclusions at which I arrived were drawn,
as stated, from manufacturers or recording officers,
wholly independently of the chemists, but they will
be found to coincide in many particulars with theirs.
I did consult them in regard to the practicability of
maintaining a State standard for record ink, which
they have approved.
"The commendation by the chemists of some of
the so-called writing fluids explains in a degree the
variety of opinions advanced by the manufacturers
in regard to the durability of fluids. Some of
them will be seen to possess the qualities of ink,
and the name fluid is evidently given to meet the
commercial demand for fluids.
"Several persons, manufacturers among them,
expressed greater confidence in tests of exposure
of inks to the light and weather than to chemical
analysis. I, therefore, as a dry test, placed on the
inside of a window pane receiving a strong light,
writing made under exactly the same conditions
with each of sixty-seven inks, which remained
there from March 13 to December 8. Similar
writing was exposed to light and the weather from
September 25 to December 8, and the result of the
resistance of the inks in both tests is an almost exact
confirmation of the report of the chemists,
inks of the same class varying in their resistance
according to their specific gravity or amount of
added color.
"It may be safely said, therefore, that of sixty-
seven inks of which I procured samples, all but
seventeen are unsuitable for records, and among
these the chemists say but one is fully up to the
established scientific standard of quantity of iron
sulphate. The reason is plain,--the demand for
commercial inks is large, for record, small, and the
supply has been to meet the demand."
The British government advertises for tenders each
year, the requirements for black writing ink in 1889
reads:
"To be made of Best Galls, Sulphate of Iron,
and Gum. The Sulphate of Iron not to exceed in
quantity one-third of the weight of the Galls used,
and the specific gravity of the matured Ink not to
exceed 1045 degrees (distilled water being 1000 degrees)."
That of Black Copying Ink "To be made of the above
materials, but of a strength one fourth greater
than the Writing Ink, and with the addition of
Sugar or Glycerine. The specific gravity of the
matured Ink not. to exceed 1085 degrees." And that of
Blue-Black Writing Ink "To be made of finest
Galls, Sulphate of Iron, Gum, Indigo, and Sulphuric
Acid. The specific gravity of the Ink when
matured not to exceed 1035 degrees."
Mr. Swan again remarks in his report of 1892:
"Many of the inks which should not be used
upon records are free flowing and more agreeable
to use than permanent inks, containing more body.
As long as recording and copying is paid for by
the page, and the object is to accomplish the most
in the least time, these inks will be in popular use,
and used, and blotted off the paper before they
have much more than colored it, only to disappear
eventually. The State should set a standard for a
record ink; and, while our present system of keeping
records and furnishing supplies will not allow
that its use be required on all public records, as in
England, it would seem practicable for the secretary
of the Commonwealth to advertise for proposals
for inks of a certain standard, which the
manufacturers should be bound to maintain, and
that these should be used in all the State offices.
With a State standard ink adopted, its use by
recording officers would soon follow."
In 1894 Mr. Swan's indefatigable efforts were
crowned with success, the state of Massachusetts
adopting his recommendations included in the following
act:
"SECTION 1. No person having the care or custody
of any book of record or registry in any of
the departments or offices of the Commonwealth
shall use or allow to be used upon such books any
ink excepting such as is furnished by the secretary
of the Commonwealth.
"SECTION 2. The secretary of the Commonwealth
shall from time to time advertise for proposals
to furnish the several departments and offices
of the Commonwealth in which books of record or
registry are kept with ink of a standard and upon
conditions to be established by the secretary at
such periods and in such quantities as may be required,
and may contract for the same.
"SECTION 3. The ink so furnished shall be examined
from time to time by a chemist to be
designated by the secretary of the Commonwealth,
and if at any time said ink shall be found to be
inferior to the established standard the secretary
shall have authority to cancel any contract made
for furnishing said ink, and the quantity so found
inferior shall not be paid for."
Professor Markoe, referred to before, was appointed
"chemist" by the Secretary of the Commonwealth
and prepared what he considered the best formula, for
a standard ink, which was competed for by a number
of ink manufacturers after proper advertisement, and
a contract awarded. Mr. Swan says that this departure
was received with favor by recording officers.
No change was made in the formula until after the
death of Professor Markoe in 1900, when Dr. Bennett
F. Davenport of Boston was selected as his successor.
He submitted a modified formula to be employed in
the manufacture of an official or standard ink. It
was adopted and such an ink is without exception now
used by all recording officers of both Massachusetts
and Connecticut.
In 1901 the United States treasury department
adopted a similar ink except that it permitted the
introduction into it of an unnamed blue coloring
material.
Early in 1894 and during the legislative session of
the state of New York, after consultation with General
Palmer, the then secretary of state, I prepared a
bill somewhat on the lines as laid down in the Massachusetts
statute. The press all over the state at once
took up the matter and urged that some such measure
should be enacted into law. A New York City newspaper
discussed it as follows:
"A bill is to be introduced in the legislature
this week, probably to-morrow night, providing for
an official ink to be used by every public officer
throughout the State of New York in the writing
of public documents and in making entries in the records.
"The official ink is for the purpose of making
public records permanent and to guard against
fraud by the alteration of the records. As the
law stands at the present time in the state every
official, whether municipal, county or state, is
allowed to purchase and use for the records of his
office whatever ink he may choose. The consequence
is that there is no uniformity in public
records throughout the state, and entries, transcripts
and certificates are written with hundreds
of various kinds of inks.
"The serious part of the business, however, is
the evanescent character of some of the kinds now
used, especially of the cheaper grades. These are
the inks made from aniline and other dyes which
are held in solution in water. Such inks are made
from a fine, cheap powder, of which nigrosine is
used in making black inks, eosine for red, and
methylene for blue ink, and they cost only a few
dimes a gallon to manufacture. The writing made
with such inks quickly dries by the evaporation of
the water, when it merely requires the application
of a little soap and water to wash them out, leaving
the paper absolutely clean, besides being fugitive.
"It is said that as a result of the present lack
of system in this matter there are now public records
of the city of New York in which the ink has
entirely faded. These records have been made
within the past forty years, and are now worthless
because of the character of the inks originally used.
"In the Police department of this city a blue
ink is often used which is made from prussian
blue. A large portion of the entries in the books
of the Police department are made with ink of this
kind, and the warrants and other public documents
with which the police have to do are similarly written.
"A little soap and water will wipe out this writing,
so that the record can be easily altered at any
time. The use of this ink in the Police department
is said to date from the time of Tweed, which
is significant of the original purpose for which it.
was adopted.
"A permanent writing fluid such as it is now
proposed to adopt throughout the state would not
only secure uniformity in the character of the inks
used, but it would also throw many obstacles in
the way of altering the records.
"The present Secretary of State is heartily in
accord with the proposed legislation. He was
seen last week by Mr. David N. Carvalho, who
has made a life study of the subject and who drew
the bill and is pushing the reform.
"Mr. Carvalho said yesterday: 'This ink, whose
use it is intended to secure in the making of public
records in this state, is more costly than those
made from aniline and other dyes, which fade and
wash. In it the black particles are suspended in
water by the addition of gum. This kind of ink
has an affinity for oxygen, and hence it oxidizes
and turns black. When unadulterated it only becomes
blacker with the passage of time, and cannot
be washed from the paper by the use of water.'
" 'I could show you,' continued Mr. Carvalho,
'public records of this city made within forty
years which are entirely illegible and consequently
worthless, because cheap inks were used in the
writing. These include not only records of wills
in the Surrogate's office, but entries and transfers
of real estate which are likely to come up in the
course of litigation at any time, thereby affecting
the rights of many citizens.
" 'I can tell you at once upon seeing an old
document the character of the ink that was used in
the writing, and I have seen many old papers over
a hundred years of age in which the writing was
as clear as the day it was made, simply because a
good writing ink was used. On the other hand
writing made with cheap aniline ink may under
certain circumstances fade out within a year, and
in a book which is much handled is almost certain
to be rubbed out in time.
" 'It has frequently happened that in the course
of litigation, especially over real estate, that old
records made with poor inks have been produced
which the court refused to accept as evidence,
thereby depriving some citizen of his rights. At
the present time many officials in this state, in
fact, the majority of them, are using these cheap
and worthless inks and the records they are making
will be of little or no value in a few years.
" 'It is to put a stop to this abuse that the present
bill has been drawn up, and there is no argument
which can be raised against it.' "
It appears that there was one, however, as the bill
failed to pass for the stated reason that it came under
the head of "class" legislation. The great state and
city of New York with costly and magnificent depositories
continue to place in them, for safe-keeping,
valuable records and other ink-written instruments
which will become illegible before the present century
comes to an end.
Professor Lehner, a German chemist, in 1890 published
a treatise "Die Tinten-Fabrikation," which has
been translated and added to by Dr. Brannt, of Philadelphia,
editor of "The Techno-Chemical Receipt-Book," who remarks:
"The lack of a recent treatise in the English
language containing detailed descriptions of the raw
materials and receipts for the preparation of Inks,
and the apparent necessity, as shown by frequent
inquiries, for such a volume, were the considerations
which led to the preparation of The Manufacture of Ink."
This work compiles a great number of formulas,
and rather favors the views of the chemist Dr. Bostock
respecting the iron and gall inks. The book
possesses value for reference purposes to the manufacturer.
Auguste Peret, author of "The Manufacture of Ink,"
1891, has put together a lot of excellent material relative
to ink-making and valuable for reference purposes.
The late Dr. William E. Hagan of Troy, New York,
in 1894 issued his book, "Disputed Hand-writing."
He devotes two chapters to the discussion of ancient
and modern inks and their chemistry. He has been
kind enough to quote the writer as the first to remove
ink in open court with chemicals in order to determine
the existence of pencil writing beneath the ink.
The pencil being carbon was not affected thereby and
with the subsequent restoration of the bleached ink
by the use of the correct re-agent.
In the same year Dr. Persifor Frazer of Philadelphia
published his "Manual of the Study of Documents."
A few pages are given to the study of inks,
and a part thereof is devoted to the researches of
Carre, Hager, Baudrimont, Tarry, Chevallier and
Lassaigne, to determine suspected forgeries. The
chapter on "the sequence in crossed lines," where he
indicates his method of determining which of two
crossed ink lines was written first, is both original and
a real contribution to science.
Alfred H. Allen, F. C. S., of England, perhaps the
highest authority on the subject of tannins, dyes and
coloring matters in his "Commercial Organic Analysis,"
revised and edited by Professor J. Merritt Mathews
of Pennsylvania, edition of 1900, devotes eight
pages to the subject of the "Examination of Ink
Marks." He says:
"Ordinary writing ink was formerly always
made from a decoction of galls, to which green
vitriol was added. Of late, the composition of
writing inks has become far less constant, aniline
and other dyes being frequently employed, and
other metallic salts substituted for the ferrous-
sulphate formerly invariably used. The best black
ink is a tanno-gallate of iron, obtained by adding
an infusion of nut-galls to a solution of ferrous-
sulphate (copperas)."
In 1897 the author in a paper read before the New
York State Bar Association at Albany, entitled "A
Plea for the Preservation of the Public Records," discussed
the question of the stability of inks and their
phenomena and took occasion to make recommendations
as to their constitution and future methods of
employment. A vote of thanks was adopted and the
association referred the paper to the Committee on
Law Reform, where no doubt it still slumbers.