THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL
=178. Refining Pig Iron.=—Two distinct methods have been adopted for
the conversion of pig iron into wrought iron, each depending upon
the kind of furnace used. They are called the open-hearth or finery
process, and the puddling process. The chemical reactions are similar
in both processes, being based on the oxidation of the impurities in
the metal. This is accomplished both by means of the oxygen in the
air supplied and by the oxide of iron in the fluxes that are added to
assist the operation.
=179. The Open-hearth or Finery Process.=—This is carried on in what is
sometimes termed a “bloomery” from the product which is called a bloom.
The pig iron is placed in direct contact with the fuel on the hearth
which is formed of cast-iron plates exposed to a current of air to keep
them cool. This mixture of the iron with the fuel is objectionable,
because while the fuel acts as a reducer the excess air decarbonizes
the product only partly, besides prolonging the process considerably;
by the addition of hammer scale and rich slag, the operation is
hastened greatly. However, if some carbon is supposed to be contained
in the product, making it of a steely nature, then the open-hearth
process is considered a good method of refining.
Fusion is allowed to take place gradually, so as to expose the metal
for a long period to the oxygen of the blast. At the moment of fusion
the foreign elements are rapidly oxidized and form a fusible slag.
After the slag becomes neutral and has been partly removed, fresh basic
slag and hammer scale are added, to hasten the operation. Then the mass
of iron, which is now of a white spongy texture, is lifted up in the
furnace to a level with the tuyère, in order that the combined carbon
may be completely oxidized. It is then formed into balls of about 60
to 80 pounds each, after which it is removed and formed into a bloom
by means of a squeezer or hammer. This furnace is not illustrated,
because most of the wrought iron is produced by the puddling process.
An open-hearth furnace, such as is used in producing steel, is somewhat
similar to the one here described and is shown in Fig. 163.
=180. The Puddling Process.=—The greatest amount of wrought iron is
produced from pig iron by this process, owing to the superior quality
of the product. The term “puddling” was originally applied to the
process of working iron that had never been completely melted, but
had only reached a puddled or pasty state. But later, when refined or
pig iron was similarly treated, it was discovered that it would melt
perfectly and boil up freely. The process was then termed “pig boiling.”
The furnace used in this process is of the reverberatory type; the fuel
does not come in contact with the iron. (See Fig. 150.) It is built in
a rectangular form; the fireplace _A_ is located at one end, next to it
is the hearth _C_ where the metal is placed, and beyond are the flue
_B_ and the chimney _D_.
From the fireplace the heat is supplied and directed upon the metal by
the top or roof, which is curved downward from the fireplace toward the
flue and chimney. The fireplace also is separated from the hearth by a
partial partition wall _E_, called the fire bridge, which prevents the
fuel from coming in contact with the metal. Another similar partition
_F_, located between the hearth and the flue, prevents the metal from
going into the latter and is called the flue bridge.
[Illustration: FIG. 150.—PUDDLING FURNACE OF A REVERBERATORY TYPE.]
Both of these and all interior portions that come in contact with the
heat and metal are constructed of fire brick. The bridges are built
over hollow iron castings, through the openings of which there is a
circulation of water provided to keep them cool. The bottom of the
hearth is formed of iron plates rabbeted together; this and the sides
are sometimes provided also with hollow castings for water circulation.
The hearth is lined with blue billy and the sides with bulldog. The
former is a fusible silicate, chiefly ferric oxide, and is produced
from tap cinder; it does not readily unite with silica when heated.
Bulldog is made from burnt pyrites, a quality of ore used for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid; the resulting oxide is sometimes called
blue billy, but more frequently bulldog, to distinguish it from the
former class of oxides. Both of these linings are known as fettlings.
The flue slopes down toward the stack; the draft is regulated with a
damper, located in the top and connected by a chain, which hangs within
reach of the operators. Various forms of furnaces are used, such as
stationary and rolling furnaces; but whatever the style of furnace, the
process is based on the decarbonization of the metal, and the charge
of pig iron does not come in direct contact with the fuel, as in the
open-hearth process. An advantage gained in using the puddling furnace
is that various kinds of fuel can be employed without injury to the
product of iron, also various labor-saving devices, which have recently
been invented, can be better used.
In the pig-boiling process the furnace is first lined with the
fettlings and charged with about 500 pounds of white foundry or forge
pig iron. The refining process is divided into four distinct stages
known as melting down, mixing, boiling, and balling.
A very high temperature is desired during the first stage, which
usually lasts about thirty-five minutes. During this time the melting
down occurs, and a partial removal of the silicon from the pig iron is
effected.
In the second or mixing stage, which lasts about seven minutes, a
comparatively low temperature is maintained by lowering the damper
in the stack, while the charge is being thoroughly mixed with the
oxidizing fluxes or cinders that are added. The puddler draws down the
metal from around the sides into the center, where it will become more
rapidly refined and mixed.
During the third or boiling stage the damper is raised to increase
the temperature. At this time a violent reaction occurs, caused by
the release of carbonic oxide, which is formed when the oxygen unites
with the carbon in the pig iron. The gas escapes through the slag on
the surface of the metal, thus causing it to appear as though it were
boiling, from which action the process derives its name. During this
stage, which lasts from twenty to twenty-five minutes, a large portion
of the manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus contained in the pig iron is
removed.
The oxidation is assisted by the constant stirring or rabbling of the
metal by the puddler, done for the purpose of bringing it under the
oxidizing influence of the air. The boiling gradually ceases, and the
surface of the charge “drops,” as it is called, and the whole mass lies
in a pasty state on the bed of the furnace, where it is worked by the
puddler as thoroughly as possible so as to allow the flames to pass
uniformly over it.
The fourth or balling stage requires from fifteen to twenty minutes.
This consists of breaking up the contents into balls weighing from 60
to 80 pounds each. After they have been formed, they are rolled near
the fire bridge to receive a final welding heat before they are removed
to the squeezer, or hammer, where the slag is expelled and the bloom
formed.
The blooms from either the open-hearth or puddling process are treated
similarly in what is termed the forge; this includes hammering,
rolling, and shingling.
[Illustration: FIG. 151.—ROLLING TOOL STEEL.]
Squeezers or hammers are used for forming the bloom and expelling the
inclosed slag. The bloom is then put through the largest groove of the
roughing rolls and passed back through the next smaller, and so on
until it is rolled down to the desired size. Figure 151 shows 14-inch
rolls in use which, although somewhat similar to those employed for
rolling iron, are larger and generally made with more rolls.
The product of this first rolling is not usually considered of superior
quality, so, in order to refine it more thoroughly, the bars are cut
up into short lengths, piled into bundles, reheated, and again welded.
This process is called shingling and is done two or three times,
depending upon the desired quality of iron. This shingling produces the
laminæ of the iron referred to in section 60. For ordinary bar iron the
piles are made about 2 feet long by 4 inches square, and for larger
sizes they may be made 5 or 6 feet long by 10 or 12 inches square.
The rolls are of various kinds. All shapes and sizes of bar iron used
in blacksmithing may be produced in this manner. Rolling machines are
known as two, three, and four high, meaning that they are provided with
that number of rolls, one above the other. Universal rolling machines
have two pairs of rolls in one machine; one pair runs on horizontal
axes and the other on vertical axes. Each pair can be opened or closed
independently, thus giving the machine a wide range.
=181. Steel.=—The word “steel” means very little to those who are
uninformed as to its different qualities and the causes of the
distinctions between them. People are generally familiar with the
various purposes for which steel is used, but know very little about
its nature. There are, however, great differences in the qualities, and
definite reasons for them.
Formerly any combination of iron and carbon that would harden by sudden
cooling or quenching was considered steel. But since modern methods of
manufacturing have been adopted, tons of metal, which would have been
classed as iron if judged by the cooling test, are at present known as
mild or soft steel.
Steel may properly be defined as an alloy of iron with carbon, the
latter not exceeding 1.8 per cent; the materials are completely fused
and poured into molds, allowed to cool, and then rolled into shape.
In the processes of making wrought iron the materials are only partly
fused and are not cast into molds, but are taken out of the furnace in
a soft, pasty condition suitable for immediate working.
The older process of producing “blister” or “cementation” steel is
not generally employed now. By this method the bars of iron were put
through a soaking or prolonged heating, while they were packed in
charcoal. It was similar to the casehardening process, explained in
section 90.
We have at present three notable processes of making steel; namely, the
crucible, Bessemer, and open-hearth.
[Illustration: FIG. 152.—A CRUCIBLE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 153.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-HOLE CRUCIBLE
FURNACE.]
=182. The Crucible Process.=—Crucible furnaces are flat structures
containing from two to twenty holes, each one capable of receiving four
or six crucibles. The crucibles are earthen vessels made of fire clay,
mixed with refractory materials for withstanding intense heat. Each one
is capable of receiving from 70 to 80 pounds of metal. (See Fig. 152.)
In this furnace the gas and air supply may be applied independently to
each hole, practically making each one a separate furnace, but all of
the holes are connected with one main stack or chimney. A sectional
view of a four-hole furnace is shown in Fig. 153, where the crucibles
are shown in position.
This process is the most simple. It consists of melting the stock in
the crucibles and pouring it, when completely fused, into molds, as
shown in Fig. 154, forming what is known as ingots or steel castings.
For that reason it is very frequently called cast steel. The stock is
carefully selected and weighed so as to produce the required grade.
After the ingots are cooled, the piped or hollow ends caused by
shrinkage are broken off and graded by the appearance of the granular
structure and luster of the fractured parts. They are then marked and
piled away for future use. On the ingots shown in Fig. 155, the piped
ends can be seen.
[Illustration: FIG. 154.—POURING STEEL INTO INGOT MOLDS.]
The ingots are heated in an ordinary heating furnace, and rolled or
hammered into suitable bars, the sizes being fixed both by the amount
of carbon contained in the ingots and by the dimensions required for
the manufacture of special tools. Figure 151 shows the workmen in the
act of rolling tool steel; in Fig. 156 they are seen drawing octagon
tool steel with the tilting hammer.
[Illustration: FIG. 155.—STEEL INGOTS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 156.—DRAWING OCTAGON TOOL STEEL WITH THE TILTING
HAMMER.]
Special alloys of crucible steel such as Mushet, blue chip, high speed,
or other special brands are made by the same process, the secret of
the difference lying entirely in the selection of the stock.
[Illustration: FIG. 157.—CROSS SECTION OF A CONVERTER THROUGH THE
TRUNNIONS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 158.—ANOTHER CROSS SECTION OF THE SAME.]
=183. The Bessemer Process.=—This consists of blowing air through
molten pig iron in a vessel called a converter, sectional views of
which are shown in Figs. 157 and 158. A converter is a pear-shaped
structure hung on trunnions _A_, _A_, so that it can be tipped forward.
The air is forced through one of the trunnions, which is hollow, and
is connected with a pipe which conveys the air to the air chamber _f_
at the bottom of the converter. The bottom grate or tuyère plate is
located directly above the air chamber, and through the openings _j_,
_j_, in the tuyère plate, the air passes up through the metal.
[Illustration: FIG. 159.—POURING METAL INTO MOLDS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 160.—INGOT STRIPPER.]
The converter is tipped forward into a horizontal position while
the molten metal is poured into it. The air is then turned on, and
the converter is raised to a perpendicular position. The air passes
up through the entire charge of iron; consequently the metal is
thoroughly acted upon, while in the open-hearth process it is not.
The Bessemer process is based on oxidation; it produces a very high
temperature and keeps the charge in a liquid state during the time
of blowing. This is continued until the sulphur and phosphorus are
removed or the charge becomes decarbonized,—a condition termed burned
steel, owing to the presence of dissolved oxygen. This condition is
then changed or recarbonized by adding manganese alloys, such as
spiegeleisen or ferromanganese, which give the necessary amount of
carbon. By these additions the iron is changed into steel.
The Bessemer process requires a very short time in comparison with
the puddling process. Three tons of pig iron can be refined in about
twenty minutes, while by the puddling process the same amount of metal
requires about twenty-four hours.
[Illustration: FIG. 161.—LOWERING AN INGOT INTO THE SOAKING PIT.]
Considerable excitement was caused at the time the process was
invented, not only on account of the time saved, but also because there
was such a great saving in fuel.
After the metal has been poured from the converter into molds similar
to those shown in Fig. 159, and has cooled sufficiently to become
solid, the molds are stripped off, as shown in Fig. 160, and the
ingots of metal placed in the soaking pits, Fig. 161. These pits are
somewhat similar to a crucible furnace and are used for reheating
ingots before they are slabbed or rolled. Such a furnace is generally
made of the regenerative type and is divided into several compartments,
each one capable of receiving several ingots which are inserted on end.
[Illustration: FIG. 162.—A BLOOMING MILL.]
From the pit furnace the ingots are taken and rolled into slabs, rails,
blooms, or other forms suitable for use. When the plant is equipped
with both blast furnace and converter, this is all done without
additional heating, but when the plant is not so equipped, the pig iron
is melted in a cupola furnace before being put into the converter. A
blooming mill is shown in operation in Fig. 162.
[Illustration: FIG. 163.—OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE, FROM THE CHARGING SIDE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 164.—SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE.]
=184. The Open-hearth Process.=—Fig. 163. Here again the process
depends on the type of furnace. Open-hearth steel is produced with a
reverberatory furnace, and the heat is supplied by regenerative gas
and air. The furnace is built mostly of brickwork with the exception
of the supporting beams, doors, tie rods, and hearth castings, which
are made of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel. All brickwork that comes
in contact with the intense heat is made of silica brick, manufactured
from rock crystals, flint, or other varieties of quartz rock with about
two per cent of quicklime. The roof of the furnace slopes toward the
center, so that when the air and gas enter they are directed downward
on the charge of metal. The bottom or hearth is constructed of heavy
steel plates riveted together and supported on I beams. This bottom is
first covered with a layer of brick, then sand is applied to about
the thickness of one inch and well rammed down, then other layers of
brick and sand are added until the thickness is about 14 to 16 inches.
This bottom requires repairing with more sand between successive heats.
Figure 164 shows a cross section through the center of the charging and
discharging openings.
[Illustration: FIG. 165.—ANOTHER SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH
FURNACE.]
When the furnace has been charged, the gas and air are allowed to enter
at intervals of fifteen minutes, first from one side, then from the
other. When the air and gas enter one side, the exhaust or waste gases
pass out through the other side. The reversing is done by means of
levers which open and close the valves. A sectional view is given in
Fig. 165, showing the air and gas chambers and the brick checker work
through which the air and gas pass and are heated. The broken lines
represent the passages leading to these chambers; the valves are also
shown.
[Illustration: FIG. 166.—OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE DISCHARGING.]
When the metal has been fused sufficiently, a sample is dipped out
and analyzed, so that its composition may be known and sufficient
carbonizing material added to produce the desired quality. This is not
possible with the Bessemer process. It is finally tapped into a large
ladle, from which it is poured into molds forming the ingots, which
are treated in the same way as described in the Bessemer process. The
discharging is shown in Fig. 166.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
What methods are used for converting pig iron into wrought iron?
Describe in full the two methods. What other name is sometimes given
to the puddling process? Why is it so named? Explain the process
of puddling. How is the first product of the puddling process
treated? What is the object of this treatment? What is steel? Name
the different qualities, giving the approximate carbon contents of
each. What is the old test for iron and steel? How was “blister”
steel produced? By what process is cast or tool steel made? What sort
of vessel is used in melting the materials? State the differences
between making tool and soft steel. What is an ingot? What is the
difference between an ingot of tool steel and an ingot of soft steel?
What is meant by the piped end of a tool steel ingot? How are these
ingots classified? How is octagon tool steel made? What processes
are used in making soft steel? Describe each. Which is the most
satisfactory? Which is the most rapid? Why is the product of the
open-hearth process the best? What is the purpose of “soaking” the
ingots?
FORMULAS AND TABLES
(From the “Pocket Companion,” published by the Carnegie Steel Co.)
1. WEIGHTS
The average weight of wrought iron is 480 pounds per cubic foot. A bar
1 inch square and 3 feet long weighs, therefore, exactly 10 pounds. The
weight of steel is 2 per cent greater than the weight of wrought iron,
or 489.6 pounds. Cast iron weighs 450 pounds to the cubic foot.
2. LENGTHS
Circumference of circle = diameter × 3.1416.
Diameter of circle = circumference × 0.3183.
Side of square of equal periphery as circle = diameter × 0.7854.
Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square = side × 1.2732.
Side of an inscribed square = diameter of circle × 0.7071.
Length of arc = number of degrees × diameter × 0.008727.
3. AREAS
Triangle = base × half altitude.
Parallelogram = base × altitude.
Trapezoid = half the sum of the parallel sides × altitude.
Trapezium, found by dividing into two triangles.
Circle = square of diameter × 0.7854; or,
= square of circumference × 0.07958.
Sector of circle = length of arc × half radius.
4. STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF NUTS AND BOLTS
Short diameter of rough nut = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/8 inch.
Short diameter of finished nut = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/16 inch.
Thickness of rough nut = diameter of bolt.
Thickness of finished nut = diameter of bolt − 1/16 inch.
Short diameter of rough head = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt + 1/8 inch.
Short diameter of finished head = 1-1/2 × diameter of bolt
+ 1/16 inch.
Thickness of rough head = 1/2 short diameter of head.
Thickness of finished head = diameter of bolt − 1/16 inch.
5. DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH 1/64TH
========+==========+==========+==========
1/32ds. | 1/64ths. | Decimal | Fraction
--------+----------+----------+----------
| 1 | .015625 |
1 | 2 | .03125 |
| 3 | .046875 |
2 | 4 | .0625 | 1/16
| | |
| 5 | .078125 |
3 | 6 | .09375 |
| 7 | .109375 |
4 | 8 | .125 | 1/8
| | |
| 9 | .140625 |
5 | 10 | .15625 |
| 11 | .171875 |
6 | 12 | .1875 | 3/16
| | |
| 13 | .203125 |
7 | 14 | .21875 |
| 15 | .234375 |
8 | 16 | .25 | 1/4
| | |
| 17 | .265625 |
9 | 18 | .28125 |
| 19 | .296875 |
10 | 20 | .3125 | 5/16
| | |
| 21 | .328125 |
11 | 22 | .34375 |
| 23 | .359375 |
12 | 24 | .375 | 3/8
| | |
| 25 | .390625 |
13 | 26 | .40625 |
| 27 | .421875 |
14 | 28 | .4375 | 7/16
| | |
| 29 | .453125 |
15 | 30 | .46875 |
| 31 | .484375 |
16 | 32 | .5 | 1/2
| | |
| 33 | .515625 |
17 | 34 | .53125 |
| 35 | .546875 |
18 | 36 | .5625 | 9/16
| | |
| 37 | .578125 |
19 | 38 | .59375 |
| 39 | .609375 |
20 | 40 | .625 | 5/8
| | |
| 41 | .640625 |
21 | 42 | .65625 |
| 43 | .671875 |
22 | 44 | .6875 | 11/16
| | |
| 45 | .703125 |
23 | 46 | .71875 |
| 47 | .734375 |
24 | 48 | .75 | 3/4
| | |
| 49 | .765625 |
25 | 50 | .78125 |
| 51 | .796875 |
26 | 52 | .8125 | 13/16
| | |
| 53 | .828125 |
27 | 54 | .84375 |
| 55 | .859375 |
28 | 56 | .875 | 7/8
| | |
| 57 | .890625 |
29 | 58 | .90625 |
| 59 | .921875 |
30 | 60 | .9375 | 15/16
| | |
| 61 | .953125 |
31 | 62 | .96875 |
| 63 | .984375 |
32 | 64 | 1. | 1
========+==========+==========+==========
6. WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL PER LINEAR FOOT
One cubic foot weighing 489.6 pounds
=======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======
Thick- | | 1- | 1- | 1- | | 2- | 2- | 2-
ness in| 1″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 2″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″
inches | | | | | | | |
--------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------
3/16 | .638 | .797 | .957 | 1.11 | 1.28 | 1.44 | 1.59 | 1.75
1/4 | .850 | 1.06 | 1.28 | 1.49 | 1.70 | 1.91 | 2.12 | 2.34
| | | | | | | |
5/16 | 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 2.12 | 2.39 | 2.65 | 2.92
3/8 | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.92 | 2.23 | 2.55 | 2.87 | 3.19 | 3.51
7/16 | 1.49 | 1.86 | 2.23 | 2.60 | 2.98 | 3.35 | 3.72 | 4.09
1/2 | 1.70 | 2.12 | 2.55 | 2.98 | 3.40 | 3.83 | 4.25 | 4.67
| | | | | | | |
9/16 | 1.92 | 2.39 | 2.87 | 3.35 | 3.83 | 4.30 | 4.78 | 5.26
5/8 | 2.12 | 2.65 | 3.19 | 3.72 | 4.25 | 4.78 | 5.31 | 5.84
11/16 | 2.34 | 2.92 | 3.51 | 4.09 | 4.67 | 5.26 | 5.84 | 6.43
3/4 | 2.55 | 3.19 | 3.83 | 4.47 | 5.10 | 5.75 | 6.38 | 7.02
| | | | | | | |
13/16 | 2.76 | 3.45 | 4.14 | 4.84 | 5.53 | 6.21 | 6.90 | 7.60
7/8 | 2.98 | 3.72 | 4.47 | 5.20 | 5.95 | 6.69 | 7.44 | 8.18
15/16 | 3.19 | 3.99 | 4.78 | 5.58 | 6.38 | 7.18 | 7.97 | 8.77
1 | 3.40 | 4.25 | 5.10 | 5.95 | 6.80 | 7.65 | 8.50 | 9.35
| | | | | | | |
1-1/16 | 3.61 | 4.52 | 5.42 | 6.32 | 7.22 | 8.13 | 9.03 | 9.93
1-1/8 | 3.83 | 4.78 | 5.74 | 6.70 | 7.65 | 8.61 | 9.57 | 10.52
1-3/16 | 4.04 | 5.05 | 6.06 | 7.07 | 8.08 | 9.09 | 10.10 | 11.11
1-1/4 | 4.25 | 5.31 | 6.38 | 7.44 | 8.50 | 9.57 | 10.63 | 11.69
| | | | | | | |
1-5/16 | 4.46 | 5.58 | 6.69 | 7.81 | 8.93 | 10.04 | 11.16 | 12.27
1-3/8 | 4.67 | 5.84 | 7.02 | 8.18 | 9.35 | 10.52 | 11.69 | 12.85
1-7/16 | 4.89 | 6.11 | 7.34 | 8.56 | 9.78 | 11.00 | 12.22 | 13.44
1-1/2 | 5.10 | 6.38 | 7.65 | 8.93 | 10.20 | 11.48 | 12.75 | 14.03
| | | | | | | |
1-9/16 | 5.32 | 6.64 | 7.97 | 9.30 | 10.63 | 11.95 | 13.28 | 14.61
1-5/8 | 5.52 | 6.90 | 8.29 | 9.67 | 11.05 | 12.43 | 13.81 | 15.19
1-11/16 | 5.74 | 7.17 | 8.61 | 10.04 | 11.47 | 12.91 | 14.34 | 15.78
1-3/4 | 5.95 | 7.44 | 8.93 | 10.42 | 11.90 | 13.40 | 14.88 | 16.37
| | | | | | | |
1-13/16 | 6.16 | 7.70 | 9.24 | 10.79 | 12.33 | 13.86 | 15.40 | 16.95
1-7/8 | 6.38 | 7.97 | 9.57 | 11.15 | 12.75 | 14.34 | 15.94 | 17.53
1-15/16 | 6.59 | 8.24 | 9.88 | 11.53 | 13.18 | 14.83 | 16.47 | 18.12
2 | 6.80 | 8.50 |10.20 | 11.90 | 13.60 | 15.30 | 17.00 | 18.70
========+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======
Thick- | | 3- | 3- | 3- | | 4- | 4- | 4-
ness in| 3″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 4″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″
inches | | | | | | | |
-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------
3/16 | 1.91 | 2.07 | 2.23 | 2.39 | 2.55 | 2.71 | 2.87 | 3.03
1/4 | 2.55 | 2.76 | 2.98 | 3.19 | 3.40 | 3.61 | 3.83 | 4.04
| | | | | | | |
5/16 | 3.19 | 3.45 | 3.72 | 3.99 | 4.25 | 4.52 | 4.78 | 5.05
3/8 | 3.83 | 4.15 | 4.47 | 4.78 | 5.10 | 5.42 | 5.74 | 6.06
7/16 | 4.46 | 4.83 | 5.20 | 5.58 | 5.95 | 6.32 | 6.70 | 7.07
1/2 | 5.10 | 5.53 | 5.95 | 6.38 | 6.80 | 7.22 | 7.65 | 8.08
| | | | | | | |
9/16 | 5.74 | 6.22 | 6.70 | 7.17 | 7.65 | 8.13 | 8.61 | 9.09
5/8 | 6.38 | 6.91 | 7.44 | 7.97 | 8.50 | 9.03 | 9.57 | 10.10
11/16 | 7.02 | 7.60 | 8.18 | 8.76 | 9.35 | 9.93 | 10.52 | 11.11
3/4 | 7.65 | 8.29 | 8.93 | 9.57 | 10.20 | 10.84 | 11.48 | 12.12
| | | | | | | |
13/16 | 8.29 | 8.98 | 9.67 | 10.36 | 11.05 | 11.74 | 12.43 | 13.12
7/8 | 8.93 | 9.67 |10.41 | 11.16 | 11.90 | 12.65 | 13.39 | 14.13
15/16 | 9.57 |10.36 |11.16 | 11.95 | 12.75 | 13.55 | 14.34 | 15.14
1 |10.20 |11.05 |11.90 | 12.75 | 13.60 | 14.45 | 15.30 | 16.15
| | | | | | | |
1-1/16 |10.84 |11.74 |12.65 | 13.55 | 14.45 | 15.35 | 16.26 | 17.16
1-1/8 |11.48 |12.43 |13.39 | 14.34 | 15.30 | 16.26 | 17.22 | 18.17
1-3/16 |12.12 |13.12 |14.13 | 15.14 | 16.15 | 17.16 | 18.17 | 19.18
1-1/4 |12.75 |13.81 |14.87 | 15.94 | 17.00 | 18.06 | 19.13 | 20.19
| | | | | | | |
1-5/16 |13.39 |14.50 |15.62 | 16.74 | 17.85 | 18.96 | 20.08 | 21.20
1-3/8 |14.03 |15.20 |16.36 | 17.53 | 18.70 | 19.87 | 21.04 | 22.21
1-7/16 |14.66 |15.88 |17.10 | 18.33 | 19.55 | 20.77 | 21.99 | 23.22
1-1/2 |15.30 |16.58 |17.85 | 19.13 | 20.40 | 21.68 | 22.95 | 24.23
| | | | | | | |
1-9/16 |15.94 |17.27 |18.60 | 19.92 | 21.25 | 22.58 | 23.91 | 25.24
1-5/8 |16.58 |17.96 |19.34 | 20.72 | 22.10 | 23.48 | 24.87 | 26.25
1-11/16|17.22 |18.65 |20.08 | 21.51 | 22.95 | 24.38 | 25.82 | 27.26
1-3/4 |17.85 |19.34 |20.83 | 22.32 | 23.80 | 25.29 | 26.78 | 28.27
| | | | | | | |
1-13/16|18.49 |20.03 |21.57 | 23.11 | 24.65 | 26.19 | 27.73 | 29.27
1-7/8 |19.13 |20.72 |22.31 | 23.91 | 25.50 | 27.10 | 28.69 | 30.28
1-15/16|19.77 |21.41 |23.06 | 24.70 | 26.35 | 28.00 | 29.64 | 31.29
2 |20.40 |22.10 |23.80 | 25.50 | 27.20 | 28.90 | 30.60 | 32.30
=======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======+=======+======
Thick- | | 5- | 5- | 5- | |
ness in| 5″ | 1/4″ | 1/2″ | 3/4″ | 6″ | 12″
inches | | | | | |
-------+------+------+------+-------+-------+------
3/16 | 3.19 | 3.35 | 3.51 | 3.67 | 3.83 | 7.65
1/4 | 4.25 | 4.46 | 4.67 | 4.89 | 5.10 | 10.20
| | | | | |
5/16 | 5.31 | 5.58 | 5.84 | 6.11 | 6.38 | 12.75
3/8 | 6.38 | 6.69 | 7.02 | 7.34 | 7.65 | 15.30
7/16 | 7.44 | 7.81 | 8.18 | 8.56 | 8.93 | 17.85
1/2 | 8.50 | 8.93 | 9.35 | 9.77 | 10.20 | 20.40
| | | | | |
9/16 | 9.57 |10.04 |10.52 | 11.00 | 11.48 | 22.95
5/8 |10.63 |11.16 |11.69 | 12.22 | 12.75 | 25.50
11/16 |11.69 |12.27 |12.85 | 13.44 | 14.03 | 28.05
3/4 |12.75 |13.39 |14.03 | 14.67 | 15.30 | 30.60
| | | | | |
13/16 |13.81 |14.50 |15.19 | 15.88 | 16.58 | 33.15
7/8 |14.87 |15.62 |16.36 | 17.10 | 17.85 | 35.70
15/16 |15.94 |16.74 |17.53 | 18.33 | 19.13 | 38.25
1 |17.00 |17.85 |18.70 | 19.55 | 20.40 | 40.80
| | | | | |
1-1/16 |18.06 |18.96 |19.87 | 20.77 | 21.68 | 43.35
1-1/8 |19.13 |20.08 |21.04 | 21.99 | 22.95 | 45.90
1-3/16 |20.19 |21.20 |22.21 | 23.22 | 24.23 | 48.45
1-1/4 |21.25 |22.32 |23.38 | 24.44 | 25.50 | 51.00
| | | | | |
1-5/16 |22.32 |23.43 |24.54 | 25.66 | 26.78 | 53.55
1-3/8 |23.38 |24.54 |25.71 | 26.88 | 28.05 | 56.10
1-7/16 |24.44 |25.66 |26.88 | 28.10 | 29.33 | 58.65
1-1/2 |25.50 |26.78 |28.05 | 29.33 | 30.60 | 61.20
| | | | | |
1-9/16 |26.57 |27.89 |29.22 | 30.55 | 31.88 | 63.75
1-5/8 |27.63 |29.01 |30.39 | 31.77 | 33.15 | 66.30
1-11/16|28.69 |30.12 |31.55 | 32.99 | 34.43 | 68.85
1-3/4 |29.75 |31.24 |32.73 | 34.22 | 35.70 | 71.40
| | | | | |
1-13/16|30.81 |32.35 |33.89 | 35.43 | 36.98 | 73.95
1-7/8 |31.87 |33.47 |35.06 | 36.65 | 38.25 | 76.50
1-15/16|32.94 |34.59 |36.23 | 37.88 | 39.53 | 79.05
2 |34.00 |35.70 |37.40 | 39.10 | 40.80 | 81.60
=======+======+======+======+=======+=======+======
7. WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF
ROUND BARS
=========+=========+=========+==========+==========+===========
Thickness|Weight of|Weight of| Area of | Area of |Circumfer-
or |[square] | [round] | [square] | [round] |ence of
Diameter| Bar one | Bar one | Bar in | Bar in |[round] Bar
in inches|foot long|foot long|sq. inches|sq. inches|in inches
---------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-----------
1/16 | .013 | .010 | .0039 | .0031 | .1963
1/8 | .053 | .042 | .0156 | .0123 | .3927
3/16 | .119 | .094 | .0352 | .0276 | .5890
| | | | |
1/4 | .212 | .167 | .0625 | .0491 | .7854
5/16 | .333 | .261 | .0977 | .0767 | .9817
3/8 | .478 | .375 | .1406 | .1104 | 1.1781
7/16 | .651 | .511 | .1914 | .1503 | 1.3744
| | | | |
1/2 | .850 | .667 | .2500 | .1963 | 1.5708
9/16 | 1.076 | .845 | .3164 | .2485 | 1.7671
5/8 | 1.328 | 1.043 | .3906 | .3068 | 1.9635
11/16 | 1.608 | 1.262 | .4727 | .3712 | 2.1598
| | | | |
3/4 | 1.913 | 1.502 | .5625 | .4418 | 2.3562
13/16 | 2.245 | 1.763 | .6602 | .5185 | 2.5525
7/8 | 2.603 | 2.044 | .7656 | .6013 | 2.7489
15/16 | 2.989 | 2.347 | .8789 | .6903 | 2.9452
| | | | |
1 | 3.400 | 2.670 | 1.0000 | .7854 | 3.1416
1/16 | 3.838 | 3.014 | 1.1289 | .8866 | 3.3379
1/8 | 4.303 | 3.379 | 1.2656 | .9940 | 3.5343
3/16 | 4.795 | 3.766 | 1.4102 | 1.1075 | 3.7306
| | | | |
1/4 | 5.312 | 4.173 | 1.5625 | 1.2272 | 3.9270
5/16 | 5.857 | 4.600 | 1.7227 | 1.3530 | 4.1233
3/8 | 6.428 | 5.049 | 1.8906 | 1.4849 | 4.3197
7/16 | 7.026 | 5.518 | 2.0664 | 1.6230 | 4.5160
| | | | |
1/2 | 7.650 | 6.008 | 2.2500 | 1.7671 | 4.7124
9/16 | 8.301 | 6.520 | 2.4414 | 1.9175 | 4.9087
5/8 | 8.978 | 7.051 | 2.6406 | 2.0739 | 5.1051
11/16 | 9.682 | 7.604 | 2.8477 | 2.2365 | 5.3014
| | | | |
3/4 | 10.41 | 8.178 | 3.0625 | 2.4053 | 5.4978
13/16 | 11.17 | 8.773 | 3.2852 | 2.5802 | 5.6941
7/8 | 11.95 | 9.388 | 3.5156 | 2.7612 | 5.8905
15/16 | 12.76 | 10.02 | 3.7539 | 2.9483 | 6.0868
| | | | |
=2= | 13.60 | 10.68 | 4.0000 | 3.1416 | 6.2832
1/16 | 14.46 | 11.36 | 4.2539 | 3.3410 | 6.4795
1/8 | 15.35 | 12.06 | 4.5156 | 3.5466 | 6.6759
3/16 | 16.27 | 12.78 | 4.7852 | 3.7583 | 6.8722
| | | | |
1/4 | 17.22 | 13.52 | 5.0625 | 3.9761 | 7.0686
5/16 | 18.19 | 14.28 | 5.3477 | 4.2000 | 7.2649
3/8 | 19.18 | 15.07 | 5.6406 | 4.4301 | 7.4613
7/16 | 20.20 | 15.86 | 5.9414 | 4.6664 | 7.6576
| | | | |
1/2 | 21.25 | 16.69 | 6.2500 | 4.9087 | 7.8540
9/16 | 22.33 | 17.53 | 6.5664 | 5.1572 | 8.0503
5/8 | 23.43 | 18.40 | 6.8906 | 5.4119 | 8.2467
11/16 | 24.56 | 19.29 | 7.2227 | 5.6727 | 8.4430
| | | | |
3/4 | 25. | 20.20 | 7.5625 | 5.9396 | 8.6394
13/16 | 26.90 | 21.12 | 7.9102 | 6.2126 | 8.8357
7/8 | 28.10 | 22.07 | 8.2656 | 6.4918 | 9.0321
15/16 | 29.34 | 23.04 | 8.6289 | 6.7771 | 9.2284
| | | | |
=3= | 30.60 | 24.03 | 9.0000 | 7.0686 | 9.4248
1/16 | 31.89 | 25.04 | 9.3789 | 7.3662 | 9.6211
1/8 | 33.20 | 26.08 | 9.7656 | 7.6699 | 9.8175
3/16 | 34.55 | 27.13 | 10.160 | 7.9798 | 10.014
| | | | |
1/4 | 35.92 | 28.20 | 10.563 | 8.2958 | 10.210
5/16 | 37.31 | 29.30 | 10.973 | 8.6179 | 10.407
3/8 | 38.73 | 30.42 | 11.391 | 8.9462 | 10.603
7/16 | 40.18 | 31.56 | 11.816 | 9.2806 | 10.799
| | | | |
1/2 | 41.65 | 32.71 | 12.250 | 9.6211 | 10.996
9/16 | 43.14 | 33.90 | 12.691 | 9.9678 | 11.192
5/8 | 44.68 | 35.09 | 13.141 | 10.321 | 11.388
11/16 | 46.24 | 36.31 | 13.598 | 10.680 | 11.585
| | | | |
3/4 | 47.82 | 37.56 | 14.063 | 11.045 | 11.781
13/16 | 49.42 | 38.81 | 14.535 | 11.416 | 11.977
7/8 | 51.05 | 40.10 | 15.016 | 11.793 | 12.174
15/16 | 52.71 | 41.40 | 15.504 | 12.177 | 12.370
| | | | |
=4= | 54.40 | 42.73 | 16.000 | 12.566 | 12.566
1/16 | 56.11 | 44.07 | 16.504 | 12.962 | 12.763
1/8 | 57.85 | 45.44 | 17.016 | 13.364 | 12.959
3/16 | 59.62 | 46.83 | 17.535 | 13.772 | 13.155
| | | | |
1/4 | 61.41 | 48.24 | 18.063 | 14.186 | 13.352
5/16 | 63.23 | 49.66 | 18.598 | 14.607 | 13.548
3/8 | 65.08 | 51.11 | 19.141 | 15.033 | 13.744
7/16 | 66.95 | 52.58 | 19.691 | 15.466 | 13.941
| | | | |
1/2 | 68.85 | 54.07 | 20.250 | 15.904 | 14.137
9/16 | 70.78 | 55.59 | 20.816 | 16.349 | 14.334
5/8 | 72.73 | 57.12 | 21.391 | 16.800 | 14.530
11/16 | 74.70 | 58.67 | 21.973 | 17.257 | 14.726
| | | | |
3/4 | 76.71 | 60.25 | 22.563 | 17.721 | 14.923
13/16 | 78.74 | 61.84 | 23.160 | 18.190 | 15.119
7/8 | 80.81 | 63.46 | 23.766 | 18.665 | 15.315
15/16 | 82.89 | 65.10 | 24.379 | 19.147 | 15.512
| | | | |
=5= | 85.00 | 66.76 | 25.000 | 19.635 | 15.708
1/16 | 87.14 | 68.44 | 25.629 | 20.129 | 15.904
1/8 | 89.30 | 70.14 | 26.266 | 20.629 | 16.101
3/16 | 91.49 | 71.86 | 26.910 | 21.135 | 16.297
| | | | |
1/4 | 93.72 | 73.60 | 27.563 | 21.648 | 16.493
5/16 | 95.96 | 75.37 | 28.223 | 22.166 | 16.690
3/8 | 98.23 | 77.15 | 28.891 | 22.691 | 16.886
7/16 | 100.5 | 78.95 | 29.566 | 23.221 | 17.082
| | | | |
1/2 | 102.8 | 80.77 | 30.250 | 23.758 | 17.279
9/16 | 105.2 | 82.62 | 30.941 | 24.301 | 17.475
5/8 | 107.6 | 84.49 | 31.641 | 24.850 | 17.671
11/16 | 110.0 | 86.38 | 32.348 | 25.406 | 17.868
| | | | |
3/4 | 112.4 | 88.29 | 33.063 | 25.967 | 18.064
13/16 | 114.9 | 90.22 | 33.785 | 26.535 | 18.261
7/8 | 117.4 | 92.17 | 34.516 | 27.109 | 18.457
15/16 | 119.9 | 94.14 | 35.254 | 27.688 | 18.653
=========+=========+=========+==========+==========+===========
8. CIRCUMFERENCES AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 100
====+=============================
| Number = Diameter
No. +---------------+-------------
| Circumference | Area
----+---------------+-------------
1 | 3.142 | 0.7854
2 | 6.283 | 3.1416
3 | 9.425 | 7.0686
4 | 12.566 | 12.5664
5 | 15.708 | 19.6350
| |
6 | 18.850 | 28.2743
7 | 21.991 | 38.4845
8 | 25.133 | 50.2655
9 | 28.274 | 63.6173
10 | 31.416 | 78.5398
| |
11 | 34.558 | 95.0332
12 | 37.699 | 113.097
13 | 40.841 | 132.732
14 | 43.982 | 153.938
15 | 47.124 | 176.715
| |
16 | 50.265 | 201.062
17 | 53.407 | 226.980
18 | 56.549 | 254.469
19 | 59.690 | 283.529
20 | 62.832 | 314.159
| |
21 | 65.973 | 346.361
22 | 69.115 | 380.133
23 | 72.257 | 415.476
24 | 75.398 | 452.389
25 | 78.540 | 490.874
| |
26 | 81.681 | 530.929
27 | 84.823 | 572.555
28 | 87.965 | 615.752
29 | 91.106 | 660.520
30 | 94.248 | 706.858
| |
31 | 97.389 | 754.768
32 | 100.531 | 804.248
33 | 103.673 | 855.299
34 | 106.814 | 907.920
35 | 109.956 | 962.113
| |
36 | 113.097 | 1017.88
37 | 116.239 | 1075.21
38 | 119.381 | 1134.11
39 | 122.522 | 1194.59
40 | 125.66 | 1256.64
| |
41 | 128.81 | 1320.25
42 | 131.95 | 1385.44
43 | 135.09 | 1452.20
44 | 138.23 | 1520.53
45 | 141.37 | 1590.43
| |
46 | 144.51 | 1661.90
47 | 147.65 | 1734.94
48 | 150.80 | 1809.56
49 | 153.94 | 1885.74
50 | 157.08 | 1963.50
| |
51 | 160.22 | 2042.82
52 | 163.36 | 2123.72
53 | 166.50 | 2206.18
54 | 169.65 | 2290.22
55 | 172.79 | 2375.83
| |
56 | 175.93 | 2463.01
57 | 179.07 | 2551.76
58 | 182.21 | 2642.08
59 | 185.35 | 2733.97
60 | 188.50 | 2827.43
61 | 191.64 | 2922.47
62 | 194.78 | 3019.07
63 | 197.92 | 3117.25
64 | 201.06 | 3216.99
65 | 204.20 | 3318.31
| |
66 | 207.35 | 3421.19
67 | 210.49 | 3525.65
68 | 213.63 | 3631.68
69 | 216.77 | 3739.28
70 | 219.91 | 3848.45
| |
71 | 223.05 | 3959.19
72 | 226.19 | 4071.50
73 | 229.34 | 4185.39
74 | 232.48 | 4300.84
75 | 235.62 | 4417.86
| |
76 | 238.76 | 4536.46
77 | 241.90 | 4656.63
78 | 245.04 | 4778.36
79 | 248.19 | 4901.67
80 | 251.33 | 5026.55
| |
81 | 254.47 | 5153.00
82 | 257.61 | 5281.02
83 | 260.75 | 5410.61
84 | 263.89 | 5541.77
85 | 267.04 | 5674.50
| |
86 | 270.18 | 5808.80
87 | 273.32 | 5944.68
88 | 276.46 | 6082.12
89 | 279.60 | 6221.14
90 | 282.74 | 6361.73
| |
91 | 285.88 | 6503.88
92 | 289.03 | 6647.61
93 | 292.17 | 6792.91
94 | 295.31 | 6939.78
95 | 298.45 | 7088.22
| |
96 | 301.59 | 7238.23
97 | 304.73 | 7389.81
98 | 307.88 | 7542.96
99 | 311.02 | 7697.69
100 | 314.16 | 7853.98
====+===============+==============
INDEX
[Figures in italics indicate pages upon which illustrations occur.]
Andirons and bar, _159_.
Angle blow, _see_ beveling blow.
Annealing, 86, 87.
Anvil, 5, _6_, 7.
Areas, formulas of, 197.
Art smithing, 146.
Backing-up blow, _35_, _36_.
“Backing-up” metal, _43_.
Banding with clips, 147.
Basic iron, 174.
Bellows, 1.
Bench and measuring tools, 22-28.
Bench vise, _22_, 23.
Bending, 40, 41;
stock calculation for, 118-121.
Bending or twisting fork, _149_;
wrench, _150_, 151.
Bessemer iron, 173;
process, 187-193.
Bevel, _25_, 26.
Beveling blow, 32, _33_, 34.
Bevel or taper tool, _135_.
Blackband, 164.
Blast, 168-170.
Blast furnace, _see_ reduction furnace.
Blister steel, 184.
Block, swage, 19, _20_.
Bloomery, 177.
Blooming mill, _191_.
Blue billy, 180.
Blue chip, 186.
Bolsters, _136_.
Bolt, hexagonal head, 66, _67_.
Boring tools, _103_, 104.
Box tongs, _see_ tool tongs.
Brass tool, _101_, 102.
Brown hematite, _see_ limonite.
Bulldog, 180.
Burned steel, 189.
Butterfly scarf, 115, _116_, 117.
Button head set, _19_.
Butt weld, _52_, 53.
Calcination, _see_ roasting.
Calipers, _25_, 26, 118, _119_.
Cape chisel, _24_.
Carbon, percentage of, in tool steel, 83-85.
Casehardening, 92, 93.
Cast steel, 185.
Cementation steel, _see_ blister steel.
Center punch, _24_, 25.
Chain grabhook, _80_, _81_, 82.
Chain making, _73_, 74.
Chain swivel, _76_-80.
Charcoal, 5, 167.
Charcoal iron, 174.
Checking tool or side fuller, _130_, 131.
Chisel, trimming, _127_, 128.
Chisels, 23, _24_, _108_, 109.
Chisel tongs _10_, 11.
Circular cutter, _127_.
Circumferences and circular areas of numbers from 1 to 100: 205, 206.
Classification of pig iron, 173.
Clay ironstone, 164.
Cleft weld, _52_, 53.
Clincher, _see_ clip tightener.
Clip, 148.
Clip former, _151_, 152;
holder, _152_, 153;
tightener or clincher, _153_, 154.
Coal box, 1.
Coke, 5, 167.
Cold chisel, 23, _24_, _89_, _108_, 109.
Cold cutters, _12_, 13, _110_, 111, _128_-130.
Collars, _see_ bolsters.
Colored oxides, 88, 89.
Combination fuller and set, _132_, 133.
Combined spring fullers, _131_, 132;
top and bottom swages, _133_, 134.
Connecting lever, _142_, 143;
rod, 138, _139_.
Converter, _187_, 188.
Crank shaft, 137, _138_.
Crowbar, steel-faced, _113_, 114.
Crucible, _184_.
Crucible process, 184-187.
Crucible steel, alloys of, 186.
Crushing, 166.
Cutter, _see_ hack.
circular, _127_;
cold, _12_, 13, _128_-130;
hardening, 14;
hot, _12_, 13, 14, _109_, 110.
Cutting-off or parting tool, _102_, 103.
Cutting stock, 128, _129_, 130.
Decimals of an inch for each 1/64th, 198.
Designing, 146.
Diamond point tool, _104_-106.
Dies, 43, 123, 124.
Dimensions of nuts and bolts, 197.
Dipper, _4_.
Dividers, _25_, 26.
Dolomite as a flux, 168.
Door hasp, 64-66.
Double and single offsets, 143-145.
Double-faced sledge, _9_.
Drawing, 37-40.
Draw spike, _59_.
Drop hammer, 123, 124.
Eccentric jaw, _140_, 141.
Edge-to-edge blow, _31_, 32.
Eye or ring bolts, 114, _115_, 116-118.
Fagot welding, 69.
Ferromanganese, 189.
Ferrous carbonate, 164.
Fettlings, 180.
Files, _27_, 28.
Finery process, _see_ open-hearth process.
“Finished,” definition of, 137.
Fire cracks, 85.
Fire set, _159_, 160;
separated, 160.
Fire tools, _4_.
Flat-jawed tongs, _10_.
Flat right-angled weld, 70, _71_, 72.
Flatter, 14, _15_, _112_, 113.
Fluxes, 167, 168.
Forge, XII, 1-3.
Forging, definition of, 36-37.
Forging, operations used in, 36-47.
Forgings, 123.
Forging tools, 12-28, 107-118.
Forming, 43, 44.
Formulas and tables, 197-206.
Foundry iron, 174.
Franklinite, 162.
Fuels, 4, 5, 48, 49, 167.
Fullers, combined spring, _131_, 132;
top and bottom, _18_, 19.
Gate hook, 62, _63_, 64.
Grabhook, _80_, _81_, 82.
Grading iron, 174, 176.
Hack or cutter, _126_, 127.
Hack saw, _27_.
Hammer blows, 30-36.
Hammers, 7, 8;
ball peen, _8_;
cross peen, _8_;
drop, 123, 124;
hand, 8;
round and square-edged set, _15_, 16, _111_;
steam, 124, _125_, 126;
straight peen, _8_.
Handle punches, _16_, 17.
Hand lever, _141_, 142.
Hardening tool steel, 87-92;
wrought iron and soft steel, 92, 93.
Hardy, _12_, 13, 111, _112_.
Hasp, door, 64-66.
Heading tool, _19_.
Heating, 48-50.
Heating air for blast furnace, 168-170;
tool steel, 85, 86.
Heavy boring tool, _103_;
flat tongs, 96, _97_, 98.
Hollow bit tongs, _10_, 11.
Hot cutter, _12_-14, _109_, 110.
Ingots, 185, 186.
Ingot stripper, _189_.
Injuries to steel, 85.
Iron, cold-short, 168;
colors and temperatures for, 94;
distribution of, 162;
native, 161;
red-short, 168;
welding, 47;
wrought, 178.
Iron ore, 161-162;
ferrous carbonate a form of, 164;
limonite a form of, 163, 164;
magnetite a form of, 162, 163;
nickel in, 161;
red hematite a form of, 163.
Iron oxide in flux, 177.
Jardinière stand or taboret, _154_-157.
Jarring, _see_ upsetting by jarring.
Jump weld, _53_, 54.
Kiln, 167.
Lap weld, _50_-52.
Lathe tools, 101-107.
Lengths, formulas of, 197.
Leverage blow, _34_, 35.
Light boring tool, 103, 104;
chain tongs, 98-101.
Limonite, 163, 164.
Link tongs, _10_, 11.
Machine forgings, 137-145.
Magnetite, 162, 163.
Malleable iron, 174.
Manual training forge, _2_, _3_.
Material for welding, 47, 48.
Meteorites, 161.
Mild steel, 183.
Mill iron, 174.
Mushet, 186.
Nasmyth, James, 124.
Native iron, 161.
Offsets, _143_-145.
Open eye, 114, _115_.
Open-hearth furnace, _192_, _193_, _194_, _195_.
Open-hearth process, 177, 178, 193-196.
Ore, definition of, 161.
Ores, preparation of, 165;
value of, 164, 165.
Overhanging blow, _32_.
Oxides, colored, 88, 89.
Oxidizing fire, 49.
Parting tool, _see_ cutting-off tool.
Phosphorus in iron, 168.
Pick-up tongs, _10_, 11.
Pig boiling, 178.
Pig iron, classification of, 173.
Pig molding machine, 171-_173_.
Pigs, cast-iron, 171.
Pipe hook, 60, _61_, 62.
Plug punch, use of, _136_.
Preparation of ores, 165.
Presses, 124.
Puddling process, 178, _179_-183.
Punches, _16_, 17, _24_, 25, _136_, 137.
Pure iron, 162.
Questions for review, 28, 29, 57, 82, 95, 121, 122, 145,
160, 176, 196.
Ramming, _see_ upsetting by ramming.
Reading lamp, _158_, 159.
Red hematite, 163.
Reducing fire, 49, 50.
Reduction furnace, _170_-173.
Refining pig iron, 177.
Refining process, four stages of, 180, 181.
Refining steel, 88.
Reverberatory furnace, description of, _179_, 193, 194.
Right side tool, _106_, 107.
Ring bolts, _see_ eye bolts.
Riveting, 147, 148.
Roasting ore, 166, 167.
Rod strap, 139, _140_.
Rolling machines, 183.
Rolling tool steel, _182_.
Round-edged set hammer, _15_, 16, _112_, 113.
Round weld, 69, _70_.
Rule, _24_, 25.
Saddle, _see_ yoke.
Scarfing, 50.
Scriber or scratch awl, _25_, 26.
Scroll bending, _150_;
fastenings, 147, 148;
former, _148_, _149_.
Shearing blow, 36, _37_.
Shingling, 182.
Ship-smith eye, _117_, 118.
S hook, 59, _60_.
Side fuller, _see_ checking tool.
Side tongs, _10_, 11;
tool, _106_, _107_.
Slag, 168.
Sledges, _9_.
Snap, _see_ button head set.
Solid forged, eye, _117_, 118;
ring, _143_.
Spathic ore, 164, 165.
Spiegeleisen, 163, 164, 189, 190.
Spring fullers, _131_.
Spring swages, _see_ combined top and bottom swages.
Square, _25_, 26.
Square-cornered angle, 67-_69_.
Square-edged set hammer, _15_, 16, _111_.
Standard dimensions of nuts and bolts, 197.
Staple, _58_.
Steam hammer, 124, 125.
Steam hammer tools, 126-137.
Steam hammer work, exercises in, 137-145.
Steel, 183-196.
Steel, kind of, suitable for tools, 83.
Steel, tool, 83-95;
annealing of, 86, 87;
colors on surface of, 88, 89;
injuries to, 85, 86:
hardening and tempering of, 87-92;
oil-tempered, 90;
percentage of carbon in, 83-85;
proper and improper heating of, 85, 86;
proper and improper treatment of, _91_, 92;
temperature and color charts for, 94;
two methods of hardening and tempering, 89, 90;
water annealing of, 87;
welding of, 48.
Steel, uses of different grades of, 84, 85.
Stock calculation for bonding, 118-121.
Straightening, _44_, _45_.
Sulphur in iron and steel, 168.
Surface plate, 20, _21_.
Swage block, 19, _20_.
Swages, combined top and bottom, _133_, 134;
top and bottom, _17_, 18, 134.
Swing sledge, _see_ double-faced sledge.
Swivels, _76_-80.
Tapered mandrels, 21, _22_.
Taper tool, _see_ bevel tool.
Tempering, temperature and color chart for, 94.
Tempering heat as determined by colors, 88-91;
by scientific apparatus, 91, 92.
Tempering tool steel, 87-92.
Threading tool, _see_ light boring tool.
Tilting hammer, _186_.
Tongs, 9, _10_, 11, 12, 96-101;
chisel, _10_, 11;
flat-jawed, _10_;
heavy flat, 96, _97_, 98;
hollow bit, _10_, 11;
light chain, 98, _99_, _100_, 101;
link, _10_, 11;
pick-up, _10_, 11:
side, _10_, 11;
tool, _10_,11.
Tool, checking, _130_, 131;
for welding a swivel, _76_;
heading, _19_.
Tools, bench and measuring, 22-28;
fire, _4_;
forging, 12-28, 107-118;
lathe, 101-107.
Tool tongs, _10_, 11.
Top and bottom, fullers, _18_, 19;
swages, _133_, 134.
Trimming chisel, _127_, 128.
Tuyère, 3, 187, 188.
T weld, _72_, 73.
Twisting, 45, _46_.
Twisting wrench, _see_ bending wrench.
Umbrella stand, 157, _158_, 159.
Upright blow, _30_, 31.
Upsetting, 41-43;
by “backing-up,” _43_;
by hammering, _42_, 43;
by jarring, _43_;
by ramming, _43_.
Value of ores, 164-165.
V block, _135_.
Vise, bench, _22_, 23.
V weld, _54_-56.
Washing ore, 165.
Water swaging, 18.
Weathering ore, 165.
Weights and areas of square and round bars, 202-204.
Weights, formulas of, 197.
Weights of flat rolled steel per linear foot, 199-201.
Welded ring, 74, _75_, 76.
Welding, 46, 47, 147;
fagot, 69;
heat, 51, 52;
material for, 47, 48.
Welds, 50-56, 69-73;
butt, _52_, 53;
cleft, _52_, 53;
flat right-angled, 70, _71_, 72;
jump, _53_, 54;
lap, _50_-52;
round, 69, _70_;
T, _72_, 73;
V, _54_-56.
Yoke or saddle, 135, _136_.