The Catholic ecclesiastics who settled in Hungary during the 11th
century, and who found their way into the chief offices of the state,
were mainly instrumental in establishing Latin as the predominant
language of the court, the higher schools and public worship, and of
eventually introducing it into the administration. Having thus become
the tongue of the educated and privileged classes, Latin continued to
monopolize the chief fields of literature until the revival of the
native language at the close of the 18th century.
Early Latin chronicles.
Amongst the earliest Latin works that claim attention are the
"Chronicle" (_Gesta Hungarorum_), by the "anonymous notary" of King
Bela, probably Bela II. (see Podhradczky,[64] _Bela kiraly nevtelen
jegyzoje_, Buda, 1861, p. 48), which describes the early ages of
Hungarian history, and may be assigned to the middle of the 12th
century; the _Carmen Miserabile_ of Rogerius; the _Liber Cronicorum_
of Simon Kezai, belonging to the end of the 13th century, the
so-called "Chronicon Budense," _Cronica Hungarorum_, printed at Buda
in 1473 (Eichhorn, _Geschichte der Litteratur_, ii. 319); and the
_Chronicon Rerum Hungaricarum_ of John Thuroczi.[65] An extraordinary
stimulus was given to literary enterprise by King Matthias Corvinus,
who attracted both foreign and native scholars to his court. Foremost
amongst the Italians was Antonio Bonfini, whose work, _Rerum
Hungaricarum Decades IV._, comprising Hungarian history from the
earliest times to the death of King Matthias, was published with a
continuation by Sambucus (Basel, 1568).[66] Marzio Galeotti, the
king's chief librarian, wrote an historical account of his reign. The
most distinguished of the native scholars was John Cesinge, _alias_
Janus Pannonius, who composed Latin epigrams, panegyrics and epic
poems. The best edition of his works was published by Count S. Teleki
at Utrecht in 1784.
Magyar literature. Earliest relics.
Arpadian period, 1000-1301.
Anjou-Sigismond period, 1301-1437.
As there are no traces of literary productions in the native or Magyar
dialect before the 12th century, the early condition of the language
is concealed from the philologist. It is, however, known that the
Hungarians had their own martial songs, and that their princes kept
lyre and lute players who sang festal odes in praise of the national
heroes. In the 11th century Christian teachers introduced the use of
the Roman letters, but the employment of the Latin language was not
formally decreed until 1114 (see Bowring, _Poetry of the Magyars_,
Introd. xix.). It appears, moreover, that up to that date public
business was transacted in Hungarian, for the decrees of King Coloman
the Learned (1095-1114) were translated from that language into Latin.
Among the literary relics of the 12th century are the "Latiatuc" or
_Halotti Beszed_ funeral discourse and prayer in Hungarian, to which
Dobrentei in his _Regi Magyar Nyelvemlekek_ assigns as a probable date
the year 1171 (others, however, 1182 or 1183). From the
_Margit-Legenda_, or "Legend of St Margaret," composed in the early
part of the 14th century,[67] it is evident that from time to time the
native language continued to be employed as a means of religious
edification. Under the kings of the house of Anjou, the Magyar became
the language of the court. That it was used also in official documents
and ordinances is shown by copies of formularies of oaths, the import
of which proves beyond a doubt that the originals belonged to the
reigns of Louis I. and Sigismond; by a statute of the town of
Sajo-St-Peter (1403) relating to the wine trade; by the testament of
Kazzai-Karacson (1413); and by other relics of this period published
by Dobrentei in vol. ii. of the _R. M. Nyelvemlekek_. To the early
part of the 15th century may be assigned also the legends of "St
Francis" and of "St Ursula," and possibly the original of the _Enek
Pannonia megvetelerol_, an historical "Song about the Conquest of
Pannonia." But not until the dawn of the Reformation did Magyar begin
in any sense to replace Latin for literary purposes. The period placed
by Hungarian authors between 1437 and 1530 marks the first development
of Magyar literature.
Jagello-Matthias or pre-Reformation period (1437-1530).
About the year 1437 two Hussite monks named Tamas and Balint (i.e.
Thomas and Valentine) adapted from older sources a large portion of
the Bible for the use of the Hungarian refugees in Moldavia. To these
monks the first extant Magyar version of part of the Scriptures (the
_Vienna_ or _Revai Codex_[68]) is directly assigned by Dobrentei, but
the exact date either of this copy or of the original translation
cannot be ascertained. With approximate certainty may be ascribed also
to Tamas and Balint the original of the still extant transcript, by
George Nemeti, of the Four Gospels, the _Jaszay_ or _Munich Codex_
(finished at Tatros in Moldavia in 1466), Amongst other important
codices are the _Jordanszky Codex_ (1516-1519), an incomplete copy of
the translation of the Bible made by Ladislaus Batori, who died about
1456; and the _Dobrentei_ or _Gyulafehervar Codex_ (1508), containing
a version of the Psalter, Song of Solomon, and the liturgical epistles
and gospels, copied by Bartholomew Halabori from an earlier
translation (Kornyei, _A Magyar nemzeti irodalomtortenet vazlata_,
1861, p. 30). Other relics belonging to this period are the oath which
John Hunyady took when elected governor of Hungary (1446); a few
verses sung by the children of Pest at the coronation of his son
Matthias (1458); the _Siralomenek Both Janos veszedelmen_ (Elegy upon
John Both), written by a certain "Gregori," as the initial letters of
the verses show, and during the reign of the above-mentioned monarch;
and the _Emlekdal Matyas kiraly halalara_ (Memorial Song on the Death
of King Matthias, 1490). To these may be added the rhapsody[69] on the
taking of "Szabacs" (1476); the _Katalin-Legenda_, a metrical "Legend
of St Catherine of Alexandria," extending to over 4000 lines: and the
_Feddoenek_ (Upbraiding Song), by Francis Apathi.
Reformation period (1530-1606).
In the next literary period (1530-1606) several translations of the
Scriptures are recorded. Among these there are--versions of the
Epistles of St Paul, by Benedict Komjati (Cracow, 1533); of the Four
Gospels, by Gabriel (Mizser) Pesti (Vienna, 1536); of the New
Testament, by John Erdosi (Ujsziget, 1541; 2nd ed., Vienna, 1574[70]),
and by Thomas Felegyhazi (1586); and the translations of the Bible, by
Caspar Heltai (Klausenburg, 1551-1565), and by Caspar Karoli (Vizsoly,
near Goncz, 1589-1590). The last, considered the best, was corrected
and re-edited by Albert Molnar at Hanau in 1608.[71] Heltai published
also (1571) a translation, improved from that by Blasius Veres (1565),
of the _Tripartitum_ of Verboczy, and _Chronika_ (1575) adapted from
the _Decades_ of Bonfini. Karadi in 1569 brought to light the earliest
national drama, _Balassi Menyhert_. Among the native poets, mostly
mere rhyming chroniclers of the 16th century, were Csanadi, Tinodi,
Nagy-Baczai, Bogati, Ilosvay, Istvanfi, Gorgei, Temesvari and Valkai.
Of these the best and most prolific writer was Tinodi. Szekely wrote
in prose, with verse introduction, a "Chronicle of the World" under
the title of _Cronica ez vilagnac yeles dolgairol_ (Cracow, 1559).
Csaktornya and Kakony imitated the ancient classical poets, and Erdosi
introduced the hexameter. Andrew Farkas and the homilist Peter Melius
(Juhasz) attempted didactic verse; and Batizi busied himself with
sacred song and Biblical history. During the latter part of the 16th
century and the beginning of the 17th two poets of a higher order
appeared in Valentine Balassa, the earliest Magyar lyrical writer, and
his contemporary John Rimay, whose poems are of a contemplative and
pleasing character.
17th century period (1606-1711).
The melancholy state of the country consequent upon the persecutions
of Rudolph I., Ferdinand II. and Leopold I., as also the continual
encroachment of Germanizing influences under the Habsburgs, were
unfavourable to the development of the national literature during the
next literary period, dating from the Peace of Vienna (1606) to that
of Szatmar (1711). A few names were, however, distinguished in
theology, philology and poetry. In 1626 a Hungarian version of the
Vulgate was published at Vienna by the Jesuit George Kaldi,[72] and
another complete translation of the Scriptures, the so-called
_Komaromi Biblia_ (Komorn Bible) was made in 1685 by the Protestant
George Csipkes, though it was not published till 1717 at Leiden,
twenty-nine years after his death.[73] On behalf of the Catholics the
Jesuit Peter Pazman, eventually primate, Nicholas Eszterhazy, Sambar,
Balasfi and others were the authors of various works of a polemical
nature. Especially famous was the _Hodaegus, kalauz_ of Pazman, which
first appeared at Pozsony (Pressburg) in 1613. Among the Protestants
who exerted themselves in theological and controversial writings were
Nemeti, Alvinczy, Alexander Felvinczy, Martonfalvi and Melotai, who
was attached to the court of Bethlen Gabor. Telkibanyai wrote on
"English Puritanism" (1654). The Calvinist Albert Molnar, already
mentioned, was more remarkable for his philological than for his
theological labours. Parispapai compiled an Hungarian-Latin
Dictionary, _Dictionarium magyar es deak nyelven_ (Locse, 1708), and
Apaczai-Csere, a _Magyar Encyclopaedia_ (Utrecht, 1653). John
Szalardi, Paul Lisznyai, Gregory Petho, John Kemeny and Benjamin
Szilagyi, which last, however, wrote in Latin, were the authors of
various historical works. In polite literature the heroic poem
_Zrinyiasz_ (1651), descriptive of the fall of Sziget, by Nicholas
Zrinyi, grandson of the defender of that fortress, marks a new era in
Hungarian poetry. Of a far inferior character was the monotonous
_Mohacsi veszedelem_ (Disaster of Mohacs), in 13 cantos, produced two
years afterwards at Vienna by Baron Liszti. The lyric and epic poems
of Stephen Gyongyosi, who sang the deeds of Maria Szechy, the heroine
of Murany, _Muranyi Venus_ (Kassa, 1664), are samples rather of a
general improvement in the style than of the purity of the language.
As a didactic and elegiac poet Stephen Kohari is much esteemed. More
fluent but not less gloomy are the sacred lyrics of Nyeki-Veres first
published in 1636 under the Latin title of _Tintinnabulum
Tripudiantium_. The songs and proverbs of Peter Beniczky, who lived in
the early part oL the 17th century, are not without merit, and have
been several times reprinted. From the appearance of the first extant
printed Magyar work[74] at Cracow in 1531 to the end of the period
just treated, more than 1800 publications in the native language are
known.[75]
Period of decline (1711-1772).
The period comprised between the peace of Szatmar (1711) and the year
1772 is far more barren in literary results than even that which
preceded it. The exhaustion of the nation from its protracted civil
and foreign wars, the extinction of the court of the Transylvanian
princes where the native language had been cherished, and the
prevalent use of Latin in the schools, public transactions and county
courts, all combined to bring about a complete neglect of the Magyar
language and literature. Among the few prose writers of distinction
were Andrew Spangar, whose "Hungarian Bookstore," _Magyar Konyvtar_
(Kassa, 1738), is said to be the earliest work of the kind in the
Magyar dialect; George Baranyi, who translated the New Testament
(Lauba, 1754); the historians Michael Cserei and Matthew Bel, which
last, however, wrote chiefly in Latin; and Peter Bod, who besides his
theological treatises compiled a history of Hungarian literature under
the title _Magyar Athenas_ (Szeben, 1766). But the most celebrated
writer of this period was the Jesuit Francis Faludi, the translator,
through the Italian, of William Darrell's works. On account of the
classic purity of his style in prose, Faludi was known as the "Magyar
Cicero." Not only as a philosophic and didactic writer, but also as a
lyric and dramatic poet he surpassed all his contemporaries. Another
pleasing lyric poet of this period was Ladislaus Amade, the
naturalness and genuine sentiment of whose lightly running verses are
suggestive of the love songs of Italian authors. Of considerable merit
are also the sacred lyrical melodies of Paul Radai in his _Lelki
hodolas_ (Spiritual Homage), published at Debreczen in 1715. Among the
didactic poets may be mentioned Lewis Nagy, George Kalmar, John Illey
and Paul Bertalanfi, especially noted for his rhymed "Life of St
Stephen, first Hungarian king," _Dicsoseges Sz. Istvan elso magyar
kiralynak elete_ (Vienna, 1751).
The next three literary periods stand in special relationship to one
another, and are sometimes regarded as the same. The first two, marking
respectively the progress of the "Regeneration of the Native Literature"
(1772-1807) and the "Revival of the Language" (1807-1830), were
introductory to and preparatory for the third or "Academy," period,
which began about 1830.
Regeneration of the literature (1772-1807).
In consequence of the general neglect of the Magyar language during
the reigns of Maria Theresa and her successor Joseph II., the more
important prose productions of the latter part of the 18th century, as
for instance the historical works of George Pray, Stephen Katona, John
Engel and Ignatius Fessier, were written either in Latin or in German.
The reaction in favour of the native literature manifested itself at
first chiefly in the creation of various schools of poetry. Foremost
among these stood the so-called "French" school, founded by George
Bessenyei, the author of several dramatic pieces, and of an imitation
of Pope's "Essay on Man," under the title of _Az embernek probaja_
(Vienna, 1772). Bessenyei introduced the use of rhymed alexandrines in
place of the monotonous Zrinian measure. Other writers of the same
school were Laurence Orczy and Abraham Barcsay, whose works have a
striking resemblance to each other, and were published together by
Revai (1789). The songs and elegies of the short-lived Paul Anyos,
edited by Bacsanyi in 1798, show great depth of feeling. Versifiers
and adapters from the French appeared also in Counts Adam and Joseph
Teleki, Alexander Baroczi and Joseph Peczeli, known also as the
translator of Young's "Night Thoughts." The chief representatives of
the strictly "classical" school, which adopted the ancient Greek and
Latin authors as its models, were David Baroti Szabo, Nicholas Revai,
Joseph Rajnis and Benedict Virag. Among the most noteworthy works of
Baroti are the _Uj mertekre vett kulomb versek_ (Kassa, 1777),
comprising hexameter verses, Horatian odes, distichs, epistles and
epigrams; the _Paraszti Majorsag_ (Kassa, 1779-1780), an hexameter
version of Vaniere's _Praedium rusticum_; and an abridged version of
"Paradise Lost," contained in the _Koltemenyes munkaji_ (Komarom,
1802). Baroti, moreover, published (1810-1813) a translation of
Virgil's _Aeneid_ and _Eclogues_. Of Baroti's purely linguistic works
the best known are his _Ortographia es Prosodia_ (Komarom, 1800); and
the _Kisded Szotar_ (Kassa, 1784 and 1792) or "Small Lexicon" of rare
Hungarian words. As a philologist Baroti was far surpassed by Nicholas
Revai, but as a poet he may be considered superior to Rajnis,
translator of Virgil's Bucolics and Georgics, and author of the
_Magyar Helikonra vezeto kalauz_ (Guide to the Magyar Helicon, 1781).
The "classical" school reached its highest state of culture under
Virag, whose poetical works, consisting chiefly of Horatian odes and
epistles, on account of the perfection of their style, obtained for
him the name of the "Magyar Horace." The _Poetai Munkai_ (Poetical
Works) of Virag were published at Pest in 1799, and again in 1822. Of
his prose works the most important is the _Magyar Szazadok_ or
"Pragmatic History of Hungary" (Buda, 1808 and 1816). Valyi-Nagy, the
first Magyar translator of Homer, belongs rather to the "popular"
than the "classical" school. His translation of the _Iliad_ appeared
at Sarospatak in 1821. The establishment of the "national" or
"popular" school is attributable chiefly to Andrew Dugonics, though
his earliest works, _Troja veszedelme_ (1774) and _Ulysses_ (1780),
indicate a classical bias. His national romances, however, and
especially _Etelka_ (Pozsony, 1787) and _Az arany pereczek_ (Pest and
Pozsony, 1790), attracted public attention, and were soon adapted for
the stage. The most valuable of his productions is his collection of
"Hungarian Proverbs and Famous Sayings," which appeared in 1820 at
Szeged, under the title of _Magyar peldabeszedek es jeles mondasok_.
The most noteworthy follower of Dugonics was Adam Horvath, author of
the epic poems _Hunniasz_ (Gyor, 1787) and _Rudolphiasz_ (Vienna,
1817), Joseph Gvadanyi's tripartite work _Falusi notarius_ (Village
Notary), published between 1790 and 1796, as also his _Ronto Pal es
gr. Benyowsky torteneteik_ (Adventures of Paul Ronto and Count
Benyowski), are humorous and readable, but careless in style. As
writers of didactic poetry may be mentioned John Endrody, Caspar
Gobol, Joseph Takacs and Barbara Molnar, the earliest distinguished
Magyar poetess.
Of a more general character, and combining the merits of the above
schools, are the works of the authors who constituted the so-called
"Debreczen Class," which boasts the names of the naturalist and
philologist John Foldi, compiler of a considerable part of the
_Debreczeni magyar grammatica_; Michael Fazekas, author of _Ludas
Matyi_ (Vienna, 1817), an epic poem, in 4 cantos; and Joseph Kovacs.
Other precursors of the modern school were the poet and philologist
Francis Verseghy, whose works extend to nearly forty volumes; the
gifted didactic prose writer, Joseph Karman; the metrical rhymster,
Gideon Raday; the lyric poets, Ssentjobi Szabo, Janos Bacsanyi (q.v.),
and the short-lived Gabriel Dayka, whose posthumous "Verses" were
published in 1813 by Kazinczy. Still more celebrated were Mihaly
Csokonai (q.v.) and Alexander Kisfaludy (q.v.). The first volume of
Alexander Kisfaludy's _Himfy_, a series of short lyrics of a
descriptive and reflective nature, appeared at Buda in 1801, under the
title of _Kesergo szerelem_ (Unhappy Love), and was received with
great enthusiasm; nor was the success of the second volume _Boldog
szerelem_ (Happy Love), which appeared in 1807, inferior. The _Regek_,
or "Tales of the Past," were published at Buda from 1807 to 1808, and
still further increased Kisfaludy's fame; but in his dramatic works he
was not equally successful. Journalistic literature in the native
language begins with the _Magyar Hirmondo_ (Harbinger) started by
Matthias Rath at Pozsony in 1780. Among the magazines the most
important was the _Magyar Muzeum_, established at Kassa (Kaschau) in
1788 by Baroti, Kazinczy and Bacsanyi. The _Orpheus_ (1790) was the
special work of Kazinczy, and the _Urania_ (1794) of Karman and of
Pajor.
Revival of the language (1807-1830).
Closely connected with the preceding period is that of the "Revival of
the Language" (1807-1830), with which the name of Francis Kazinczy
(q.v.) is especially associated. To him it was left to perfect that
work of restoration begun by Baroti and amplified by Revai. Poetry and
belles lettres still continued to occupy the chief place in the native
literature, but under Kazinczy and his immediate followers Berzsenyi,
Kolcsey, Fay and others, a correctness of style and excellence of
taste hitherto unknown soon became apparent. Kazinczy, in his efforts
to accommodate the national language to the demands of an improved
civilization, availed himself of the treasures of European literature,
but thereby incurred the opposition of those who were prejudiced by a
too biased feeling of nationality. The opinions of his enemies were
ventilated in a lampoon styled _Mondolat_. Daniel Berzsenyi, whose
odes are among the finest in the Hungarian language, was the
correspondent of Kazinczy, and like him a victim of the attacks of the
_Mondolat_. But the fervent patriotism, elevated style, and glowing
diction of Berzsenyi soon caused him to be recognized as a truly
national bard. A too frequent allusion to Greek mythological names is
a defect sometimes observable in his writings. His collective works
were published at Buda by Dobrentei in 1842. Those of John Kis, the
friend of Berzsenyi, cover a wide range of subjects, and comprise,
besides original poetry, many translations from the Greek, Latin,
French, German and English, among which last may be mentioned
renderings from Blair, Pope and Thomson, and notably his translation,
published at Vienna in 1791, of Lowth's "Choice of Hercules." The
style of Kis is unaffected and easy. As a sonnet writer none stands
higher than Paul Szemere, known also for his rendering of Korner's
drama _Zrinyi_ (1818), and his contributions to the _Elet es
Literatura_ (Life and Literature). The articles of Francis Kolcsey in
the same periodical are among the finest specimens of Hungarian
aesthetical criticism. The lyric poems of Kolcsey can hardly be
surpassed, whilst his orations, and markedly the _Emlek beszed
Kazinczy felett_ (Commemorative Speech on Kazinczy), exhibit not only
his own powers, but the singular excellence of the Magyar language as
an oratorical medium. Andrew Fay, sometimes styled the "Hungarian
Aesop," is chiefly remembered for his _Eredeti Mesek_ (Original
Fables). The dramatic works of Charles Kisfaludy, brother of
Alexander, won him enthusiastic recognition as a regenerator of the
drama. His plays bear a distinctive national character, the subjects
of most of them referring to the golden era of the country. His
genuine simplicity as a lyrical writer is shown by the fact that
several of his shorter pieces have passed into popular song. As the
earliest Magyarizer of Servian folk-song, Michael Vitkovics did
valuable service. Not without interest to Englishmen is the name of
Gabriel Dobrentei (q.v.), the translator of Shakespeare's Macbeth,
represented at Pozsony in 1825. An historical poem of a somewhat
philosophical nature was produced in 1814 by Andreas Horvath under the
title of _Zircz emlekezete_ (Reminiscence of Zircz); but his _Arpad_,
in 12 books, finished in 1830, and published at Pest in the following
year, is a great national epic. Among other poets of this period were
Alois Szentmiklossy, George Gaal, Emil Buczy, Joseph Szasz, Ladislaus
Toth and Joseph Katona, author of the much-extolled historical drama
_Bank Ban_.[76] Izidore Guzmics, the translator of Theocritus into
Magyar hexameters, is chiefly noted for his prose writings on
ecclesiastical and philosophical subjects. As authors of special works
on philosophy, we find Samuel Koteles, John Imre, Joseph Ruszek,
Daniel Ercsei and Paul Sarvari; as a theologian and Hebraist John
Somossy; as an historian and philologist Stephen Horvath, who
endeavoured to trace the Magyar descent from the earliest historic
times; as writers on jurisprudence Alexander Kovy and Paul Szlemenics.
For an account of the historian George Fejer, the laborious compiler
of the _Codex Diplomaticus_, see FEJER.
Academy period, 1830-1880.
The establishment of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences[77] (17th
November 1830) marks the commencement of a new period, in the first
eighteen years of which gigantic exertions were made as regards the
literary and intellectual life of the nation. The language, nursed by
the academy, developed rapidly, and showed its capacity for giving
expression to almost every form of scientific knowledge.[78] By
offering rewards for the best original dramatic productions, the
academy provided that the national theatre should not suffer from a
lack of classical dramas. During the earlier part of its existence the
Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific development
of the language and philological research. Since its reorganization in
1869 the academy has, however, paid equal attention to the various
departments of history, archaeology, national economy and the physical
sciences. The encouragement of polite literature was more especially
the object of the Kisfaludy Society, founded in 1836.[79]
Polite literature had received a great impulse in the preceding period
(1807-1830), but after the formation of the academy and the Kisfaludy
society it advanced with accelerated speed towards the point attained
by other nations. Foremost among epic poets, though not equally
successful as a dramatist, was Mihaly Vorosmarty (q.v.), who,
belonging also to the close of the last period, combines great power
of imagination with elegance of language. Generally less varied and
romantic, though easier in style, are the heroic poems _Augsburgi
utkozet_ (Battle of Augsburg) and _Aradi gyules_ (Diet of Arad) of
Gregory Czuczor, who was, moreover, very felicitous as an
epigrammatist. Martin Debreczeni was chiefly famed for his _Kiovi
csata_ (Battle of Kieff), published at Pest in 1854 after his death by
Count Emeric Miko. The laborious John Garay in his _Szent Laszlo_
shows considerable ability as an epic poet, but his greatest merit was
rather as a romancist and ballad writer, as shown by the "Pen
Sketches" or _Tollrajzok_ (1845), and his legendary series _Arpadok_
(1847). Joseph Bajza was a lyricist of a somewhat melancholy cast, but
his _Borenek_ (Wine Song), _Sohajtas_ (Sigh), _Ebreszto_ (Awakening)
and _Apotheosis_ are much admired. He is known further as the
translator of F. C. Dahlmann's _Geschichte der englischen
Revolution_. As generally able writers of lyrical poetry during the
earlier part of this period may be mentioned among others Francis
Csaszar, Joseph Szekacs and Andrew Kunoss--also Lewis Szakal and
Alexander Vachott, whose songs and romances are of an artless and
simple character, and the sacred lyricist Bela Tarkanyi. As an
original but rather heavy lyric and didactic poet we may mention Peter
Vajda, who was, moreover, the translator of Bulwer's "Night and
Morning." Of a more distinctly national tendency are the lyrics of
John Kriza[80] and John Erdelyi, but the reputation of the latter was
more especially due to his collections of folk-lore made on behalf of
the Kisfaludy society. More popular than any of the preceding, and
well known in England through Sir John Bowring's translation, are the
charming lyrics of Alexander Petofi (q.v.), the "Burns" of Hungary.
His poems, which embody the national genius, have passed into the very
life of the people; particularly is he happy in the pieces descriptive
of rural life. Among lyricists were: Coloman Toth, who is also the
author of several epic and dramatic pieces; John Vajda, whose _Kisebb
Koltemenyek_ (Minor Poems), published by the Kisfaludy society in
1872, are partly written in the mode of Heine, and are of a pleasing
but melancholy character; Joseph Levay, known also as the translator
of Shakespeare's _Titus Andronicus_, _Taming of the Shrew_ and _Henry
IV._; and Paul Gyulai, who, not only as a faultless lyric and epic
poet, but as an impartial critical writer, is highly esteemed, and
whose _Romhanyi_ is justly prized as one of the best Magyar poems that
has appeared in modern times. To these may be added the names of
Charles Berecz, Joseph Zalar, Samuel Nyilas, Joseph Vida, Lewis
Tolnai, the sentimental Ladislaus Szelestey, and the talented painter
Zoltan Balogh, whose romantic poem _Alpari_ was published in 1871 by
the Kisfaludy society. The lyrics of Anthony Varady (1875, 1877) are
somewhat dull and unequal in tone; both he and Baron Ivor Kaas, author
of _Az itelet napja_ (Day of Judgment, 1876), have shown skill rather
in the art of dramatic verse. The poems of Count Geza Zichy and Victor
Dalmady, those of the latter published at Budapest in 1876, are mostly
written on subjects of a domestic nature, but are conceived in a
patriotic spirit. Emil Abranyi adopts a rather romantic style, but his
_Nagypentek_ (Good Friday) is an excellent descriptive sketch.
Alexander Endrody, author of _Tucsok dalok_ (Cricket Songs, 1876), is
a glowing writer, with great power of conception, but his metaphors,
following rapidly one upon the other, become often confused. Joseph
Kiss in 1876 brought out a few lyric and epic poems of considerable
merit. The _Mesek_ of Augustus Greguss (1878), a collection of verse
"Fables," belonging to the school of Gay, partake more of a didactic
than lyrical nature. This feature is noticeable also in the
_Koltemenyek_ (1873) of Ladislaus Torkos and the _Modern Mesek_ (1874)
of Ladislaus Nevy. The _Salamon_ (1878) of Charles Szasz (b. 1829) was
rewarded with the prize of the academy. The subject, taken from the
age of Hungarian chivalry, is artistically worked out from medieval
legends, and gives an excellent description of the times of St
Ladislaus of Hungary. Charles Szasz is generally better known as a
metrical translator than as an original poet. He is the Magyarizer of
Shakespeare's _Anthony and Cleopatra_, _Othello_, _Macbeth_, _Henry
VIII._, _Winter's Tale_, _Romeo and Juliet_ and _Tempest_, as also of
some of the best pieces of Burns, Moore, Byron, Shelley, Milton,
Beranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Goethe and others. A translator from
Byron and Pope appeared also in Maurice Lukacs.[81]
Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom the most
energetic was Edward Szigligeti, _proprie_ Joseph Szathmary, who
enriched the Hungarian stage with more than a hundred pieces. Of these
the most popular are comedies and serio-comic national dramas. A less
prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles Obernyik, whose
_George Brankovics_ is, next to Katona's _Bank Ban_, one of the best
historical tragedies in the language. Several of the already mentioned
lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also for the drama. To
these we may add the gifted but unfortunate Sigismund Czako, Lewis
Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy, Joseph Szenvey (a translator
from Schiller), Joseph Gaal, Charles Hugo, Lawrence Toth (the
Magyarizer of the _School for Scandal_), Emeric Vahot, Alois Degre
(equally famous as a novelist), Stephen Toldy and Lewis Doczi, author
of the popular prize drama _Csok_ (The Kiss). _Az ember tragoediaja_
(The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric Madach (1861), is a dramatic poem of a
philosophical and contemplative character, and is not intended for the
stage. Among successful dramatic pieces may be mentioned the _Falu
rossza_ (Village Scamp) of Edward Toth (1875), which represents the
life of the Hungarian peasantry, and shows both poetic sentiment and
dramatic skill; _A szerelem harcza_ (Combat of Love), by Count Geza
Zichy; _Iskariot_ (1876) and the prize tragedy _Tamora_ (1879), by
Anthony Varady; _Janus_ (1877), by Gregory Csiky; and the dramatized
romance _Szep Mikhal_ (Handsome Michal), by Maurus Jokai (1877). The
principal merit of this author's drama _Milton_ (1876) consists in its
brilliance of language. The _Szerelem iskolaja_ (School of Love), by
Eugene Rakosy, although in some parts exquisitely worded, did not meet
with the applause accorded to his _Ripacsos Pista Dolmanya_ (1874).
The _Grof Dormandi Kalman_ (Count Coloman Dormandi) of Bela Bercsenyi
(1877) is a social tragedy of the French school. Among the most recent
writers of comedy we single out Arpad Berczik for his A _hazasitok_
(The Matchmakers); Ignatius Sulyovsky for his _Noi diplomatia_ (Female
Diplomacy); and the above-mentioned Gregory Csiky for his
_Ellenallhatatlan_ (The Irresistible), produced on the stage in 1878.
As popular plays the _Sarga csiko_ (Bay Foal) and _A piros
bugyellaris_ (The Red Purse), by Francis Csepreghy, have their own
special merit, and were often represented in 1878 and 1879 at Budapest
and elsewhere.
Original romance writing, which may be said to have commenced with
Dugonics and Karman at the close of the 18th, and to have found a
representative in Francis Verseghy at the beginning of the 19th
century, was afterwards revived by Fay in his _Belteky haz_ (1832),
and by the contributors to certain literary magazines, especially the
_Aurora_, an almanack conducted by Charles Kisfaludy, 1821-1830, and
continued by Joseph Bajza to 1837. Almost simultaneously with the rise
of the Kisfaludy society, works of fiction assumed a more vigorous
tone, and began to present just claims for literary recognition. Far
from adopting the levity of style too often observable in French
romances, the Magyar novels, although enlivened by touches of humour,
have generally rather a serious historical or political bearing.
Especially is this the case with Nicholas Josika's _Abafi_ (1835), _A
csehek Magyarorszagon_ (The Bohemians in Hungary), and _Az utolso
Batori_ (The Last of the Bathoris), published in 1847. In these, as in
many other of the romances of Josika, a high moral standard is aimed
at. The same may be said of Baron Joseph Eotvos's _Karthausi_ (1839)
and _Falu Jegyzoje_ (Village Notary), published in 1845, and
translated into English (1850) by O. Wenckstern (see Eotvos). The
_Arvizonyv_ or "Inundation Book," edited by Eotvos (1839-1841), is a
collection of narratives and poems by the most celebrated authors of
the time. Of the novels produced by Baron Sigismund Kemeny the _Gyulai
Pal_ (1847), in 5 vols., is, from its historical character, the most
important. His _Ferj es no_ (Husband and Wife) appeared in 1853
(latest ed., 1878), the _Rajongok_ (Fanatics), in 4 vols., in
1858-1859. The graphic descriptions of Hungarian life in the middle
and lower classes by Lewis Kuthy won for him temporary renown; but his
style, though flowery, is careless. Another popular writer of great
originality was Joseph Radakovics _alias_ Vas-Gereben. The romances of
Baron Frederick Podmaniczky are simpler, and rather of a narrative
than colloquial character. The fertile writer Paul Kovacs excels more
particularly in humorous narration. Fay's singular powers in this
direction were well shown by his _Javor orvos es Bakator Ambrus
szolgaja_ (Doctor Javor and his servant Ambrose Bakator), brought out
at Pest in 1855. The _Beszelyek_ (Tales) of Ladislaus Beothy were
produced in the same year, his _Pusztak fia_ (Son of the Pusztas) in
1857. Pleasing humorous sketches are contained also in Ignatius Nagy's
_Beszelyek_ (1843) and "Caricatures" or _Torzkepek_ (1844); in Caspar
Bernat's _Fresko kepek_ (1847-1850); in Gustavus Lauka's _Videk_, and
his _A jo regi vilag_ (The Good Old World), published respectively in
1857 and 1863; and in Alexander Balazs's _Beszelyei_ (1855) and
_Tukordarabok_ (1865). Among authors of other historical or humorous
romances and tales which have appeared from time to time are Francis
Marton _alias_ Lewis Abonyi, Joseph Gaal, Paul Gyulai, William Gyori,
Lazarus Horvath, the short-lived Joseph Irinyi, translator of _Uncle
Tom's Cabin_, Francis Ney, Albert Palffy, Alexander Vachott and his
brother Emeric (Vahot), Charles Szathmary, Desider Margittay, Victor
Vajda, Joseph Bodon, Atala Kisfaludy and John Kratky. But by far the
most prolific and talented novelist that Hungary can boast of is
Maurus Jokai (q.v.), whose power of imagination and brilliancy of
style, no less than his true representations of Hungarian life and
character, have earned for him a European reputation. Of the novels
produced by other authors between 1870 and 1880, we may mention _A hol
az ember kezdodik_ (Where the Man Begins), by Edward Kavassy (1871),
in which he severely lashes the idling Magyar nobility; _Az en
ismeroseim_ (My Acquaintances), by Lewis Tolnai (1871); and _Anatol_,
by Stephen Toldy (1872); the versified romances _Deli babok hose_
(Hero of the Fata Morgana), generally ascribed to Ladislaus Arany, but
anonymously published, _A szerelem hose_ (Hero of Love), by John Vajda
(1873), and _Talalkozasok_ (Rencounters) by the same (1877), and _A
Tunderov_ (The Fairy Zone), by John Sulla (1876), all four interesting
as specimens of narrative poetry; _Kalozdy Bela_ (1875), a tale of
Hungarian provincial life, by Zoltan Beothy, a pleasing writer who
possesses a fund of humour, and appears to follow the best English
models; _Edith tortenete_ (History of Edith), by Joseph Prem (1876);
_Nyomorusag iskolaja_ (School of Misery), by the prolific author
Arnold Vertesi (1878); _Titkolt szerelem_ (Secret Love), by Cornelius
Abranyi (1879), a social-political romance of some merit; and _Uj
idok, avult emberek_ (Modern Times, Men of the Past), by L. Veka
(1879). In the _Itthon_ (At Home), by Alois Degre (1877), the tale is
made the medium for a satirical attack upon official corruption and
Hungarian national vanity; and in the _Almok almodoja_ (Dreamer of
Dreams), by John Asboth (1878), other national defects are aimed at.
_A rosz szomszed_ (The Bad Neighbour), by Charles Vadnay (1878), is a
felicitous representation of the power of love. The _Az utolso Bebek_
(The Last of the Bebeks), by the late Charles Petery, is a work rich
in poetic invention, but meagre in historical matter. The reverse is
the case with the _Lajos pap_ (Priest Lewis), by Charles Vajkay
(1879), the scene of which is placed at Pest, in the beginning of the
14th century. In this romance the interest of the narrative is
weakened by a superabundance of historical and archaeological detail.
As regards works of a scientific character, the Magyars until recently
were confessedly behindhand as compared with many other European
nations. Indeed, before the foundation of the Hungarian academy in
1830, but few such works claiming general recognition had been
published in the native language. Even in 1847 astronomy, physics,
logic and other subjects of the kind had to be taught in several of
the lyceums through the medium of Latin. The violent political
commotions of the next few years allowed but little opportunity for
the prosecution of serious studies; the subsequent quieter state of
the country, and gradual re-establishment of the language as a means
of education, were, however, more favourable to the development of
scientific knowledge.
In the department of philosophy, besides several writers of
dissertations bearing an imitative, didactic or polemical character,
Hungary could boast a few authors of independent and original thought.
Of these one of the most notable is Cyril Horvath, whose treatises
published in the organs of the academy display a rare freedom and
comprehensiveness of imagination. John Hetenyi and Gustavus Szontagh
must be rather regarded as adopters and developers of the ethical
teaching of Samuel Koteles in the previous period. Hyacinth Ronay in
his _Mutatvany_ (Representation) and _Jellemisme_ (Characteristics)
endeavoured to popularize psychological studies. The philosophical
labours of the already mentioned John Erdelyi and of Augustus Greguss
won for them well-deserved recognition, the latter especially being
famous for his aesthetical productions, in which he appears to follow
out the principles of Vischer. The _Tanulmanyok_ (Studies) of Greguss
were brought out at Pest in 1872. The reputation of John Szilasy, John
Varga, Fidelius Beely and Francis Ney arose rather from their works
bearing on the subject of education than from their contributions to
philosophy.
The labours of Stephen Horvath in the preceding period had prepared
the way for future workers in the field of historical literature.
Specially meritorious among these are Michael Horvath, Ladislaus
Szalay, Paul Jaszay and Count Joseph Teleki. The _Magyarok tortenete_
(History of the Magyars), in 4 vols., first published at Papa
(1842-1846), and afterwards in 6 vols. at Pest (1860-1863), and in 8
vols. (1871-1873), is the most famous of Michael Horvath's numerous
historical productions. Ladislaus Szalay's _Magyarorszag tortenete_
(History of Hungary), vols. i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1852-1854), vols. v.-vi.
(Pest, 1856-1861), 2nd ed., i.-v. (1861-1866), is a most comprehensive
work, showing more particularly the progress of Hungarian legislative
development in past times. His style is elevated and concise, but
somewhat difficult. Magyar history is indebted to Paul Jaszay for his
careful working out of certain special periods, as, for instance, in
his _A Magyar nemzet napjai a legregibb idotol az arany bullaig_ (Days
of the Hungarian nation from the earliest times to the date of the
Golden Bull). Count Joseph Teleki is famed chiefly for his _Hunyadiak
kora Magyarorszagon_ (The Times of the Hunyadys in Hungary), vols.
i.-vi. (Pest, 1852-1863), x.-xii. (1853-1857), the result of thirty
years' labour and research. In particular departments of historical
literature we find George Bartal, author of _Commentariorum ... libri
XV._, tom. i.-iii. (Pozsony, 1847), John Czech, Gustavus Wenczel,
Frederick Pesty and Paul Szlemenics as writers on legal history;
Joseph Bajza, who in 1845 commenced a _History of the World_;
Alexander Szilagyi, some of whose works, like those of Ladislaus
Kovary, bear on the past of Transylvania, others on the Hungarian
revolution of 1848-1849; Charles Lanyi and John Pauer, authors of
treatises on Roman Catholic ecclesiastical history; John Szombathi,
Emeric Revesz and Balogh, writers on Protestant church history;
William Fraknoi, biographer of Cardinal Pazman, and historian of the
Hungarian diets; and Anthony Gevay, Aaron Sziladi, Joseph Podhradczky,
Charles Szabo, John Jerney and Francis Salamon, who have investigated
and elucidated many special historical subjects. For the medieval
history of Hungary the _Matyaskori diplomatikai emlekek_ (Diplomatic
Memorials of the Time of Matthias Corvinus), issued by the academy
under the joint editorship of Ivan Nagy and Baron Albert Nyary,
affords interesting material. As a masterly production based on
extensive investigation, we note the _Wesselenyi Ferencz ...
osszeeskuvese_ (The Secret Plot of Francis Wesselenyi, 1664-1671), by
Julius Pauler (1876). Among the many historians of Magyar literature
Francis Toldy alias Schedel holds the foremost place. As compilers of
useful manuals may be mentioned also Joseph Szvorenyi, Zoltan Beothy,
Alexander Imre, Paul Jambor, Ladislaus Nevy, John Kornyei and Joseph
Szinnyei, junior. For philological and ethnographical research into
the origin and growth of the language none excels Paul Hunfalvy. He
is, moreover, the warm advocate of the theory of its Ugrio-Finnic
origin, as established by the Uralian traveller Anthony Reguly, the
result of whose labours Hunfalvy published in 1864, under the title _A
Vogul fold es nep_ (The Vogul Land and People). Between 1862 and 1866
valuable philological studies bearing on the same subject were
published by Joseph Budenz in the _Nyelvtudomanyi kozlemenyek_
(Philological Transactions). This periodical, issued by the academy,
has during the last decade (1870-1880) contained also comparative
studies, by Arminius Vambery and Gabriel Balint, of the Magyar,
Turkish-Tatar and Mongolian dialects.
As compilers and authors of works in various scientific branches
allied to history, may be particularly mentioned--in statistics and
geography, Alexius Fenyes, Emeric Palugyay, Alexander Konek, John
Hunfalvy, Charles Galgoczy, Charles Keleti, Leo Beothy, Joseph Korosi,
Charles Ballagi and Paul Kiraly, and, as regards Transylvania,
Ladislaus Kovary; in travel, Arminius Vambery, Ignatius Goldziher,
Ladislaus Magyar, John Xantus, John Jerney, Count Andrassy, Ladislaus
Podmaniczky, Paul Hunfalvy; in astronomy, Nicholas Konkoly; in
archaeology, Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, Florian Romer, Emeric Henszlmann,
John Erdy, Baron Albert Nyary, Francis Pulszky and Francis Kiss; in
Hungarian mythology, Bishop Ipolyi, Anthony Csengery,[82] and Arpad
Kerekgyarto; in numismatics, John Erdy and Jacob Rupp; and in
jurisprudence, Augustus Karvassy, Theodore Pauler, Gustavus Wenczel,
Emeric Csacsko, John Fogarasi and Ignatius Frank. After 1867 great
activity was displayed in history and its allied branches, owing to
the direct encouragement given by the Hungarian Historical Society,
and by the historical, archaeological, and statistical committees of
the academy.
Notwithstanding the exertions of Paul Bugat to arouse an interest in
the natural sciences by the establishment in 1841 of the "Hungarian
Royal Natural Science Association," no general activity was manifested
in this department of knowledge, so far as the native literature was
concerned, until 1860, when the academy organized a special committee
for the advancement of mathematical and natural science.[83] The
principal contributors to the "Transactions" of this section of the
academy were--for anatomy and physiology, Coloman Balogh, Eugene
Jendrassik, Joseph Lenhossek and Lewis Thanhoffer; for zoology, John
Frivaldszky, John Kriesch and Theodore Margo; for botany, Frederick
Hazslinszky, Lewis Juranyi and Julius Klein; for mineralogy and
geology, Joseph Szabo, Max Hantken, Joseph Krenner, Anthony Koch and
Charles Hoffman; for physics, Baron Lorando Eotvos, Coloman Szily and
Joseph Sztoczek; for chemistry, Charles Than and Vincent Wartha; for
meteorology, Guido Schenzl. As good text-books, for which the
so-called "Ladies' Prize" was awarded by the academy, we may mention
the _Termeszettan_ (Physics) and _Termeszettani foldrajz_ (Physical
Geography) of Julius Greguss.
Almost simultaneously with the formation of the above-mentioned
committee of the academy, the "Natural Science Association" showed
signs of renewed animation, and soon advanced with rapid strides in
the same direction, but with a more popular aim than the academy.
Between 1868 and 1878 the number of its members increased from some
600 to about 5000. After 1872, in addition to its regular organs, it
issued Hungarian translations of several popular scientific English
works, as, for instance, Darwin's _Origin of Species_; Huxley's
_Lessons in Physiology_; Lubbock's _Prehistoric Times_; Proctor's
_Other Worlds than Ours_; Tyndall's _Heat as a Mode of Motion_, &c.
Versions were also made of Cotta's _Geologie der Gegenwart_ and
Helmholtz's _Populare Vorlesungen_. As important original monographs
we note--_Az arapaly a Fiumei obolben_ (Ebb and Flow in the Gulf of
Fiume), by Emil Stahlberger (1874); _Magyarorszag pokfaunaja_ (The
Arachnida of Hungary), by Otto Hermann (1876-1878); _Magyarorszag
vaskovei es vastermenyei_ (The Iron Ores and Iron Products of
Hungary), by Anthony Kerpely (1877); _Magyarorszag nevezetesebb
dohanyfajainak chemiai ... megvizsgalasa_ (Chemical Examination of the
most famous Tobaccos of Hungary), by Dr Thomas Kosutany (1877).
(E. D. Bu.)
Literature since 1880.
The number of Magyar writers has since 1880 increased to an extent
hardly expected by the reading public in Hungary itself. In 1830 there
were only 10 Magyar periodical publications; in 1880 we find 368; in
1885 their number rose to 494; in 1890 to 636; and at the beginning of
1895 no fewer than 806 periodical publications, written in the Hungarian
language, appeared in Hungary. Since that time (1895) the number of
periodical as well as of non-periodical literary works has been
constantly rising, although, as in all countries with a literature of
rather recent origin, the periodical publications are, in proportion to
the whole of the output, far more numerous than the non-periodical.[84]
This remarkable increase in the quantity of literary work was, on the
whole, accompanied by a fair advance in literary quality.
In lyrical poetry, among the poets who first came to the fore in the
'sixties several were active after 1880, such as Joseph Komocsy (d.
1894), whose _Szerelem Konyve_ ("Book of Love") has become a popular
classic; Victor Dalmady, who published in the 'nineties his _Hazafias
Koltemenyek_ (Patriotic Poems); and Ladislas Arany, son of the great
John. Among the prominent lyrists whose works, although partly
published before 1880, belong largely to the later period, the
following deserve special mention: The poetry of Emil Abranyi (born
1850) is filled with the ideas and ideals of Victor Hugo. Abranyi
excels also as a translator, more particularly of Byron. Julius
Reviczky (1855-1899) also inclined to the Occidental rather than to
the specifically Magyar type of poets; his lyrics are highly finished,
aristocratic and pessimistic (_Pan halala_, "The Death of Pan"). Count
Geza Zichy (b. 1849) published his lyrical poems in 1892. Joseph Kiss
(b. 1843) is especially felicitous in ballads taken from village and
Jewish life, and in love-songs; Alexander Endrodi (b. 1850), one of
the most gifted modern lyrical poets of Hungary, has the charm of
tenderness and delicacy together with that of a peculiar and original
style, his _Kurucz notak_ being so far his most successful attempt at
romantic lyrics. Louis Bartok (b. 1851) is a remarkable satirist and
epigrammatist (_Karpati emlekek_). Odon Jakab (b. 1850) leans towards
the poetic manner of Tompa, with perhaps a greater power of expression
than the author of the _Viragregek_ ("Flower-fables"); Jakab wrote
_Hangok az ifjusagbol_ ("Sounds of Youth"), _Nyar_ ("Summer"), both
collections of lyrical poems. Louis Posa (b. 1850) has made a sphere
of his own in his charming poems for and about children, _Edes anyam_
("My dear Mother"). In Andor Kozma (b. 1860), author of _A tegnap es a
ma_ ("Yesterday and To-day," 1889), _Versek_ (Poems, 1893), &c., there
is undoubted power of genuine satire and deep humour. Michael
Szabolcska (b. 1864), author of _Hangulatok_ ("Moods," 1894), showed
great promise; Julius Vargha (b. 1853) cultivates the _nepies_ or
folk-poetry as represented by Hungary's two greatest poets, Petofi and
Arany; Vargha has also published excellent translations of Schiller
and Goethe. Perhaps scarcely less remarkable are the modern Magyar
lyrists, such as, of the older set, John Bulla (b. 1843), J. D.
Temerdek, Gustavus Csengey (b. 1842), Paul Koroda (b. 1854), E. Julius
Kovacs (b. 1839, _Poems_, 1892), Ladislas Inczedi, Julius Nogradi Pap,
Julius Szavay (b. 1860), John Dengi (b. 1853); among the juniors,
Anton Rado (also an excellent translator), Louis Palagyi (_Maganyos
uton_, "On Lonely Way," &c.), Geza Gardonyi (b. 1863, _Aprilis_,
1894), Zoltan Pap, Eugen Heltai (_Ignotus_), Julius Rudnyanszky (b.
1860, _Szerelem_, "Love"; _Nyar_, "Summer"), Arpad Zemplenyi, Julius
Szentessy, Emil Makai (b. 1870), Cornelius Gaspar, Julius Varsanyi (b.
1863, _Mulandosag_, "The Unstableness of Things"), Alexander Luby
(_Vergodes_, "Striving"), Eugen V. Szaszvarosi, Endre Szabo (b. 1849),
political satirist. In the most recent lyrics of Hungary there is a
growing tendency to socialistic poetry, to the "poetry of misery" (_A
nyomor kolteszete_). In epic poetry Josef Kiss's _Jehova_ is the most
popular work. Amongst rhymed novels--novels in verse form--the best is
the _Delibabok hose_ ("The Hero of Mirages"), in which Ladislas Arany
tells, in brilliantly humorous and captivating fashion, the story of a
young Magyar nobleman who, at first full of great ideals and
aspirations, finally ends as a commonplace country squire.
Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominant _genres_ or
tendencies. The first is represented almost exclusively by Maurus
Jokai (q.v.). To the school so perfectly represented by Jokai belong
Arpad Kupa (_A napszamosok_, "The Labourers"; _Kepselt kiralyok_,
"Imaginary Kings"); Robert Tabori (_Nagy jatek_, "Great Game"; _A
negyveneves ferfiu_, "The Man at Forty"); and Julius Werner (_Kendi
Imre hazassaga_, "The Wedding of Emericus Kendi"; _Olga; Megvirrad meg
valaha_, "Dawn will come in the End"). The second class of Hungarian
modern novelists is led by the well-known Koloman Mikszath, a poet
endowed with originality, a charming _naivete_, and a freshness of
observation from life. A close observer of the multifarious low life
of Hungary, Mikszath has, in his short stories, given a delightful yet
instructive picture of all the minor varied phases of the peasant life
of the Slavs, the _Palocok_, the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his
numerous works may be mentioned _A jo paloczok_ ("The Good Paloczok,"
Slav peasants); _Egy valasztas Magyarorszagon_ ("An Election in
Hungary"); _Pipacsok a buzaban_ ("Wild Poppies in the Wheatfield"); _A
tekintetes varmegye_ ("The Worshipful County"); _Ne okoskodj Pista_
("Don't reason, Pista"); _Szent Peter esernyoje_ ("St Peter's
Umbrella," translated from the original into English by Miss B. W.
Worswick), &c. Mikszath has had considerable influence upon other
writers. Such are Victor Rakosi (_Sipulus tarcai_, "The Essays of
Sipulus"; _Rejtett feszkek_, "Hidden Nests"); Stephen Mora
(_Atyankfiai_, "Our Compatriots"); Alexius Benedek, the author of
numerous distinctly sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and
novels, one of the most gifted and deserving literary workers of
modern Hungary (_Huszar Anna_, "Anna Huszar"; _Egy szalmaozvegy
levelei_, "Letters of a grass widow"; _A sziv konyve_, "The Book of
the Heart"; _Katalin_, "Catherine"; _Csendes orak_, "Quiet Hours";
_Testamentum es hat level_, "Last Will and Six Letters," translated
into German by Dr W. Schonwald, &c.); Geza Gardonyi (several novels
containing the adventures, observations, &c., of Mr Gabriel Gore; _A
kekszemu Davidkane_, "Blue-eyed Mrs Davidka"; _A Katsa_, scenes from
gipsy life); Charles Murai (_Vig tortenetek_, "Jolly Stories";
_Bandi_, a collection of short tales); Stephen Barsony (_Csend_,
"Silence"; _A Kameleon-leany_, "The Chamaeleon Girl, and other
Stories"; _Erdon-mezon_, "In Wood and Field"). The third class of
Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take their
method of work, their inspiration and even many of their subjects from
foreign authors, chiefly French, German, Russian and also Norwegian. A
people with an intense national sentiment, such as the Hungarians, do
not as a rule incline towards permanent admiration of foreign-born or
imported literary styles; and accordingly the work of this class of
novelists has frequently met with very severe criticism on the part of
various Magyar critics. Yet it can scarcely be denied that several of
the "foreign" novelists have contributed a wholesome, if not quite
Magyar, element of form or thought to literary narrative style in
Hungary. Probably the foremost among them is Sigismund Justh, who died
prematurely in the midst of his painful attempt at reconciling French
"realistic" modes of thought with what he conceived to be Magyar
simplicity (_A puszta konyve_, "The Book of the _Puszta_," prairie of
Hungary; _A Penz legendaja_, "The Legend of Money"; _Ganyo Julcsa_,
"Juliet Ganyo"; _Fuimus_). Other novelists belonging to this school
are: Desiderius Malonyai (_Az utolso_, "The Last"; _Judith konyve_,
"The Book of Judith"; _Tanulmanyfejek_, "Typical Heads"); Julius Pekar
(_Dodo fohadnagy problemai_, "Lieutenant Dodo's Problems"; _Az
aranykesztyus kisasszony_, "The Maid with the Golden Gloves"; _A
szoborszep asszony_, "The Lady as Beautiful as a Statue"; _Az esztendo
legendaja_, "The Legend of the Year"); Thomas Kobor (_Aszfalt_,
"Asphalt"; _O akarta_, "He Wanted It"; _A csillagok fele_, "Towards
the Stars"); Stephen Szomahazy (_Huszonnegy ora_, "Twenty-four Hours";
_A Clairette Keringo_, "The Clairette Valse"; _Paratlan szerdak_,
"Incomparable Wednesdays"; _Nyari felhok_, "Clouds of Summer"); Zoltan
Thury (_Ullrich fohadnagy es egyeb tortenetek_, "Lieutenant Ullrich
and other Tales"; _Urak es parasztok_, "Gentlemen and Peasants"); also
Desiderius Szomory, Odon Gero, Arpad Abonyi, Koloman Szanto, Edward
Sas, Julius Vertesi, Tibor Denes, Akos Pinter, the Misses Janka and
Stephanie Wohl, Mrs Sigismund Gyarmathy and others. In the fourth
class may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have
tried, and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and
characters in a style peculiar to themselves. Besides Stephen Petelei
(_Jetti_, a name--"Henrietta"--_Felhok_, "Clouds") and Zoltan Ambrus
(_Pokhalo Kisasszony_, "Miss Cobweb"; _Gyanu_, "Suspicion") must be
mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a number of
very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (_Simon Zsuzsa_,
"Susanna Simon"; _Fenn es lenn_, "Above and Below"; _Egy leany
tortenete_, "The History of a Girl"; _Idegenek kozott_, "Amongst
Strangers"); Alexander Brody, who brings a delicate yet resolute
analysis to unfold the mysterious and fascinating inner life of
persons suffering from overwrought nerves or overstrung mind (_A
ketlelku asszony_, "The Double-Souled Lady"; _Don Quixote kisasszony_,
"Miss Don Quixote"; _Faust orvos_, "Faust the Physician"; _Tunder
Ilona, Rejtelmek_, "Mysteries"; _Az ezust kecske_, "The Silver Goat");
and Edward Kabos, whose sombre and powerful genius has already
produced works, not popular by any means, but full of great promise.
In him we may trace the influence of Nietzsche's philosophy
(_Koldusok_, "Beggars"; _Vandorok_, "Wanderers"). To this list we must
add the short but incomparable _feuilletons_ (_tarczalevelek_) of Dr
Adolf Agai (writing under the _nom de plume_ of Porzo), whose
influence on the formation of modern Hungarian literary prose is
hardly less important than the unique _esprit_ and charm of his
writings.
Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the
government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also
in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvar, in
Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have the
genuine dramatic gift in abundance; they have, moreover, actors and
actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and
clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the
neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rakosi,
Louis Doczi (b. 1845), who, in addition to _Csok_ ("The Kiss"), has
written _Utolso szerelem_ ("Last Love"), _Szechy Maria_ ("Maria
Szechy"), _Vegyes Parok_ ("Mixed Couples"). In these and other
dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage
effects, Doczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the
delicacy of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartok,
Anton Varadi and Alexander Somlo. The next group of Hungarian
dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.).
Among Csiky's most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already
mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy, _A
Gyurkovics leanyok_ ("The Misses Gyurkovics"), _Harom testor_ ("Three
Guardsmen"), _Honty haza_ ("The House of Honty"). Arpad Berczik's
_Nezd meg az anyjat_ ("Look at her Mother"), _A protekczio_
("Patronizing"), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group
of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings and diction from
the folk-life of the villages (_nepszinmu_, "folk-drama"). The
greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Toth (_Toloncz_,
"The Ousted Pauper"). Amongst his numerous followers, who have,
however, sometimes vulgarized their figures and plots, may be
mentioned Tihamer Almasi (_Milimari, A Miniszterelnok balja_, "The
Ball of the Premier") and Alexander Somlo.
In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity, partly
assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and Maurice
Karman have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart. After the
school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is the _Az ember es
vilaga_ ("Man and his World") of Charles Bohm, who in 1881 started a
philosophical review (_Magyar Filozofiai Szemle_), subsequently edited
by Joseph Bokor, a vigorous thinker. Realism, more particularly of the
Wundt type, is represented by Emericus Pauer, _Az ethikai
determinismus_ ("Ethical Determinism"), and Eugen Posch (_Az idorol_,
"On Time"). On a Thomistic basis John Kiss edits a philosophical
review (_Bolcseleti Folyoirat_); on similar lines have been working
Akos Mihalyfi, Repassy, Augustin Lubrich and others. Neo-Hegelianism
is cultivated by Eugen Schmitt, efficiently assisted by Joseph
Alexander Simon (_Az egyseges es realis termeszet filozofia
alapvonalai_, "Outlines of a Uniform and Realistic Philosophy of
Nature"). F. Medveczky (formerly a German author under the name of Fr.
von Barenbach) espouses Neo-Kantism (_Tarsadalmi elmeletek es
eszmenyek_, 1887, "Social Theories and Ideals"). The Hungarian scholar
Samuel Brassai published, in 1896, _Az igazi pozitiv filozofia_ ("The
True Positive Philosophy"). Amongst the ablest and most zealous
students of the history of philosophy are Bernhard Alexander, under
whose editorship, aided by Joseph Banoczi, a series of the works of
the world's great thinkers has appeared; Andrew Domanovszky, author of
an elaborate History of Philosophy; Julius Gyomlai, translator of
Plato; Eugen Peterfy, likewise translator of philosophical works, &c.
Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive
legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly
modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to
replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the
newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczal,
Zlinsky, Zogod, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander Plosz, Francis Nagy and
Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest
Nagy, Kmety, Arthur Balogh, Ferdinandy, Bela Grunwald, Julius Andrassy
and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, George Fesus, Kmety and Csiky;
on finance, Mariska, Exner and Laszlo. Among the later writers on
statistics, moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Lang, Foldes,
Jekelfalussy, Vorgha, Korosy, Rath and Vizaknai.
On subjects of politics, amongst the more important works are the
various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of
Austria-Hungary, on the "New Foundations of Magyar Politics" (_A
magyar politika uj alapjai_, 1899), on the Rumanian question, &c.; the
writings of Emericus Balint, Akos Beothy, Victor Concha (systematic
politics), L. Ecsery, Geza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic
politics), Arpad Zigany, Bela Foldes (political economy), Julius
Mandello (political economy), Alexander Matlekovics (Hungary's
administrative service; _Allamhaztartas_, 3 vols.), J. Polya (agrarian
politics), M. Somogyi (sociology), and the late Augustus Pulszky.
In history there has been great activity. The millennial festivities
in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the most
extensive history of the Hungarian nation (_A magyar nemzet
tortenete_, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes,
edited by Alexander Szilagyi, with the collaboration of the best
specialists of modern Hungary, Robert Frohlich, B. Kuzsinszky, Geza
Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Por, Schonherr, V. Fraknoi, Arpad Karolyi,
David Angyal, Coloman Thaly, Geza Ballagi.
Literary criticism is actively pursued. Among the more authoritative
writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beothy represent the conservative
school; younger critics, like Bela Lazar, Alexander Hevesi, H. Lenkei,
Zoltan Ferenczy, Aladar Ballagi, Ladislas Negyessy, have shown
themselves somewhat too ready to follow the latest Norwegian or
Parisian sensation.
AUTHORITIES.--The best authorities on Magyar literature are: F. Toldy,
_A Magyar nemzeti irodalom tortenete a legregibb idoktol a jelenkorig_
(Pest, 1864-1865; 3rd ed., 1872); S. Imre, _A Magyar irodalom es nyelv
rovid tortenete_ (Debreczen, 1865; 4th ed., 1878); J. Szvorenyi,
_Magyar irodalmi szemelvenyek_ (Pest, 1867), and _A Magyar irodalmi
tanulmanyok kezikonyve_ (Pest, 1868); P. Jambor, _A Magyar irodalom
tortenete_ (Pest, 1864); J. Kornyei, _A Magyar nemzeti
irodalomtortenet vazlata_ (Pest, 1861; 3rd ed., 1874); A. Lonkay, _A
Magyar irodalom ismertetese_ (Budan, 1855; 3rd ed., Pest, 1864); J.
Ferencz, _Magyar irodalom es tudomanyossag tortenete_ (Pest, 1854); J.
Ferencz es J. Danielik, _Magyar Irok. Eletrajz-Gyutemeny_ (2 vols.,
Pest, 1856-1858); and the literary histories of L. Nevy, Z. Beothy and
B. Erodi. One of the most useful monographs on "Magyar Literary
History Writing" is that of J. Szinnyei, junior, _A Magyar
Irodalomtortenet-Iras ismertetese_ (Budapest, 1878). For information
as to the most recent literature see A. Dux, _Aus. Ungarn._ (Leipzig,
1880); Zsolt Beothy, _A Magy. nemz. irod. tort._; S. Bodnar, _A magy.
irod. tort._; Bela Lazar, _A tegnap, a ma, es a holnap_ (Budapest,
1896-1900); Joseph Szinnyel, _Magy. irok elete es munkai_ (an
extensive biographical dictionary of Hungarian authors); _Irodalom
torteneti Kozlemenyek_ (a periodical edited by Aron Szilady, for the
history of literature); Emil Reich, _Hungarian Literature_ (London,
1898). (E. Re.*)